II 1111 111111b) 11111 1h l1s ,, 111 , 1111, I I

ul< Ill•
I 1,,,~,.
1111)1 (I /
/ •II I' \1 1//1/1 t',
1111 1,1 ' \'
" I 11
I
II II I I ' II II I II I ) ..
,111111' I I ,111111 •1 I>,· ,,1111-d ph1111 ~ h'i, ,n.,,,, II 1111',1111 1,,,,.,, ,1 11,, ,,, II
' 1,•r ,1 ' '''Y 11\•I ' 1 ' I I ', II, I
• I •" k111)'111I, ,11g.11il~111,, n 11d -.11111 II 1111, I, 11 111: ,1 lv1•JI •I I f , •11•. '
. I'"' ' "' ' ' II I ' 111 1111· 111
I ... ,,, ·11 1111•11 I I11 ,,11, ' '' Ilk •· " " I I llt1 d1·1,_ ·11 11 '1
11" ' rlaµl' 11 111 lwl p 11 111 111 f lV1•
11• II
11 1y1 ,ll q •
t'\'('11 111 " ' 1, · 11
•·ll 111 ,,, l' I . 11y l111h,,1,
sud , , 1111\11111 ,,i,. , ( 11 1,
,iiit1k I dkd 11 ~
,,,1111• I. 11l" l'\l ht ~l\'l'
1lf')\,11 1ism s , ,.••>' r I1l,1111y / • ' ' ,, •, ,, 11 • 11"1>111,
. Iy • 1 1111/,.,, 1
lll lk d pl,1111 Ill I • ,, 1 11l1 ,•l1 11 1 I fll/1111111 q
• • , 111 111.d •II 111111

,.
1hC)'
-111 1111
1, ,,•r1. hl111np ns1s Ilk,· plnn h
• k,·d h'k,. :111 I 111111s .
II 111
I
. . ,111,
I
I"'' !1·,1• ,.,, I
' ' >: ,.,,,,, I\
\11111t• 1111 I
l\l 1•,·11 111•11•1 I
' ' 111 J•I II
11111,•/,,1, /'111111 '
1 1111·11,1 ,,..
,,,. Wt IJ ....
' uq~111 i,,11,,,

111', 11,'1 )
,,,,,,,11
111,111I "'H•ll ll'.1 11 ,, ' II I I ,11 ('l1t,t11,,y 1111i,,11
.
I 1111)11 •
,ri·
nls,1 nnl pl1111l s us lhl')' lll'ill l l .1. 1111 V1· ' I I ,, ,, /',t 111/ 111/1
I
I I' •11 11 11~ ••
I
• ,,,, 111, ,,d, ,1
,,, •I ll• 1
•
1
1I111\I1111),11
nor rools. sl1·111 or le:•iv•··
,how 1hr1•1• gru ups i ►f on11111l sn1s
.._ ,,,

,,,.I ' 1111\V

\ \\

,~
\ ~ ••

n,
I
..,
'.
\ll,
• 11~111~1
1111'
' l. '
1'1,
'

· ·ti .is dislinl.' I kl 11gdo111s (lvt 1111 1, 1,r11 11.I/a I. - l~· ~

'
'
•'7.r
• - -
.,
--
11 ' ,. ,.,,), 111d lhl·sc 111gl'lh n wi 1h 1hc IWll
1 011Ill,. ~ ,,.
,,1111 I ·' ) I
11 Pl
· 0 111 , 1,1.tnlS ( 11111, ,c ,IIH anima ls (;\ 11 11 ,t )
;,
AMOUlA
111 1 11 ' "' '
~ ~' . •
. ,isrl1ulc• whnt ·
Is ca ed till' Flvc K,· 11 .,t'II I11111
11 ,,w di • • • •

_. • ·Jlltlll, as Ii. give.: 11 bcluw. 1

, i.1:-.'I1ll

84
. FIVE KINGDOM CLAS SIFIC ATION 4'
The p,,i: ldngJom s under the recent scheme o(
,,1ic:11ic,n arc : I. Monera , 2. /Jmtistr1, J. f,'111111,~ ; • CHLAMYDOMONAS l:UCILEIJ /\
l I,I~ / PAI IAMECIU M
I. /'/,mW und 5. Anim,1 in. J•11 Jl ,I .
fig OA I• H w r1 r ,,1 rrtr>II

Kingdom i\lONE llt\ (un icd lulnr & prokor yotic)

_ 11 mainly Includ es bacteria (Fig. 8.3). I ~ it.1.gd1H~'. I t ''11 ( ,I ( 11,ually 111ull iccllula,.
ntk,1 r ~o111.. , achlorophylluu , aml ~apruphytk) -
• Thes(' are single -ccllec.l o rganis ms Most lu111:1i urc made up of lhn:ad-llkc hyph,1c
• They have no organ ized nucleus. r,~lhc.r than cell~. and lhcrc arc many nuclei
d_1slrt bu 1cd 111 th e co rll in uo u~ cyloplasm.
, The nuclear materi al (DNA) is dist ributcd in
f:x11mJ1li:s : llrcad mould, Toadstool. Yca\l ,
the cell without being enclosed in a nuclea r fJc11icilliw11 (Fig. X.5)
membrane. This co nditi o n o f the cell is
called prokaryotic (pro : primit ive, karyo11 : ~ BREAD

nucleus). -~ ~-~MOULD

TOADSTOOL ~ I
(a mushroom) 'JI-..:
PENICILUUM
YEAST~ ~

Fig. 8.5 Four very common Fung,

Flg. 8.3 Bacteria. Three common shapes - rods. spirals ,I. Kingdom Pl.ANTAi (multicellular, eukaryoti~
anc1 spheres (singly. in groups , or In chains) ::ind autotrophic) - These are made of man}
, II (multicellular). They all haveI chlorop hyll
• They .ire also devoid o f membrane-bound ce s b holO·
organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts. and the y make thei r ow n fooc Y_P ,
' h" , , If nourishi ng).
synt hesis (autot rop ic I.L sc
Kingdom PROT ISTA or more appro pria te ly
5
l'ROTOCTJ STA (e ukaryo tic and mo Lly

" Kin,dom Cl!-!lrk'iatlon-'1

 - d1v1.ft·tl In
I I,.,.
,, ·I l\lV,llt:
1
\'l ' fl ,1 111111 , .111 ,I I
I·, I

,,..1. ,, ..1,,111. ·'l'I ''' . •-111,11 , . 'I , .• .. ,,

f I J '·•

' n1,1c I~ 1ur1he• , I 1,d1i•••·). "ln)!.111111 1\ N l l\ l ,\ l I •\ l 111 11 ti 1,, ll•,I

t,:ingd1Hll r "' ·I ' Thull••l''I) Ii . , . 11, J.
,111d h l ·11•111ll'l'1 11ii, J 11,, ' •1 '
n11n11 > I h>''" l ''. '""
Jt\'lslons, .. . l l'll·rl• op
onhylu ( 11111~~, :. . ·/ l ,11hl 1\ ul(lospt r o•>t·'" "' '" '' w 11li11 111 , , 11 "'
,,,,,,
Bry , . ' ( •llll". I I • hl1trul'liyll. ,111d 11111 . ,1 111 11 1, 1 •II
G,•111n11~pl•r111. ! . l ' •t1 .. , I ' I II,,
(li,11,·,·rlng l'l,1111~). II i ·dl11lar ulgaf' (,.r. :,II< kl1111,. ( hl'lcrotrup li i, 1 ·,,
111,·111,k~ ,1111 ... - ri ~hnll TIii' "'1:,1111 ·. , 11 • ,.,' , rl ,i 1, '
·1h .1ll11 ph ~ 1•1 : 111111 1 11,.,
kd1 ,l
1111 I
1 I 1111 •riHIJI ,lfl' 11,ll,I II Y 11111I t i I1·, 1,111 I ",
Sl';l\\'l'l'<IS • • . , I h i')' • 1111 ' l 1ft, I
'
11

. ,111111rc1ph 1.... , I i ,· •
.I l fl f,1" ,Ill' IICII\ 1111,1 111, I t It
Th,1llnphyt,·s .,r,· ' ti 1 11111, -lil-.t: ho< y. . •
Ill
I 1· I " ·' 1I, I •
•1·1 , lr1vl' 11 • I · 11,, ( >I .ill I It: I V Ill',
·hloroph)•II. lt y ' l ·I isti 11~11 bht:< II (JI ,:.1111 •, 11 1 "' '
I " IIIIHII H' l • ·lly 111111llia1 wnl, l'l,1111 •. (l•f., .,, · • I'•
11
Tl ·y ,11·,· prl111,11 11111,t
L
rhe planl hot y t,
·111 or lcav,•, . ll A11i111allt1 ) ·1l11· rl'l1111 111
" ' J • •1
rool s, 'll ( • •
11
v,1 1I I..
oquari..-. liwrworts ll ntkr:.tand11
1~ th l 11, , ,.,1 .i , 1 ' 1111 I 1
·g mosses om1 hi · hc!Wl'l'II thc~t: tw,, (T.,lilt• H 11 ' 111,,,
llr)'oph~1.1 : ,. • ·,·his •roup rlf'l' nut.otrop i.
Plants belonging to . g I ·k I r11c rnols,
I nt bod)' that a, ,. 1·k

~
and h,1\'t' a p a . a • I the . pos,css rool · I c.
stem and !caws. ln~ll:,1'·'k ·iructurcs (callnl
. Jikc and kaf· ' e ~ , • THALLOPI IY I fl.
s,•~_m·ds caulid and phyllids. n.:spcct1vcly). (ALG Ai~)
r llZOI ,
P1crid11ph)'l,1 : fnduc.kls _all tcr~l~· hwc a plan t
Plants belonging lo t us gro •
th b, distinguished into roots, stem.
boddyl al.'?,~11•· tlca,;cs nn.· ortcn made of lcaOcts
· •.
L
,,.,,,
an eave~. ~ u~u
bearing spores on the underside. I hey arc non · 2
BRYOPHYTA Pl [ I IIIJfJl•I;,., Irc:t
flowering plants. (MOSS. LIVERWORT ) II fF1111 (.,..11
. .I
c;yrnno~p t:rm, : e.g. cyca.s, _pine, fir, e~c. W,I
The plants belonging to Lh1s group ~car n_akcc~
4 lh
seeds. i.e. the seeds arc not enclosed 111 fruits n.s ..y
these are non -flowering plants. Gymnosperms
,; VI
bear seeds in structures called cones. They bear
both male and female cones containi ng pollen () p
and ovules respectively. They may be either
trees or shrubs. They are of two types - cycads
and conifers. 7. I

GYMNOSPERM ANGIOSPERMS (FRUIT-BE/-~

1\ ngiospermi, : Include all flowering plants.
Plants belonging to this group have a highly Fig. 8.6 Plc:i nlao • The hvc maJor d1v15,ons - 1hallr,pr,,,.
developed plant body which can be differentiated Bryophyla (mosses). Plc ndophyla (f crnsJ. Gymrv, r,:- 8.
Ang1osporms (flowering plants)
into root, stem, leaves, flowers and fruits. The
seeds are enclosed in a fruit'. They are furthe r
divided into monocots and dicots. 8.5 NAMING AN ORGANISM (extra informaw 9.

i\1011oco1s : Tl_1e plants belonging 10 this group useful to know).

bear seeds having only one cotyledon, the leaves
have parallel venation. and the root system is
fibrous, e.g. maize, rice, grass.
Dico ts : The plants belonging to this TfOU
bear seeds with two cotyledons• lhe Ieavesg h aveP
10
Commo n names a rc va riahlc and i,omciir,
confu sing. We kn ow animals and plant, hi
1
II
common names used for th em in a parl!C•
111
locality. Can you think of any plant or aninial ·_.1
in India is known by several names? Pu 1nrkin

I
 S·ke leten _ rv,
11 ~ - - - - - -o_ vernelilt afJd

~
2. Prut CCl ·1011 ,,
• ·'C\'\' I I l
.
Organs. .irl• wt') 1 ·' ' di .. at c. ••11u 11
Iiunc~ / pr"' l'Ck• I I llp1 ,11,1111
· ·or i' \ 11 111 ' "' ,
: Sl((Jie/Ofl : Movement and Locomotion b r ,1i 11 · Ple, the ""111' ' q.,,ny "'
1 P' "lc<t
~~ of human skeleton
• t he vc n cb
protects the , ,,· I rat <t1IL1 m n (b,,\.1.1 Lht
h. Illa cnrd ti "lune)
tO ,,iJIJ 811d AppendiCUlar Skeleton ~art anct lun11~ I . , ' 1e rib~ protect th
' . \! . c:,, ,nu , o on. c
Ill ~ of jOin!S with relerence to Lherr location _ · o, cmcnt . ,v '·I ,11w bon
~ ~ Joints, slightly movable Joints and lreely otI1cr in a ml . c~ arc jomc<l tu e l
.~.t!IA
.,.,.---
roin1s (hinge
. .
Joint. ball and socket JOnt,
1 mov 'd • nncr th at one bo
n c c,111 be
.I",
c on ,lnother Tl
pig roin1, pivot 101nt.)
brought about bv n," . 11csc movcrncnh .ire
, ,use c, whicl
one bone anJ ar . 1 ung111,1tc on
, animals are charac terized by a defini te
1051
·I I . • c mscrtcd on another
. ,e, cragc· Some bone~ an\ · r
for movement of the different
)iJpt' and the uipacity tha t i ncrcas t I . • t JOml~ iorm lever:;
· . of tbe body. These movements also help I h,t: • . c i e spec<! and t1·
m overn e111 l ' iq a n c c (Ir
r,!!b . .
unJl in JocomotJon, 1.e. movement from place 10 )Y a muscle r
contraction of onl}· 3 ~ • · . Or 1•.1. u111p/e,
j ~ These functionstJ are performed br the skeleton b· . • e,, cenumctn•~ b)• th
l'J< . H:eps rnt~clc
•
swing:. the hand sWJ·rtIy tI1roughe
JllJ rhe musdes toge 1er. •:n arc ol more than a rl,ol (rig. 12.14).
!2.1 FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN SKELETO N c;, Format ion of blood cdh . Cenam .
b . types of
The skeleton in our bod y se rves six ma in lood cells, including reel and white blo d
cells ar(' formed in the tissue of the cent;a\
(UfJ'Ol~S :
hollow spac(' or the marrow of some of the
1. Support and shape. The skeleton provides a long bones, such as the femur.
support or framework to all the soft parts and
6. The bones are a storehouse of calci um and
giYes Lhe body and its parts a definite shape. phosphorus for the rest of the bcidy.
Imagine if you did not have smaU pieces of
bones (phalanges) in your fingers, would you CONSTITUENTS OF SKELETON
be able to hold a pen in your hand ?
Our skeleton consists of bones, cartilages an<l
.~n example of shape and support ligaments.
• Bones comprise the hard framework of the
f:J.it hold your ear, try to fold it
. nd th~ leave it free. It resumes body.
·:; shape. Now feel its interior, it is • Cartilages are the supiporting and connecti.ng
structures . For exn111ple, th e cartilage
'ugh but flexible. This is due to
supporting the projecting external ears and
:J:e cartilage skeleton inside it,
11
hich 15 giving it support as well the tip of the nose.
~, rheshape. • Ligaments bind the bones together.

-- - - ---- ------
/T'',
-- --- -- e,. ' 117
 cc111ru1t1 .,re 11.11 O n th,· d., r,.tl ih,td, ) ' ""' "I l hc
,· t •111 ru m ,, , 1 , .,n.,I ( ncunal cnn.111 lon nnl
by 1h,· u11I• 111
Il l I w1, 11curn l ard1c< J11,mi : from lhc !-idc~ o
l 1ho:
sp,11.11 cord 1~
ccnl rum. In natura l po,lliu n. lhl'
'}_ thrvu gh 1h l~ nl'urn l ..:ann · ·
U:
l1111gil11l lnal rid'" lro cctin • u l'.arJ frt1m 1111; nwc;lU
., .ran,\cne prOtC \\C'i
/ romt ol ,. two neural .1 rdll'~
arc thid, siJ~" •ard projeclion~ I f\JJJJJ ht· ncural ,irch.s:
,
articu lar face~, (nm· In
The ncur.il arches a lso hcar
front ,ind orw behind on either ~Ide) ~ '. he'£ ."~
uvo verleb Hk' one·be hmd th.- ot her. t\ pat
j oining the
o( cartila ge inlcrw rtcbrn l disc or gri\tlc form~
,, kinJ
o( cushio n berwce n 1wo w.-r1eb
Nec k/ ce r vi ca l vc rl c hr;a ·. rhe firs t c crv
verteb ra is called the arias hg. 12.3B . C J.~ ,,-;;
sc-con vcrtc ra 1s the a-<is T h.: remaining f1v<' nc:ck r m,c
LOA Al!l',
Fig. 12.4 Thi) bOOf lhor111 h ,, Ir"
ver1cbrac do not ha ve .111)' special n ames.
T h orn cic ve r te b r ae (Fig. 12 .J f\ ) h a vt• lo ng ln~I 1wo, I Ith a.n<l 1.2th pa1r-,ul ril>...,.ir, 111 ,t ,., 1
neura l spines which arc dir,•cfl'd baLl-w:mJ. l·a~h or 10 1hc slc rn w11 a nd arc. thcrd u r1..
luu , •:,11 • IL, -
1

thl'ir transv erse prQcesscs bcarlo on 1h cxtre1~11y 'l

facet for a rtirnla tio~w i rh the ruberc k of lhl' nb.
Lum h:i r vcr lcb r:ie have wcll -J c:vdnp cd neura l
)pin es and tr.1nsverse proce sses which se rve for the
attadrn1ent of power ful back musd cs.
S:icru m is a large bom· forme d b)• tJ1e fusion of
five verteb rae. To it are arlicu latc<l tJ1e hip bones un
either side.
Coccyx is the last part of the backbone. It 1s
made up of four fused verteb rae which reprc:.en_l the
rudim entary tail of the human body. Some umes
babies are born wilh a small tail, which the doctors
usual ly remo ve (see photo graph a l the e n d of
Review Ques tions).
C. STERNUM . The sternu m (breast-bon e) is a
Jong flat bone lyi ng in the middJe of the fro nt part
of the chest.
D. RIBS . There are twelve pairs of ribs which
along with the thora cic vertebrae and Lhe stermtm
(breast-bone) const itute the bony cage or rib cage.
'[be_fj.r5t-se-ven pai-rs oLribs true ribs~c ~(:!a.s,b ed [n
fron t to the sl.ernum \~LLhJIJ._e help of h}'.tlute
'
ri b~ (Fig. 12A J
12.3.2 Appe ndicu lar Skel eton IBone., (,•
Limb s And Girdl es)
A. BON ES OF THE LI MBS. B11nt ,...
rorcllmbs and the hind limb,; l<trgcly 1.1 , rr1: P••r·:.
each otbtr. The foreli mb,; coml \t, of .i .11,~I•.
bone hume rus in the uppl·r arm . twc, 11mg 111 J:
the lo"·er arm, the ra<liu , on the side of thl tr ,-
and the ulna. Eight carpa ls o r wn , 1 bcmt ,, .••
wr b t, fi \'c m e tacar pal ,; in the palm and fourtcc
pha lange s ( 2 in the thum b and 3 each 1r1 , 1
remaining four fingers).
frhe hind limb co nsis t.-. of a long bone fcmv
the'tn_igh (or thigh bone) whteh is the lr,ngc,i .: .
strongest bone of the bod}. two long bont, th~ 1!.. -·
tibia and the outer fibula in the shank. '>t,en lar· .'.
bones in the ankle. fhe long metat ar,al bonl -
the midd le of the foot and fourte en phalangt, . ·
as those in the fi ngers. r. c. 2 in greater toe and tl',rc.
each in the other four toei.. The hind limb:. ho·, .-:.
additional bo ne calle d patel la (o r th ..: k11cv ..,;
which is joined to the lower end the., femur ~
01

carti~ge. The 8,!h, 9th and IQ.t~ £!ii] of c.ibs._d o not cap is a bone de\'eloped from a tt:ndo '1f.
artic ulate direc tly with tJ1_e stern~m but j9 in the B. GIRD LES. Girdles arc the part~ of skei,:, ·

- --
seventh rib_willl tJ1e help of hyallne cartilage. The which help to articulate the limb bones tn the r....:

-- --CSU3i§i:m\!CnF'
 ~,.
!\'~
'\ ~

~ ~
? r .
1>1 0 .......
._~

' • • C, h r•c.k
(JI (". ~
KNee M
Onhon ,1 I
(1) o, loin I " ) lnllow1,,,
(IJ H o tr 1 l •,tr,1r,111., 11 tr
'... ,
,.
lin111r11:i n 1 • "' ' lrun
·I 11 11noor
bnno "'
l'lrrn 1,, 1h
(II)
l\~1r,1 ~kol ll lt111\1u~1
A1111culJ\11 0h \Jl o•1 °101·
'
1
ll)CIU1los Sh
Ouldu,
fl!
Ci11n •LAOr (11' , rhoro •tno '"P
Ore 10 1 ir
tr Nl~)N (Iv ) Thorri winohroo In lh
nnd nro lhroo kind o n,,t~ l!r
II 01 ribl!I I ~
llontlno IIH,. la1Go
(v) Tho Should
•,hnoo<1 or 111111111 i'l largo 1/r
flg. 12. tt Knee Jo1rit (dlagromm,,1ic J , lllll IIOUqh
1,r
IFICATION OF JOINTS
cl.ASS I OJ N'I

; r - - ---t ,-1- - - - - -
1 ,. .I I II
l'arll.1lly """••hie Jol111,
7
(
101mo••blc " n >
"' il""' 1rpc, bones nrc h.>mh nllo\~ lillll• muv,•mcn1 1, . I ft"CI, mo,•hl~ l\llnt,
~11,nU ,rr~"-••nus ,.:um1l, ~1h'c t b~lll.'S
..,,J M' ""w with rh,· hd11 of c ' I . o11" •1c i"l11eJ n r••
• ~ . ,,.hrJ)·· e g. skull bone J r 1 ••i:,· c I\ ir 11111 I ,.,,." 'l'""••I ,.,, <
s tcruum ,u,J ril,~. IOuth hct , \·utr"r,1,• ~¥tr..-n l'nJ~ n 1 hone i 11 ·• tit l11.1w"11 ' "", •
""-' •-o "c.:n 1 Cu '41th ~yn,,:·LJI 11 ..1
l"lllh .-re t:JJlJb1t ,,1 I "' uf\l.
'• II ,u rtHr•11: nir n\
· "' C ~uv. lomt. Ill,, 1,,lnl

r (b ) l'h·u l Jul n l 7
l•I G(idil'lg Jninl (, I I linttr )t1ln1
hi) R• II and '-><~<l ~Hnt
cft<k 0 ,-cr each orhrr 10 )0101~ nll(n,• ro1.11ln11 aboul 1111 Joint a ll,11" rc,1r1eir,I
J;lll<'.
>l)l'J/ (lh'.!ll e.g. ,~nsl
t)Cl!IO , .,x is I th,· pivor) q : . jnin1 r l.111c lllll)'
Most m," il>lc 1umt. h,11 1ii,
:ll<>Vtlll<'III 111 Ollr
.1~ 1, end o l o n e \K•11c, ;irh\ lll;th:,
hc 1wce11 utl n~ ft tlll rh?y Mc , .1p.1blc or h(•armg
.111.lk i,on~ ,·c1·i.•b;,1c. 11110 • up •h.11•«! dcrr""' i"r, ol
lw," 1' ln~cl r.1:. dhow, ku,·~. ,mo1l'h·r hone \(l 1h,.1 ,trncnuc
11111;,·r. coulll ""'"( Ill •II ,,1.ncs • s
,houl,lcr •11J lup 1oin1

12.5 MUSCLES d rawn out to form a tough strut1urc the tenJ on

, The musdes in the body provide the means which is al lach.:d to Ihe bone (Fig. 12.12). When
s lim ulalNI by a nerve, the muscle contracts lo
of all movements.
, They cover the skeletal framework and also
gire contour (sbape) to the body.
• Muscles help to maintain body posture while
sitting, standing or walking.
Most muscles are long bundles of contractile
ilime. Each muscle usually has two ends- a fixed F1.9. 12.12 Tendons
are composed of 1ough collagen hbres
mdwhere the muscle originates and a movable end which withstand the strains involved
~iiich pulls some oth er part. This movable end is
123

I¥ :biMhifoii 1&iMHMiMl1
 ~
• At
. '\
~
¥J •
~ -

\' : 11.:
I' : e:
I ' a:
s' . lo-
~ ' : 10
Ag. 12.s Left pectoral {shoulder) g rd ., H': ~
(\'kl\\t'O lrom rhc back s'Clel ,t-• H,nJ uni:,.,
,,,u ...
11<-it • ,v.il
...
1\t hir or peh'k g ir<llt: { Figi-. 12.2. 12.61 i:- ,,
:.i.1-" troti,gb-s_haped part fom,ed t')" two hip ht,n..-~
!!!Jl lJl' jt'lined me~i;illy to the S,K rum. ~ hip
111
1111
llll ~
~~l!t
Th.

II\• l.u'-1.\<
I' :
' ' !
I ' !
.
' '
-~
•Cl.:
• H
:,,,ir.~ gjll~~ ll,P ol thrt~· fu st',J t-t,nes tht' ilium.b \\ \ ;>.1<1~&1'-..1.,
,,,, l-'tl.il.\,~
..
H' !
': 10
~~
!,1.-liiuro JnJ ubis On each sidl· it ht•~trs ,1 brge l\lll \'II(& \\;l'W't ~" I'; ~
•.;~ articufor cavity (.-cd uhulum) into whi~h t,,ti! ~
I> Gm!!r.
:i:s Ult! l.lJb'e round head of the ffogh-bone. Tht' hip 1.1 ) $hool.ln i:U\lb
;:u&.le 1101 ooly gi\'es support to the skeleton 0f th~- X,lfUW
~::iJ-hmbs, but also pr-ot<?-c ts an d s upports tilt' ~l.i.v1,.il'
1hl ll~• ~~
:..'\J,,nanal organs. lh4• t,.,'\Q<'

I (L ~~ \.._~
~(I_
L\ . ~~~'.:,:_.. _
ILIUM Tt'(ru
Ul l'>Uf
II\'. c;,f t,_-,ne;
t\Od\
\ \ ►
S,>\CRUM ~ ,JI'(: 11,,__. t~~ tht .. ~--:Ix', \-.I , ~ 1&S l..'\ t~.\ l\.'4l!

1\\1.lH?-r: t'f oc,IWS ! I~

OOL"tVx ~ ~ "rt~ !.,-;~-,&1
ACETASULUM
.sct'f-1\1....-,:- .- ,, (Cl\,,"ly t0tniiid
PUBIS Ol lhigh b..llle)

Fig. 12.6 The pelVIS (s~en from tho front)

12.4 JOINTS
·tt:
b1. twcCJ1 malt anti female. sl-.cikt()n.
• ••ttOJ.ct>
Tht' point at which IW\l St'p,tr.11, \-\H\,'$ mrt"l !.
.,.;,. , .-, · :-• 1 1, ,,,.... iu,· 1hret' 1m<i,,r b h~-~': 1.'$ \'\
~¼ on is generally larger and heavier. l u the \ (lUtU R iOlU.l --. ·'"'" ..
k)i~ -in our bQQ~.'...: lmn1,n~b~·. ~JI~ mo,~H~
rn skelttno. tht pelvis or hip oone is widtr and
~ ~·shaped to adapt for accommodar ing the · ~mJ frt>elY mcwabk.
~ 14$' In ,L_ - J__, -
ur u1eru1, unng pregnancy. •

.. - .\IU\flllffll and l.0t'tlUIOUOl1

, .
~ -- -- -- -- -- -

lJLL is th e: skcll 'tun ol l hl· ti ~•ad

A· st<, ,arts. The lippe r top pun thl' H.1111 11 111
11
h ,1d, h ,,111 It "
' • t \\ o I I I . 1 I 111
~-•~·nt.Ull~bro1. n· box)
· is mal co c 1~ , t >1111c , whkh ·11 l. 1111 ..' 1· I
' w 11•11 Ill \. "'11 ""'••" " 1 ., l•,l tl , ,1 \\ 1111\t 111 I I
l•Ir L11c. d 10 each ot llt.'r that tht')' arc. pcrn ianrn tl )' 'I Ii ". l. I l\ n111• 11\ • 111111, • ' ,II, ,I ' rh l,1 .,,
, II l ' I l\' 111. d 1111 I
so 1011~e h other pa rt of th e sku ll lorn,, the l'a.:l' I ,' f.' I1111 •, I I
11·, , ,, , "I' .II I lI\'l' l',lllllp•. '" ' .... 11111 ,,, ti,
l·sed, f ntain
e .· s. 8 total of fou . I \'lll,•h
1 . r tee n ho ne,. The uppci l.l' I\I\,\ \
ii " I 11,·d , II ilillll
• 11,1 1 ' ' ~ · II
,~hich c.o ·aws arc also lorm ed b y !\ll nll' ol thcM fl \ l' I lllll t ,11•, tt•11 I i,· 1, ,11, " " I ' 1111,r '"'
• h ,11 11\·l', II I '
Jld lo"• e~ 11
Yfhe bac k•~nart
' .\\ flllll
- of the crnn ium contui n~ a lnrgl·
J ' ~l) \ (111~, d 111111 "il l' I
11 \ll 111111 \o l ll' I ,11 111 1•1111

i,ones¥ cr:me n maS,!l u_m , throu gh wh1.: h 1h c

~A,,,,__we !o. f·· r emerging Imm the brain .:nnt inue, Vcnc hr,il l.nlum n ,~ L~11 vccl l u 111,11111.1111 Ille
~co rd a te bnlnnLc ol body In .11, , rcll po, lt\1111 Tlw 1.urvc
;pioll to the back bone.
11hsurh:1 prc~s 11rl.' 1111d , 1111 , k while w,1\klnK,
!)ehio<l In TEBRAL C OLUMN (rig. 12..,A). Tlw runn ing ,1110 prn1cch the wlum n fm111 h1c11kh1K,
a.bralVER .. al col umn is popularl y cnl led the
or spin
1-erte \\ 111t111rc 111 ,,,1th 1.1 l·..1d1 Vl· 11 d, 1.1 1•, ,1
~omcwhal ring 111:..e ~11 u c 1u1, lll\K, l L \1l ). 11, \11we1
p;1rt ( Iront 111 ,1c.:tu:i\ \l' " 1111111 i11 Ih..- h11m,111 \111,ly
J 1•.
lormcll o( ., , olkl cylind r1 ot hl>IH: c.1lll't.l 1., 11lru11_1 (111
lhe lioc/)1 11/ vrrtd1r11J. Thi.' 1w1, nppq , Hc cntl,, 111 lhc

NLUfl/11 'iPINC
TFIANWEn', r
CLAVICLE /T""l~:.oooill::::::::7- PROCES~
(Collar bone)

~ ~ ~ ST ERNU M
ANTERIOR FACET
FOR ARTICULATION LIOAM EIH
WITH CONOVLES OF SKULL
' L'>
8 . FIRST (ATLAS)
..I I
<{ I \/CRT EBRA
u•
LUMBAR 5~
0: I
VERTEBRAE w ,
(.) '
(7\ ', fiT\.AS
PATELLA I

A \
(.) I AXIS
ul
<{~
.
U: I
ACETABULUM i n- - ~ o, C
(\2) ~I
I
I
\
'

I ,~
0 . THORACIC
SACR UM~,
VERTEBRA
'
coccvx -1" er1e1Jral r•
Side view oI human ,ts
v
ot 1nd1
.
TARSALS Flg. ,2.3 ~- curves and del:1cw al hrs\
showi ng .''~A nterior llron:!rtebrae 1s1de
METATARSALS
PHALANGES
vertebrae.
. c-At1as and axis
vertebra. .
D- Thoracic vc
rtebril e
 110-.:t
I l rr cy;ul ,, , ,
I I.it b n n c-
l omph.:,
,1t,,rt h\111~"' Co rnr" ),cJ u t I \,.•, u t n1 n rc
I ""J: bo n, ,
b,•n . . ' 1~ •
Bu, hi.A- ' 1"111),!' b<•n••· pJrJlld r l•l..... uf _,,mp:><:t h<'Ol
1-.m•b J I .inJ • :- ~
Co n>1,t n r J ,h.111 "11h J ..hu" 1iuk 1n1.1"-~1ncnt. c.•11"- l,, ,,nL!. sp(lng, bon, c £; \1.: Th .. . _1: •• ~
e.,ch cnJ ~11.r, ,, 11ml. ...1r.-J . t ~ .1nkk \\ n,l ,twulJ<'f i,tj J .:. ,kult. -i c-rnum
tul:-ulM. 1,lkJ h'1l h n ll,,,,, nu rn.w,
""J.s .uc 'P•'n~, c ~ . b,,n l'' tlf

•rm<, 1<1:l'- .,nJ .1101 lnl'>,1 .1 gro und m:itrLx 111 which C\.•lbgcn , •
111
mineral salt~ (c.1.k1um ..md pho~rhoru, -:r ..:_-
12.2 BONE
Bone rs the d1id° componc:nt of our skc.k1on. It The L''l.-tt'n1.1l ,urfJLt' o l thl' rl>n< ,, • ,._
cons1s1s o f organic and inorganic m .11era,1l. The J membrane called [l>er 1nsteu m f ,,·hi h
ili~,_.---,,,....- 'Ir,. "- r

morganic part -constitutes nearl}' two-thinl.s oi the o ute r fibrou ~ and in ner cell ular (;n,• ' - 1:\l •
entire bone substance. and includes mainl~ the supph<'J w11 h bl on d wssc?ls .-\ long. I ___ ·
compo unds of calcrnm and phM phoru.s. If a boni: hollow ,:.witv• in the m iddle whteh 1,- rill'-'.\!\,•- ·1 • •
is placed in weak hr drochloric :1rnl th<' mine ral part marrO'-', l\it.::irro\,· is of rwo n-pe~ h I hll, ,, ' · · •
is removc:d fro m it (gets d1 s~oln:d l a nd th e rn~de up of ad ipose l is~ue .>.nd blo~J 'ic---~~
remaining organic fr.1m c.\,·o rk is left behind. Such a g,w rise 10 white blood .:ell, I 111 red m.:'"· ~-·
hone 1s called decalc1fic<l (calcium remon ~d) bone ,s present at the e nd~ anJ prod ~J' o...,..:..:~
and it is soft and lkx:i ble which can even b<' tied into
r-
a k no r. On the o the r hand . 1i .1 bcmc is SI ro ng ly
heated its organic mane r 1s destrop?d (oxidis<'d l .ind
only the mineral part (or as h) will remain, Such J
? Progres s Check
bo ne turns brittle and quickly brc:ak.s. \\1th :ige. a~ Fill rn the blanks
in old people. t he organic part o f t he b o ne is (1) Our skeleton consists of bones
reduced and the bones become more fra!!i.le taking and .
much time tn rejoin ing after a fractun:. ~ - ( 1) ~• • IS the chie f CO!'"'\OO-e- ·
skeleton .
Classificat ion of bone on the basis of shape (111) Shapewlse the bones ca n be c,a~ ·e<: ~
ano
Shapewi~ bones are classified into : long, short.
(Iii } The central hol o·.·, part o' the 0 - ~ ~:·<-<
tlal and irregular bones. as shown in Lhe tlo\,· c hart 1s known as . • ·•
a bo \·e. (v) A bone becomes soh a,d • e>. t>' '? v. ·:·
The s tr u c ture o f a typ ica l lo n g bo ne ( t'.((. placed in d ilute
thigh bo ne) is shown in Fig. 12. 1. It is a hio hlv
calcified ( mineralised ), hard' and ng1d conne~~i\·~ 12.3 THE HUMAN SKELETO N (Fig. 12.2}
tissue. II is very strong and can withstand severe The human skeleton altogether consM- .. . .
~tresses. It con_sis ts o f bone cells (0s1eo0 1es) arr.inged bones includ ing three ,·en': t im bone~ -,~,i~.-
m the form ot concentric rings (Fig. 3. 1O) embedded e~. Table l 2. 1 gin~s a detailed regionw~e h·_, .:
Fatty yellow Hyahne T the total number of bones
or in the h ..=•= -~·
m ... n ,

he skeleton has t,,·o main diY1s1ons : the rn..

.•
HyaJme can,1age

/
I mT ; ,- :.l..eletoo which includes the bask central rr· ~"'
f
0 the body and the a ppeodirul ar ,\-eleton ..., · :
1 ..... ••

includes the bones oi the limbs and ~irdle~

../ ~ -, I
Compact Spongy rone u-abecula"
12.3.1 Axial Skeleton ~
Soongy bone wrtn
dense oone 'Mt/1 rec marrow -
red maJTO',v The axial skeleton consists oi the ~\..u ··
Fig. 12, l StructL:re of a Ieng bone ,·ertebral column. the rib:- and the stern~
 h ccou 11.• ~111,n-..·r ., nd 1h,d.;c, .u1J d uh ii r11.1IJ• rhtt both.. T h e."')• u ,c- c:ip:ablt- uf ,-~,ph.J ll l\) \ 'Cf'l'ltnt,r; ., __.J~ ycf1Chn\C Th" ' '-'- 11, 1
r t
; If rJ1<" n10 \·,1h Jc:t.."nd Ch~ 12 12 :!.,., I !. I J l ,\ 1l11~d c" c-.u 1
fl f l l )" l..°O n l r,h: I , It h.I 1d ..1"\, f h t:')' t,;J f Ul •ll knwhll· n.
tin: 1.· .1.-.,tr
( cNcrJh1.11iun ol IIHh-..11. , ~ l1oq .
l'\d"'
..,..- _,-- ,h•
~
1u1cru111 " , ' '
... .,, nv,..,.er • l t.hl! CJ\hc,u
~_,,,,., ,,.ur lll. rcvrci,ent<.-c\ \..,' ,h Ii:\ t~l•,1
' '"
.,
~\a\ -
h odr lite "ol::rn J ing, ,,·n lk In g. rt1n n11,p, ' ,1'," ,,
U.1
••11,,
,
, 1;•. ,,,11. 11 1
._,.illf .,els)11 af 1hc bn,1) ,.,,
r.·t r. r' t!t.JU l rL' 1.,1111h1u1.•, l .t c t 11m 111
., grc ~\ l l"X lc 1tl thl' n 1u , d c'- hav,.-
11
;•,
111 \., .. \, ,',, I
%
, -"t .,,J«
11tl rd whet< the
ii, 1' •
1 1
'· " " \
~'
lur ., p.ir1h u 1.u ki n J ol n h,"'-'nh:nt •t 1 • I
1 ," ,l..t .-•ell!h I >I I h c n1\, " '" "'
• 11"
· ~ Ll' e , t ·• "' ' •,
"'1',;:>cn1e<l b y th,
~
12.6 LEVER MECHANISMS 15
l\h.wc1nc nb nf <l1t'fr•r~n 1 l' ~Uti. l •I 1111 11>" ....
11 (C),
bC' ··_...,, '" <\ ...
1 00 YOU K H0\/1 ·,
u~ua.11)' m .uJc c;L..,1t." r du\'. 10 h.'\.'t.• r ,,,. l · •·,1
-;kddt m lF1g . 12 . l •l & 1.2. 151 T ht.• \n ,•, :, • 11 11
11 11
~ ,---.J?9fK- \n ,,ur b i.:.J, I 11,. tl •1 .
1
,,rdc-r ,vhat. lh~ pu,H! r l P J .1 n J 1h1.· , .. ,. , \• l ,1 ''"
I
111•1
•.
1. . - : ~; b
11i'c~ ·
~ . .'"'~"d
. . ."1
it,l il
'·• •\,,,
bonc,i H, our ~ ·• • ' '
wllh th e fukrunt (I l In h e 11,•cc11 \, , \l•r,
..- - \.f
. · P"':: • I H l tl-
. 11 1 " • < '6 ..S rum n j\., \.sm ",, •
~ --:•
·••.
t'.Xlcn~lfm o f thL" a rm .11 the d hn,,• h y , 1, .. :.~•1• +I 1
~
T"ENOOU ' I-.
111
triccp :,. m u!i.d c: (Al :rnd r c !-l 111g n l , k, iH , ,,, 1,:.••1 11'' ,oall.t _,,d l~C locth, 11!1., .,,. \,1,.1
• Ml"" ,n.,..:lt> ort 011"'-'h<d ,,, 1,,., . ,,..._ ~
I
!
~-,
e1CEPS 1J ~•SC1
n.L-:E.S
J<
A!11,
·• ·.J'•1 1
•-,,,,

i;,rr (>#,nplt , th• mu..:ln w\,1<\, """ ' "

~ 1h>-l ~ the- loocl alone 11
pt,r<l t<> b<,nd
• SOC"" ,no~'° (n our body M t
.,..i- •• ,he ,nu.« :lc> al i\tt

" ,, I.
~
,"ftu \
" ' """ '""
rl'•I• "'·' ' "'"°'\
...-n111al• Ill,,< ,be to\< Of \,ON"
1

to,,,,,,. , ~
:.:.::~ "' ...,..
1-,.,,~_,H,,.-;,,,.

.¼.,,.
S...:.~'=' .(.f..o.,.,,:

•.-·.~
•~"'......
. tf
." ..,
i--·· '" , ,., -~•.,__.-""'....,., ----~
Flg . 12. 13 An1agon1shc mu5dcs o f .lrm ~ r<"'°"' .,..,. with .c,m, <ti<"
d,i,lf ._... ,Ughll)"
' '" ·, ,, , ••
t . II In,,,' .
1,,. ½r-~. :i.~~.~
"'°"t
• •
-
') m,r~;•,.. '"• ., ,- ..! 1 b..a V';::.
A111.igo11b1ic rnus cl <>< . .-\ struc tu re \\' h ich has
~ - ::::::::::===- "
•
,.,, • :1~1,,1..-,.., r.•1 ,.._,J ••1 ~.,(JlrCI~..,.... 'n;,~
been m oved b~· a m usde canno t rel'urn 10 il s nrie inal ;;-/·~.,,·
p osition wit11~ut tJ1 c ai.::tion of a nother musd{ Such .,.
m u scles c aus in o os i.ng m o vements :ire ca lled Ag. 12..14 Oiagmm 0 1 lhe mocharnc~ ,.J' '•~~ • •• @lhi--ti•li
Ii
~ · ·c mu s cles Fo r cxamp c. Lh c hi cc p,
(flexor) m usde o f the: upper arm nexcs, 1. c. hends
the lower a nn over the upper arm. SLraigh1eni ng ,-::::::
and ex t1:ns1011 a l lhO olbow 10,nl ., ~ pec1onns \our pom&f'/ .tunct""'' s~ n
, ec,rwa are o · SIOrehOUS8
, T1'I!! l'lfJ('f\8fl ~
. ol c,,letum ari,J pie.,oc,;,rr.,"" •"Yl
. o n coosls\S ol .:i.,ja\ 1:.tt.n\e'on
- 1l1I . - i:,etween IWO bones mav
, ,.....-
' Illa..~.trll)
00 ..... ~vat:!€ ,~

ti· .-•
,,-,c_..,. ,.,,·""'- ..,, ~
" 'trJ,J,. ,,,,. , tue ~
~
,-
- ., "" .,.,
~ •
• ,.,_. ,.,,,.
=
r~
( .~
( extension ) of the lower arm is broug ht abo ut by the , """'--• ,_- . , j01"'5 ate ol lour l<lnds - glld,= ·•• I"""
I ""''""' .,.~ """, n· """"
r.n:i,, 0 . 'ln;. ,~,,.
' it
',
criceps (exten sor) muscle ( Fig. 12.13 ). Therefor<', , Mol1 ,novable \(linls Mve e \utn,ca1,119 5'/ntN<al 1fuiC•b(tw~
~
""11. ""' t-,,.f."' r a..., 1t!'tt
"'- 'i'.,31:1 ...-. ,._....._ i
th ese tw o muscl es a re an tagoni stic. , M 111usctes bring abOUI OPllOS•ll!
.
. . ·- ' • . ,.,..,. ':l=
-~
J1\0vaiiS13, t.Ji 7¥.i
(-'"'
Kinds of muscles - Voluntary, l'nvoluntary A Tf\lCEPS , 1-1uman ~ p!OVldes exampll)S o\ •~ \n,i ~, er, _.,,,
1ni " : E ~ r-.ft?i\ti~
MUSCI.E
and Cardiac
There are about 650 muscles in o ur
.£E_~ m aking up nearl y o ne-half of the
body weig ht. These m uscles fall into 1wo '
~

ELBOW
JOll'IT
p
·1@Mi($®tlt· •
1
categories .:.rnlu otary rnusclcS which are
unda conrruJ of our wiU and ..uu•olunta.r,-
"'I ..
w
Fifi~-~ ORDE.n
S ~COl◄O ORDFA
i+-+ 1PI:~:;,
A, MULTIP LE CHOICE T'IPE
r !.. Tuet1l'! cl ~1.1\t i'. \,,ur.i! i l ~ :i~it~,,:
g ZSF m
\
~ 1~ \ . Your eicternal ear (pin.n a) l$ su1111or1cd h:·
muicJes which are not con_tro!Jed by_P.!-lf
~ ZS° F r=~ l J.i ~ \. i,t ~
ta) Bone tb) C~rtilai<
w ill. S i,me m u:.cles. li ke those of the k\ l-11\.\, ll' ll:r
Fl g . 12.1 5 Simple levers In h uman skele1on. A Eloow (etlens,on ul •"' \d) Ci1,su\c
eyelids_ <!nd d iaph ragm a re both__yruJ.lllta.cY· 8 Toes and heel (lill1ng up of heel , C Elbow (fle.ion ol a,m
1 tc) Tendon -~
.1S well as ~nvoluntary. Cardiac muscles (P = power, F = fulcrum, W = welghll
(Ch apter J J m ake up rhc wa lls oflh e heart.
- -- ____ CONCISt: BlOLOl..\ •IX
,

, ,.;, '"" - \lowntel\\ an4 I ~• a-

ff'' ----- ------
 I / Jp1 J).j , ' • ( \ I •

....... ✓
1 1, a
l.1 ' •
jomls betwo.:o.: •
n lhl· - huno.:s
- --
"' fin 1$«:t,
I. l i\li\10\'AJIJF IO INTS.
l(~<.'Li.l lldlo:ss pert cc~2 llw kn,•,: 11 , 1111 r,.,41l4~
( fl I h j S I )' p C I) f j O j 11 I. 11(1
·, ~inls u su a ll y giv..: sutl1c10:n\ powl·r •t f.,,,
mnvt'me11t is possible bl' lwce11 '\
1d1 ll.tll an d ,od<.,' I 1111 111 l hg , ~ ,
lh c two bont's. The s tructures - -,..__ ! • ~ - Jf II
o ne cn<l o f a b o ne wh1d1 is wu nd ('d ,1 1 1• ·.i
bl· t ween t h e bones u f th e JOINTS . I . - nc \.. ,
e ra n i um _ ar.c. exampl es- of· (IN SKULL) fit s into a cu p -hke c cpress1on l>l ,llH> lh" r 1 ·•
. '1 II•
...- Fig 12 7 lnimovo blo 101n t Jo int provides m cwem enl 111 a n)' tl in:ltlun ,' i,
_i mmovable joint ( Fig. :I 2. 7). · · . . I.,,
examples a re IIw s hou Ider JO tnt and thL 1 •1
.:!. PARTIALLY i\lOYARI.E JOTNTS. Here only 11
In the s h oulder joint , the h ead . lli htrnkr u, 111 r1
,-err litlk' (p:irti.11) movement occ urs bt'twec n the two .
n socker (gleno td cavil }') o t t h e shriuld1:,
bon1?s. £mmplcs : the joint between a rib and the 1
In the hip joint . th e brge ball -like he.id ,,i ~ •
. hrs.:ast::bane_ or betwe~ the -ver-tt:h r-ae. Hts into t h e deep socket (acctabulum i ui c:r
tl1, ,
J. FREELY ~10\'AULf JOINTS. In this type, gi rdle. ·
va r yi ng degrees or movem e nt are possible between
U1e two bones fom1ing Lhe jo int. T he four m ajor types ~ _}'N..,~JQ.INTS, T W n:~ly mm ,hit .,
stated .ibove. hke th t> shou.ldcr JOm l, the 1 ·
or movable joints are as follows : . . . \ £1l l 1,
a re al so call ed sy mw1 a l JO tnl s. r1,,,
(.tl Gl iding join t [Fig. 12.S(a)I , It occurs between . \f I
co ns ide rable cIegree o l m ovcm o:nt. T h.-,. ·
th e bones of the wrist and aJso between the bones have two special requirem ents- firstlv, lhn. ' •t·
of t-:--h_e_an
___k.l,......e_a_s -,-,,-e:-:-11-
as between vertebrae. - . 1 • • • .I • ,r,,
he he 1d ( 1rm y 111 pos 1t10n anu , .:clinJ h ·.
1h1 ~ :i jo in! !Fig. 12.S(b)]. Here one bo ne is surface:. coming into _con tact sh uulJ ht .'
rota ted over a pivot-l ike end of another bone. For lubri cated t o remove I ri c li on. Th l' luhr . "
• . lt i1i1
example, the skull is ro tated o n the upper end of tlJg, Ouid wherever 1t occurs. 1s called the syno,•ia\
11
~ xis vertebra.. anJ h e n ce t h e n a m e syn ovial joint !Fi).;. 1, IU(
..._ - ,1

VERTEBRAL BODY SUPERIOR ASPECT OF

ATLAS FACING SKULL

UGAliEI-H
J011"1 C>.Psc~

SYNOVI~~ \,'E'-1.Ef:.:: _
,. (b) PI VOT TYPE SVNO\IIAl " l'J.:, .
(Par1ial rota11onl Cll,RTILAGE

Fig . 12.8 Partially movable joints

rl J Hinge join t {Fig. 12.9(a)J . This joint moves

Like a h.inge in one plane only just like the hinge of
a door. Example : elbow joint betv.•een humerus and Fig. 12. 10 S ection ol a typical mo\able
synovial 1ornt (d1agrammat1c\

I I The koee joint (F ig. 12.1 l ), for ex 11111pk. -..

H UMERUS
synovial joint. lt is held in position by ,tw .
liga ments and is well protected by an outer ftbn,.
ca psu le. Th e ligament s prevent dis\oc,1ti0n
I normal movement. The synoYial fluid \~ l.'.onl,nri,.
I (b) BALL & SOCKET
TYPE (can rotate in a "sac" formed of very thin syncn ial mcmbw.
(a) HINGE TYPE ' in all directions) and thi s sac serves as a c u s hio n bet\\'t'en 1·;.
Fig. 12.9 Mo vable Jornls bones.
 1
v-l

r
··k of
~II if rad e s''

(i) It p
n1cch ro1e,c1s the Linde 1
anJca( 1 r v in o 1-
(ii) I qocks . ., t~sues f
t holds the b <l . rom
o )' n -~
9Jllll1U6 .. .,.,.,.,.-
,_,,.,,,re and functions
. of skin
. c:1.ccs11h-e lo ui ~ 1ns1de d
....,..., of the skin and their functions · Spec1.al (iii) I ssof "·atl't b • an pr~, cnt-
l prevents ha f ) C\ aporat1on
;;-flv85
,......,15 .,.., ...
of the skin ~ith r.elerence to sweat glands ca ·
, °'~•n~ germs f
' nn u\ st1b
stances or d'
·
- ~.-OUS glands. hair, nails and mammary 1 ( iv) I - _rom enterin . i,easc
tlell ,egu1auon - vasoc1·1
glJD""" - ... •• g and.
I auon and vasoconstriction. t pr otect:, l I g our body.
ultra,·iolet 1·fti.1e bo<lr
1,:.,.,.t wb' I .
~gainst exec\~
'[he skin is not just a simple covering of our h ar mful ic 1 lS potential]
2. S · Y vcn
vod ft is one of the most active organs of the bod cn,ation . 0 . ·
touch . . ur skin serves as a
iunrtiortlng in numerous ways. Many of 0 :; ' pam' pressure, h sense organ for
3. Ten, p eat, etc.
r~sing fearures come from the complexion, hair . h erntun: regul~l· .. ion • Th 1..
tterns, etc. J he most apparent feature of an aged o f eat in cold wealh . - e siun preq~-n ~ los,
er and I T -
P3 ahealthy youth or a tender infant is the tex:tur~ in hot weather (Yo ·11 ac1 itates loss of heat
00
. u w1 read ab \
mech anism of tc out l 1..: .i1..1ua1
' ~;e~ (whether loose and wrinkled, or tight and n1peraturc regu\ . 1
L s chapter).
hi - aL1on ater i.n
· oath). You will leam several interesting things about
the skin - the "Jae k ofall trad es" as named by some
srn -1. Storage of fo od . The -k
in th f; . ~ ~ stores reserve food
wbilesome others would even call it "master of many - II e orm of a layer ot fat contained m special
rask:s~ ft belongs to integumentary systems of our body. 1..e s.
S. Excretion
. . •· The skiJ1 assists
. m . the process of
Th!! skin is the !!!,gg,t organ of our body. It
excretion (through sweating) of water. salts and
nccounts for 15% of an a:dult humans t0tal body
t_o a very limited extent. urea. ~ incc sweatin~
weight. Primarily, the skin is a.n almost tram the skin occurs mainly for tem pemur~
un~le J,arrw- regulation, we cannot really consider the skin as
I
an excretory organ):..J
13.1 WHAT 15 SKIN ?
.
6. Svntl1esis of \'itamin O : The skin can srnthesise .
The skin is the...Q_utermpst covering of the body. vitamin D when e>.--posed to sunshine. This is a
It is stretched all over in the form of a layer. There minor function and its mechanism is not yet fully
are many structures and glands derived from the skin. understood. ln fact, too much sunshine may ca.use
tanning and other ill-effects including. e\'en skin
13.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN
cancers.
The skin (or the integument) serves a number • Gr iP : Have you noticed that on p~olong_ed
1
of important functions as follows: exposure to water, the skin of your ~mg~~t,_ps
I. ~ : Protection is the primary function wrinkles or puckers up ? Puckered. skrn g\\e~ J
of the skin. It affords protection in four different better grip in slippery and wet env1roruuents.
ways:
-C,~; \
tm · @,1mumi,.-ntt1
 1 • •• •

thi<" l thl !\_):. ~ II ""

\ll' ~.h \Cl 1.11 111[,, l h\ll ••111.I

. . ., . ,r•".\tt''"
, , llw ~r.unt.Lir LA, "* , , .1 "• 1
1
""l", n~1~tt1lJ-!. \_H l,, ,, .,_11 ,hti..'\... 'l "
, di.so G r.i.lr1.1lh Lt i;1,,·, ,,.,, 1.,
,,,1 n1tkd 1., -.·r
, 1 The 0 1.,lpl~h!:"' l.1H1 h i 1.,1u,, 1 ,
.. ll . I ••er1111n.11" ,. I."•, 1, 1, '
"., (; \ . t"'
u,on ,,i th <' <' lll, k 111\1, \I, , ,
re.
,hn,k I
l<' r n,, u,,. n,·,, , , 1\, ,, " ' j• c-
shill ,iu1,,-:1rll "' rq•l.1..· t lw ,, ,,, ,
:,ut,•rmuSt ,omitk ,l 1.n.:r ·• '·
C 11,1\,111rJ t11ll1 ,,i th,· $k..11~ t•· S. 1h,· ,, •1111• , .. , •
tT.i7cT~ _js_J.LICJJ,J _... ~r:·1-·" ..-m n,~l.u1111 " 'll' 1nq _._ ·
-
·\(.•ti ~· \·,1· 111,· m:il1•i,, th1,\11. I.\\Cf rh,· ,\111., , ,,.., ~\. :....
, , this pi~m,•111 111 , hl k·r.:nt hu n,, 111 ,.i_,, i""
1
l , · ·r, 1LdH•br,, w11 t,, d.irl.. , ,,1.-u, .1
•
t'-~n1 t .. ..
' ,~I
:\kill. ,•\ fn.:.111 r\L):'.r,,cs h .1, i: i:cnl't1, .1lh d.11 ,.
~1..in . 1lw f urnpe.rn:- l, ~ht ., ,,l,,utcd , ,, h:l t,',
;
110 1
s 1nJJ .1 n s h.1Yt' _ ,1n 1111 ,•r nw ,11., 1, , ..i",
(" 'hcJl ish ) skin . 111 1,1ir--.,,J,,u 1v,I l'•',Tk .t\.
conirnu,,,l ,-:,;.p,,surc: ll) sunlt~ht. l h l 1,i, c ''! , .
rJrt S (l( I ht' body m.,y i;...:t l ,ltl llt' ,l. h it II',,-,.·
13.4 THE SKIN PROPER _d o rigin.ti .::<1mlith"n ,,,h..:11 th~· c,'1'•"•m,· ,, , lit J,,',,
' ·l icro~copicalh·. the skin prnper is ~om_~ 0£~
·' · - · • · • d the tnnq
or f'•'O layers - the outer ..-p1Je nm~ an .
"dtrin1.-.
13.4.1 Epidermis
The epidermis is the o ute r thinner P,::!. oi the
•kin. It is formed ot" , tntified e ,itgtum piled up r
ian.•r after ayer. p ac..:s. e c:pi em1is be.::0~1e-s "ia:
th·ick and hard as on the palm;. s,)les :ind spe-.:taUy u0
C:
o n the h~ls. It is de,·o id of blood vessels ,1t .ill u.!
place,. The epidermis shows three re_g_tons ( or
subla~-ers) depth"ise : (a) outermost corn1fied la~·er,
(t,) middle granular layer and (d inner malpightan
/aye_r.
, JI llle cornified !av-er (stratum cornell!W is the
I ourermosc layer ~ons.isting of se,·eral piled up
larers of flallened dead ceUs. These cells are
made of a fibro us structural protein called
keratin (aJso found in nails. hairs, horns. hooYes
and silk). Its cells are continuallr worn away or
shed and are replaced from beneath bv those S\VEAi GLAND ERECTOR NER\ E
MUSCLE Di' t-lAIR
arising from the deeper malpighian layer. The
cornified layer is tou~h and offers resistarlC~ Fig. 13.1 Vertical sechon ol human s\.,m 1d,agran·- •

CONCIS[ DIOLOG\' -l\

\l
'i

--......,,- aLoou
VESSELS
/
NEAVE SWEAT Gl.J\ND

At- 13.2 3-ct,menslonal d1agr<1mmallc sk

:i
,,n skm
t,1 t"6 mlCIOSCOPIC slr~1Clll n:! of hu,n• e\ch
~? P.ri0w.e~ ~~
K'fliitsl(IIIP'8rnd11 actS like an "umbrella"~ •1
:I f' o y rom 1l1c harmiul
un g I, \ , , -ic
1:ff~,t i >l
inner
- ·~sk·.•~ .u( Lhe•
1 • l can catL~
I

2
Name lh e three
1
rom outer lo inn sub-layers of \he
Wn1e True l er
.
epidermis
111
- - - - • s;auccr~ slalements Tl or False (F) lor lh
\I) SI e lol\owlng
'fl.~ amdiLio11s of ski11 pigmcuratio1J : ralum corneum 1
having keral\n s made ol dead
(II) T h · cells
• ~¢;s911r"-l~ called " vit iliG_o" . Sk ' e malp1gh1an layer Is
:.a=entation
r ,,... (melanin)
, i~ lost Crom ..,"I11,1: 11. er rn
or ID bacterial invasion hard and resistant
latger patche5. at_ d1f~erenl regions of lhe bod ,. \Ill) Th e pigment melanin
'
a,ct cause of tJus disease is 110 1 yet knm vn. ) · colourallon
10 th k which tmpans
malplghlan layer e s in ts found in the

bJ • AlbbuSD1 : Complete lo_ss of pigmentation of the (Iv) The dermIs Is very thick on palms and soles.
skill all over tJ1e body 1~1~luding hair, eyebrows,
eydashes and even the ms. The skin of affemd 13.5 DERIVATIVES OF THE SKIN
individuals appears pinkish because of the The special derivatives of I ' h
in.dude the following : . l "-' uman skin
underlying blood capillaries. Albin ism is a
recessive rrait caused due lo inheritance; an I. Hair 2. Naib
albino couple would produce all albino children. 3. Sebaceous glands
5. f\i\ammary glanJs
13.4.2 Dennis
'The dermis is the inner thick layer of connective 13.5.1 Hair
tissue made of elastic fibres. IL is tough and flexibk. A hair consists or tluee parts.
Al certain places, the dermis in our skin is very (1) Hair shaft is the part which projects from
thick as on the palms and soles, and very Lhin at the skin and may extend slightly below the surface
of the epidermis. In normal situations. they lie
other places as iu the eyelids. The dermis contains
obliquely on 1hc skin. (11) Hair root is the part
StveraJ oUm structures - blood vessels, nerve fibres, embedded within the dermis. The lowest part of the
sensory organs. hair fo llicles, sweat glands, d,. hair root is expanded to iorm :1 liill hair bulb which
[Leather obtained fro i:n the bides of an imals i~
actually-the dermis part of Lhe skin I.

a iiilffiiN\1:14
 I Ith l' d,·11111' l
. · ulkd 111, ir
up•t 11 •
i,J .1, k h caJ.
·
, ,,(lll ,111<111
tw 1lw .11 r t lc11u· 11 1 ,
' . ,,11 ,,.1
'''• < ..-i,c
,.
1. ur1t.1111 , ., jlll•l(."1,.lll ln 11 I 1,rh·. A l),ll.1 Ir•• •.
1hr.:c pa r t ~ -~ r e'
l'·•l'l ll ,1 . " '1th '.1pl ll,1n blt,.,c ,,. I . .. ' •11( IC1 >1 11g the
It 1, tlw h ard a nd out ,: 1 1, ~In"
1 1 ! p ).1t l· - ~ d ·I I . --11 1 '•I
. I . I , ,,1 r11..iu1 < ' I , . is 111 :iJ c up ol ca,. . , cr .1111 11 , ·tl ,,
I In· t, .,11 1.. JlJL c ' , .
, •d ,,1 •111 < I
. 11111.:li ul all< '
I olr
11 tll 1. 11 ·
l1t·J 1 ,,,. , 11
\
It lies bdnw th.: n, 11 1 1,1,, 1~ •
\. I 11 , c••'
h ,111 '""' II I> ,, , 111('"· \11.: h,11 r 1.,ulh und 1hc h
,,,1111<•.lh'<' 11,., m· ,lw,,rh. . I, ror the g ro"·1h .111J
r · by
111 1
I Il l I \I.Jll' t '
• II lies ju~l hclmv I h t: sk11 1
. ·1 I . •l if t l
"""''
,,.115''
1r(• rl'."s11on~lb ' use of th e nal . I 1s usu:ilh v " •· ;,,
1..lli-k ftoed "' I lt'r • I Th,· gr111,•t I1 , II l,·1lr ,i.c U > p1ffl'
,·lnll!-!,111,111 ol Jill' ,air.
' . II
•
•
,f ·Ii ,m111 die .
I I • b ..,. I\ Ill .
I I1e b
111
, 1•,1\,]
' t ls h ha lf-moon ::ii th <! h a ,., ., 1 11 ,. ,,, ,,,,,,
.1dd11 ""' "' _.. , "' " , •. ,,r11cnl ·11< th:il 1ir0Jucc pro J ll'-..e,• new .::ells whid1 on matu,, ", 1ll1i,
"' . '111 ,, ,,1 ,JI
,. C<.: ...
11.11r ti,lli.-k • c 0 11111111 I?1g . ., . 111 vary ing oul th e older cell~ 1owa rtl<. the tip , ,1 •h, 1'11,1, /
• · ···I··" ' nn fl IuJIJ>~ULL and causes growth of th e nail.
1
· 1:111 ·t
111,·11111111 . I he~ ' ., uu pruJu.:11on
. - , · \'VJ.1c.11 111c.,.U · • •
,,11.1111111,·, "' me 1.11UJ.l- • ' silver)' or eve n Sebaceous Gla nds IW 1'
· IH .L·11111c :," n} , ·
In11r
J l' Lfl'.l~l' !'o , 13. 5 · 3 v11'l
These bnulChed glands u~uall y open 1111,. ~
,·t1111rk1d r \\'hile. . I .. .,o oso.:. 11 e:s.'f
·-
.
Ew r )'<Hll' ha, ~,!m e!'" .
, . 1c~ .:xper11:ncc< - "'
~
, cmo1.io n . In
fl I .. J n ni.: winier n r IJ . I p1'/ ocri•cf i r,11, ( pil n :
Cl -
- folIicIc , l

, eb um ) '
hou•'h som ct1111,:,:. they evcn 11p..-n Jir
o · . .
1
'd " They give oul an OJ ) ,cu..-1 11111 ( . ''
lht' Oll t S I l:, •
, •hich makes the h air ,md th.: nuler
f
eq 1\ 1
,11r

\,\I! .
'"
sLlfl
tlf'll
. , ·k present:- a ' llrf~ pct
- -~ - r,"'7 .- rtan· (I f the s r 11 Tl · . nl • II1,, •sldn oil)' and 1vnterpro~ to. keep lh..- ••1,,., . ,t
. l·I • I ·ippear:rncc. 11!' • utrrr
li .1ir1 an<, 11' , u
-,c
snm,•what .:ontrat. ·' I ••ind wn n, C< '.1 fl ed ,1 rrcc w rl supp Ic ,
and 10 prevent loss 1..11 morstun: by n ·Jnc . 11 ,
k. , •r ,11 111"
(Ill-I
vte
is .::,rn sclI L')' I h c c ~
•r •clo r (nl so ' · •
. 1 l 'qucl)' 1',etwe.::n the
· Id and drv wcal11er. the s ·111 ma y bccon11: ·
In co , , . . -. • •h _ re ,u't\h bO
mu~d •· of the: h:1.ir which runs o J ' . I , dermis. The eave a powJ~•)' sur tau: " en SLralchl'I.\; 1,,
. . I I . it.I t ·r part ol Ldlo.: uJI · the h,11r ::m(I l . f '\ 1· 11,, I\
h.rir rollrde ant I ll l ~
, a reduced sccrcuon o 01 rom th, ·, eh actciu
• le- nt on.:: cn P ~ d uc l o • \0
conrracrion of 1lus nrn~c ,· . 1 and ut the nther gIa ncls , In hol :me\ humid ,
weathc::r.
J
the
.
skin
.
hccolll~,'
10
a somel\'hllt vertical posittm · extra oily due to a.n mcrease secn:llon ol scburn. tJ
end depresses the epidermis. d T hree commo n p rob le ms rdated 1,1 sehac,•u t1
· , islv lost an '- U\
Hwr in human bdn.gs ::ire con11nu01 . . d e
· .
rcgro\\'ll. The du.ration o s P- ' •
r cal hair is 2-s xears an
~ h.
glands:
- l • ' I· shes is 3-:, mont s. I· Pi mpl e~ - Sebum acc umulatinn • C'«USt

I
1ha1 of the qtbrows ~ e~ .a
~- d. -~ t · of the body (head .
- Hairs from the tt,ercnt par s
. b d " etc ) s h ow su t c
cht'st, a rm pJt. ea r , no~l, . ·
d iffc..rences. These are helpful Ill fo rensic (cnm e
detection) in vestiga tions..
• . ·· of to uch
!lairs also provide a sensation
becaus e nerve fibres extend up to their b ases.
Th ere are hairs along the edges of th e cyel_id!>
(eyelashes) 1o help preve nt the entry of fo re1~n
part ides. Similar!}', there are h~in, in the n_ose, agam
to prevenl dust particl es from e ntermg na~al
p assages . Fa cia l h a i r s in human males, i. e.
moustac hes and beard , help in distinguishing the
male sex (sexual dimorphism).
13.5.2 Nail s
Nails arc hardened keratinous plate-like
strucrures which grow as dead cells from the nail
root, whid1 lies belo\\' the skin at the base. When
an open pore in Ihe skin gels clgged with dead skin
cells and st:'bum from sebaceous glands, ii black
growth o f bacteri a becaus e it i~ nutritt\'e, \!.c:
b 1 infected and results i.nto the formation oi boil-\ ~~
. .
pimples.
2.. Acne - Sebaceo us gland s get inlhmed dur
to hormonal inlluence. lt is one of the conun\inrM
problems in adolescents.
J . Black ht.>a<l:- - When an open pore in lht
skin gets clogged with dead skin eel\$ a.nd sebum,
it turns black upon oxidation by the air ,1t1J is callc<l
a black head.
13.5.4 Sweat Glands
Eac h s w ea t gla nd i s a simple coiled 1ubi
co nsisting of a deeper secreto r y part and ar.
excretory pa r t which runs upward., to open on \he
surface. The outer openings are called the ~11cal
porl'i.. Their total number in the body is estimated
at about two milJion. Human races belonging lo
hotter cow1tries usually have more sweat pores than
those belonging lo colder ones.

,CONCISE ~l9LOG\' - tX
 ri£ Al • ~ "-'..._ . -
13.6.2 H ea t L oss
,,, re~.. LIHl ..111111 bn,J )' l t_•n,p ,·
r:tHl h.' ('\ t:n , , ti I~ \1.·ty
k·" ·~fr•!>f lrnn t
unu
\
1 RJ.1:. .,,
i .. ~ ~- ""
..,,IJ ,,r ,,.,.>'1w ,,ub 1d(' I
fo ur duJ ln,.-1~
u11r b,, u \ lh,u ,
llg l, 1111 1 111 ,, fl!
,,,_
\ !~';,"1, ,,
• ..--
•
l~ ~~.
.,. •It .., ,, ~~
•
l:~tE.c.1o.,1
'""' '•,•~·1
...
,;i II
1,·m pa Jru1<' o r ,o ld t,1 .. o J « l n l th,, l> ·l: •
,k, n Al-to ut ~.5 pc:, .:L•nr
,j l l tt_J .
I"" bu d,
~
~t~
m~ llu, l u ~l l!-S ,,•11 h l h i: u J\ It,. , l i,."'t
t c , ,,,1h t.!-rrn-1 tJ otg~ n ,, lh n,u ,gh th ~ '"In b\• \.OH Vt>\. flQ 11
~ ,. , •
•I 1\ 1 Lf£..v !"LI, • •
1.,,, J 11•,
'
•
h " mr.1/1, th.,r tJi<') ... h\\li ••'I' II~ t
<'lll'imnm,·111:iJ rcm pcrJ lun: . I
n Ubl ~,m 1d 10h c-~"·J pc:
both '" o ndi11 un.s n f too hot
thu., lh C')' h llh:r n.i1h
r ~tch.uinn ru,J thro u~h
2. I llll~ ~ : r ,~JI •h Ju~,
....
•
t. v;-i
• po r:11111n r
Ill 11, .
t.: \\'Jrr r, 1

1
liq i,
•l , ~, ,. 1 •r,
1

~-- r:P '

~f ES !;,·- "'-SOCONS'TT;rcn o,1
Af'it , ,
If ",..t
1 ,:··4{'
1
!I
• t;,.~"•.!·...i,::1"1t ,,,
.r t-. ·• •r1 ~r-, • 't • '
'
'-""
.
or tPl""I cofJ c-1n·in •mn1t"'n l ,U1J hrc.uh"·,I ,,ur. 1111 \ '"~~ 11.1 \ \' J r 1n • 11 \\ Id
,
1 1
f.~ - ~ . ·
(,um mer , lc.·r J .._., ,n
J C,11 \ .,r.•
•· "!IJ11:1 h\l \ t "' '1
· ~
~{rr,rr,
J h ,,,, .• I
,lee-pl or be c.,;pe ncnccd hr ""J::<'nt l)· l,to \\' lltu "'·'=~ "• r"'- 1~1,1,1
~.~
( h 1111.. r t<h1j 1.i\ '·"l:i ir• 1 1
, • ~7 . · - - .If·
" " '' 11, 1,,. ,1 H11,t
'" ., l;" ./
lht· ~he n l frng , ·
r han d ke,•p ,n,, th . Oluu11 1 r•rt
1
111,k • • ,,,- · ;,
lll~ I II
ul 1·011
~nm .: hcu l 15 ,1l s,1 ll•, 1
Jurl
Ilg
r-- ..:
\ ,l f"I
\,•,1.1 , •1•t'1-~
" r" ,11,..,, 'I
41.1111,ri "-
IW..,r,,_, 'lt'tt:.,:,~-,t-"•? ' ..~,.•• 1-,
r;,,!Tt ·ii .
\ -011 i~ .. t ,,, • I
-~· ..
I L IO lfl/ 11\ 1\t an, I [l'.: CH) IJl l\'Jl<.T lrom th,· lunr•r.:,. ,,.
h
I 11 •:. ~
The- ra ms r ofJ. J.,Joo ,k<l ,i nd
h c.-n <uh~rTtmc-d r,r poik iJ01
wam1 hloo J ed Ju,.-
h c m u1t (p ,11/..t l11 ;
l 1 r i n .:.· .11ul r J1.• 1. \ · ~
.
dmunar cJ JI bud )· kn1p,•,a tu re.
T he~ .
· ' ~u h, 1
"" " 1 •""'c Dl> ~,5 ~ r_ ?• . r~. C.~ fa
Prog ~ ;~ ..
-
, ,ui 111g J .Jnd homc:ot.h c,rm
aL (/w111,·1> ; , a m ..,J .,p<E 114
' Tr,,,.,_.,,..,._,.,.__~~ .' '·. .... .__ ,
,~.._p.-e11,·d1
I. I ooJ , · Hc-.,r is aho lu,1
,v t,A,,
or cold bc,1•erni;,·, .,r,• takt'n
Int
1
' '" d I" '" I, '' •'
Fl- ~rES
c;or - . B - \/AS ODIL ATIGI< "· llol.1,.,,. "' • ""°" ,. .,. ...,,. ' .~ ,e
~ ' ,
" I 1k t,r~f\ " .... It.... ""' . .... . ., , . _
"'°"'"'~,
··-t..lI!\""
"'· ·
4 ~va,50CO
M1ncuon 10 cl,j, f).J,,,.11 "-·,· It,,,. ·- · · -
u, uJll r abo u1 J i"'C 13.6 .3 Te m per atu re re g u
lall on I.
Hu m ,111 bod r rcm p<"r.ilur ,· ,s
lO lncmA,io '""'' ,..,,. l:e ~ I
f'lg. ,,.g..\/d QClll allOtl 1
. · ·~· ~ .... .
t"C lugh cr 111 1hr rc,cr um ~~ ll "1lO ......_, .. ....,,,,,., ''-o
'""'"''i'"'• ~ , '•\ r
fin rh<" mC1111hJ. ,r h Jbc,ur The ,,rin cipa J h.-~1 -r"" ul:11 111o,, cc:.,I 1h: 1, I , c . . .
... · . . 1
;
skJn is inc:r casc,I b\' t he Jila 111 1I
, .. t, . ~ .
-e ,0
am i p,1, . _ .,J:...:-.:..
-,,1; 1,r flor,. h,"'•leJ . 10 l h ~
,111d abo u r l "C Iow a 111 the lfo:J1rp111h,1 to ruu , . J por iioi'i .,.,
d vessel s in the skin (
~"lli!.!ll. 137'C1"' t,,a,
:i Hu,r"
\\'hen u,,< 1.) l )U
10
aJ~o shu w 1-Jrl .llio n
4 ' n., 5~ppl )
• Ou r bud y 1c:m p,·rd1U rc· may part Jets !, ke a I hermns1a1 1 It J1 00
B). Th•s results sn grea te.r lo"
nf he:it 01
ilt1J""' tr, I (ti!: 'll1 - ...\> f
~
n ,., 0 ( bl
rse of 1-1 hou rs. II is cool below tl1,· nor mJt lcm p-,r.
uurc · 4 l-.11on 111 ' "cat
O ·, ~
u l O J "C 10 0.5"C in th..- cou • I 1 "\\ lldtt
t),n cic .• an d also by
Jfl[! 110 vap or
O,e lhvrol,t " " " " ~ - •• , .... .
and high est in thl.' odu c 11wo pr U l;:. C \ \t,•, '"q 5 ll,e
10\,'C-SI in 1hc earl y mor n ing o r ,pe cru up rhc hca r•pr 3 r~ill•. • ) which is now pro ,
duc ed 1n b r!(e,
'
o l<cre~ bo<i·1 Ill;)\ tawsn ~~
.ii.
:j·~.i~.·••.:
'I
heakd • 11 JHdc·:r· nJ I ha l .
fare aflc- mnun. when rhe body 1,·n<ls ro g.-r uwr (l~rcn due to lhc rich supply ul bloo
J 10 1he
-", tc,,,, ..,,. ••
swi td1 c, 011 I 1Ir h"'"' ~pc« i u,, cl.lle,al . 10 nu"'
hal, .t
.- abo ,·,· nonnJI m eans
.
7 Fati
111<' con h ng process, and t
·~
• Rise in bo ,fr rc:m p<r:Hur.
.
«1 ,1uao uues vcm enls ove r the bod y help ence
t c~ •
,la rl r. a fo ll in producing proc,·.s,c s. ~In p.1r mo
fr n:r and s,d rnc s, a nd sim
ero us. A su11ablc WE AT H ER - \\'li en Ollh1J
lc:m pc-r J IU r e may be d ang IN CO LD ~ ;t
°C - -1o•c is '
mu mJ lt'lll f' l'Ta lur,' of J5 el, ••et .
,
lcm pera tur<· 15 low. lhe bloo
d vess o 11 an 11h1.J
(o p11
e.s..-enuoJ for norm:rl bod r :1c11 ,,uc
s. <!$peC1:1Uy fur A )· Th, , rCl· IUu•,. tri 'J
the: acn on o f enzymes. Th, ·
working of enz ymes
J , oco ns l r k t m n l / Fig. 13.4
--.,__-.
bloo d sup pl}' 10 Ul t' ~kin .
As a rei.uh • lh•·r . C}\
., I. I\ 1
~1,rr-,;
.iu,, ..,,. .., numerous lunc1
1ons - Pf0lOClloo (';I llcdy ., """"""°
""'" ~ "" '~ , _ , ""-lo
~\
I
lowerin g of
,s slo " ·ed d o wn "·i1h the
pera1un.-s dcs1ror los~ of hc:11 by com·cc110n. con
duc unn and radtJlu,n
vapo risalion ,,r ~"~
' !:i ucrtl10". synlheals of v,rnmln O
etc
, lhinner epldorm,:;. ano the ,nno, lll1l•~
• !lo.,,. .
tcm pcraru re. ,dti le higher 1em and also less lo>s nf it through , Thi .., la com pose d ol oure \
th..- e nzy mes aJ1o getJ 1a b rcdu c~d. th.- >'• nl layers ou1ermost oorn.1,esi ia,.,
c, r;ioeneo aeon
~. -" "l "'>'_..,,,. ~
As tlw blood ,up ply 10 lhc skm tpdarTTli9 further 5l10Wli lh100way 10 the outefll'(),i la)e1 ana the -. .. ~..,.... , _ ...,_ ,""' " ' - - ...
' The ~ granular layer ro
i, a nJt ur~I glve
13. 6.1 He at pro duc tion gla nds s t crc te lrs~ s w.-a t. Thi ,
.dsu lltll .......... elastic fibres ar,o C0<1ta1n1, = 'il!V C!lil\ 101
ll<eswt la.cl u -
- · f1llt lnO ~ t!t I
hod y lrcnr \\'ht n ..... - -ls Is lhe Inner laye r o1 ,..... ., ro:,,
l prn duc l,nn Ill me tho d to con ser vt' laye r which serves iii a IOO<J <es.?n
,o as we'i i1' 4 i v , _ n ..,
TTw n: uc ma n,· suurcc~ n( hea
n ,a 1.Rl' ''
, 1 1
es a per~on look p,i\: , tlllCI 10 dermis IS the la\
· \':tso cun )lnc tion occ urs, 11 mak
our ho d.,'. d hloo J , uppl)' ru rhc
llll0rtl91
5, mllTlma!'f ~ , •.,. ~ _,.,. ..
all body .:ells, nr bluish. because of reduce s ol slltrl - hair, seo o~ 10111giarc1
urring in , lbtl'I 1,. Iii/II special derlvalfVe • II
• Clw m ical rt'a cti, m , occ s kin . Sim ulta neo usly. the
he at pr11duct1 un 11 tu,e by provent,og heat ICY..s "' cold
~aine, lllrOllgn t.a. Ill 1r,o _ . _
o XJdat ron o f gluc ose> , 51un ragullles body rampera
csp enallr in 1/w In·,·, by the inc reased b)' the increasL·d
m.-t abo lte ra ir JnJ ~ heal loss by
swear evaporatJon ano vasodllalion
gen era lly pmJuc,• hi:.11 Jar ac tivi t y which Ii
111 our body com es
thr oug h inc rea sed mu scu
• lv1u st n f the h t'al pn, Juccd som etim es In the form of shiv
ering.
. Vlg oro u~
th e ac11n q• u f ,wr mus cles th e 11u111Jr
fro m
,m a cold day a nd IN HOT WEATHER - \\'h en
ac tiv11y m akn p1u warm person i, engaged
Jcmperaturc is high or when a
ove rhe ats y (/u rm ., hr, r VJ
)'
rk. wh k h mrm
in , lft.'n uou s phys ical wo
A sm a /J am o un1 o l li e.rt
c,,m e~ from the
overpro duc tion of heat within
tlw b11d)'. 1hr hlunJ (,. m
l1<·1t·r:igc!>.
ing csli on r;( /i()/ fo,, J , anJ 'i\m - " I br J111.·I. of All ~
.j
_ CONCISE BIOLOGY- II
2J ~1
 S\\' l!AT PORES
•r of swea t pore s var ic . r
.Jat II11111b ~ ort 1hc bac.k 10 400 p t!rs ro ,
, ...d J'l 0 11 11 60 '"
-'• sq cm o
(l.r- ,e1f 1hc: b•ll...,.
y i,
·-.w
V' ,in\l gue"5S w hY I the1 swe at po re s
" the l
i:,o r oP the pa ms • are
m o re
~vff'"')l». Sllrfo et te11s1.on J,or grip. For rhc Silt
~ • It ,vnt t11e /enves of " book Ill' rens011 ,
~, '-''' l'A·~,
~ l"°~otes by applying snliv
VJC1
a 0 11 thclo fico wu tltr
~ J,,111 i"""' '"' uolo"'11hy, roo! ' "''" "'' -
ll -\,to.
Dv<:,

secretory part of a swe at glan d

t
1'11f _the surr o und ing cell s da bsor bs
\i-
d ro
1111' ·es111of the dern us
.
and pass es an bl d i I

,~II•~ weat duct wh kh pours It o u othe

• .':.d(0 •1 • (
o1
· t 11110
. Fig . 13 3 M
A.. From.
B
ar11mary lm~\\\
IJ\#J,ll( AA•,
Gw,o:;
tSV- swea
5 unS
or
•
t on . •
perspira tion) goes · 1e
ll '\ v1ev. B-S
surf-~ minute quantities (inc ipie nt or ~n ~l- all " cihonli
,,1 I
glana
' l.!C\1ooa1 •Mo "
otlles --,,,,ti~
erSJ'"11- n), or sorn.eti m esd i.n la rge q ua mvi ~ib\e
r . strenuous .e,."<-erc1se or urin g hot a, d 1ntJl1~s>·
·•.,;ng
o anl s which
~ccretion is o~r•~
an g\an '"
"": 111cse ar
view
on lhe ma~ n: ~od ~ed scb:,ccou~
of lhc 1·,c s a. Y and scn•c.-, 1 1 '"" '-i'c\id
tJll'tl)d, '{'he rnaJOf f unc tion
. 1 nd to prc,, o ubncat I !,. Then
~ t by evaporation.
' 1um 1d
of swe ati ng is to
lose seb
Ccr umi
.
cm the ovcri10\~
nou ~ glan d
~;e
'.nar~11,\
\ : l'hes c arc \cars
11 . aceo us glands t
t;.J(l)'__,,
tiea consists of about 99 per cent secrete w~v 1· ound in lhe au·•·
"-1 al ( wal inl11.\ 1f,cl~
which \ b"". 1ke ,substance called . .u 1lorv. c· \
S .,,_r cent s ts m aL·n1y sodiun.1 chlo r,•·der,
) ·
02
f u ncates and prot -ts cc rw11~11 or ana and
t0 • r-
Os urea (0.08 p er cen t) . The urea lost e and11
ct5of cnrwru:

'?
lh rom dust particles and c1.. the t\elicak
uah ...,,.,t is abo ut 1 pe r cen t of the tota germs. eardn 1m
t e ,..... lrou g

~
urea
elaeted by the body.
"O)ld weat'' may be d ue to psychic influ Pro gre ss•Check
5 ences
such as frigh t and nerv ou snes s. Sweating may also 1. Matc
11. h the items tn Column I Ill\.lh those In Column
aceolllPanYnausea and severe pain {du e lo loss
of
Column I Column n
b()dy salts).
(i) Air spaces a. \-\airs are ~lted
13.5,5 Mammary Gla nds (II) Mammal',' glands b. Sebaceous glands
'llie manunary (or mil k) glan ds (Fig. 13.3 (iii) ·Goose-1\e sh" c, Rudimen\al',' 111 males
) are d. Races ol hol countnes
modified 5Weat glands. These glands a re pres (iv) Traces ol urea
ent (v) More numerous e. Grey hair
bothin males and fem ales. But in males, they
persist swea t pores
only in a rudimentary state, whereas in females (vi) Oily secretion
at I. Sweat
puberty, they enlarge in the form of a pair of 2. How do hairs provide the sensation ol touch
breasts. ?
Each breast carries a cen tral conical project 3. How is the outer surlace ol the skin
ion made
called nipple. 15-20 milk ducts open on the nipp waterprool?
le.
Each milk duct is continued inw ard in a bran
ching 13,6 SKIN AND HEAT REGULATIO
manner to join a cluster of 15 to 20 lobes N OF
of the
mammary glands. The activity of the mam SOOY
mar y All mammals incl uding humans are warm ·
glands is related to the rep rod uctive hor
mones blooded lcndothern1al : boll) heal gene rated
!prolactin) and pregnancy. The milk secreted by from
the in side ); so are the birds. They all maintain
3
mammary glands is highly nutritious for more
the new-
oom baby.
--- ----- -- - -
~ldn - ••fhc Juck of All Trodes"
-- ---- -- ------ -
 In Living Ongan,sms
.

~i~e K•ingd
._:; a ic,n

n w11 h ,1,., Ir , ·l·•t:\ l c t

AT IS SPEC J •:~,,r.,. ,.,·. ',p1:c1c
"UI • A brtef outlin e of the f IES?
5y/fl11 . /Ve Kingdom ne . .
I' Clt:h Okan
cJISS,t,catl()/1 . I h an < ro
v tl\t mernbt ' .,an, im "' ;i
~n
I
chat!ICl81i511CS ol each kingdom With
~ ~~ tu produc r r, can i111nbreed ~rt,cular kincJ \
_...,,i,,sMonera, Prollsta, Fung,, Plantae CThaJ - " trtl)c: Y•>unu am,,ng lhcrnich-
&J(D''"'~ lophyta " llnl., C\
,.,_.,.,, ,,ni Pteridophyta and Spermaloph"'"') An
"''.,,. 11,-, . ,~ • 1ma11a• All in<l,vid uaJ\ ~of:a- ~ - - - - - - - -...J !
--~Mrdates from Ponl era to Echinoderm a m ong themsclv ~fH:c1c:, can normal!
(NO"""·- ala and
cnordates·al' live Classes). ,pecies diff • f es. ln<l 1v1<lual~ of y breed
_ . er rom all oth 1 a particular
call, ol the world bet er wing b1:mg.,. All hou
have ~ome d'ff ong to one specu:s . t~ • .~
· m. ill io ns or . di ffer en t t ype• of
, ·here arc . I I erenccs amo th . >C) may
org an isms
· startin g . fro m Sll)g le- ce lleu in 1cro-
· co our, height and the len ng o:m~d vt~ such 3.!-
organisn1s like bactena to la rge trees like mango or 1nterbreed. So th h gih of tall, yet they can all
d omest,c:u s) s· · ·1 e Iouse c.at ·ts one specks ( Feli<
pine and huge_ ani':"aJs like elephants and whalt:s. d 'f• . am, ar y. there ma. b .
f he range of sizes 1s not so surprising but it is the l ,erences in the bod . [ea ) e quHI! a b ,,

.~,: -
d ifferen t countries ) tu:res of the people of
,omple>dty of structures Lhal is the most significant
marri age between lh: r ra~:• yet there can be a
(Fig. 8. 1). .:. all mankind today be! m w 1 n~rmal ch.Udren. So,
ong l o a smgle species (Homo

rl- I ~ · -
Amoeba I •r\ 1·1" 10
,II 11
. S organism but not a sp~cies) \

IJ - .>
Deer
--~ f
Maf190Tree Bactena (Bacilli)

,,r ..
Bread mould
Rabbit

Spirogyra ~
Fem

Calla

--=:.;.,or
Paramecium
~

Maize
;)...
DONKEY
(Male)
l
I ;: ;. ._
.--- _____,, f\'1
HORSE
.. -

\Female]
l\ \

Equus ass/nus Equus hippo

Fig. 8.1 Dlvers1!y in organisms

MULE
For srudyiJ1g diversity in living organ isms, the It is neither a horse nor II donke)· !
organisms are grouped according to their incrcasi.ng \/11/1 I • <,>

similarities. The organisms are also arranged from

less complex to more and more complex types.
Before we talk of diversity in organisms on a
broad scale, we should first get familiar with the
category levels of diversity. namely : Species, Genus,
Family, Order, Class, Phylum and Kingdom.
 '-:\j '
.,
.
JiJf'l "1,J .'>llntW-1>, all •~q,
.i1• tm,s . It.lid .&JI m.tn go
..-..-n..., ~po. 1c--- ,,11 an 1m,t hl Uut tl1" •\ I
l ~ \ - ..
tlT'tl f bd,.,1g ,,, thd t ro-,,
11
~
i11 n 1
..J,ad llltt • -·• •._1
,~ -.ocs.- A1'"''""r'• Ja
4'
'
J ffkr enr (p<'d<!$. .111 d
l,;h,,,.._ .
Hon e and Don l'1'v an.- rwn ctr-...-b c1.1nn ot he 1.i1Uc .-Ll ~•I.an, l
\, ni ..,. .....,
-> bn.-cJ.<. All bn.-ada t;!( J 14at:1~r10 J10 \1C uri:;a n "n" ••l\d ..,,,, • 1111 1 Uq-q , I •
f\or h h,n,,_. tbc:fr numc:n>u '
' • ro\(.U • •• ..... -••1
rbreed among
1 tlj
,rt, p ~~s tlut;dl.i ht hdp
tl&.., 11
'
1
and 1t10e,c: or ~ J onke:) al/I mrc . 1111
h1, 1 -.r 11 '-'lt:r; 'ti\ 11d
h.,, x '111, 1,1,: 1
lc: ) oung 011 ..s li ur a ,·n,,.,, 1..a.n.,.~ ~
~-
JUN( , «" p " It.. "'a
thn =h,::s " ' pmd u~ !erll HOU SE CAO W e l'lt: slogl~c :Uc. · J <•q,;.uw,11" "'"· t "' ''\:.ctq\1'1'- ..
"r.,.
ush r u.<-,1l>k d,w~ IWY\ \J:=, sp;t,,,too..1ri'q,I
l C-..~"'-' ~:,
c,,U1.J t•l.m , • '- 11\!I, ,.,, en.._(.•· -· '" ,,
ll II tu, rs-c and " don l-. -,·. rhe1 S<JI I be e.xd us1v d}•
1 1
/'Ct htt ,,... ,. ,!, .J UI ""II 1 ... , 11
k" I Ium. in, h.,..., h.-en I '"·t . ti..,,,
Ag. 6.2 Two com mon ono C'los.o , t,:1,v c ch lon ,p t1'b It~... p\.,n
oa,rtf lO h Jn n.- - 1, t ~••1...i1
nvr pro duce: ., frrr ,k - mu cr.21 cro·.... foun a "' lrl\Jio J ·•II \ .. , 'l•l "IJ~ ''L.• i '"'l...
".,,.,~I 1161r., h,., _
• ' . ,1
_ ~ t ~
,•, r(,r n.•n fun c-~. but ,,P-, j~cJ h~c amm ab 1'1Hc . ~, -
pnu: t lSUlf! pn--,.. hh..-,ng n1ul
1hC) , 10 Tl •I\,, -h _, . Ii I 0.. l"fµt,._-
"Iii,
E\ ,\ II L Y : A g r o up o(
gcn cr • \\Tit t ino ul1
.,, t .. 'I ',
rh.·h "T~.> o l cr,J..,;,,..s h~n·
~ bc..'"t•n .>UL~~~s,ully lnc-J in H
ngl are alsu m,1 1•1.1111, ,.. rh,1
n"1h .., ~hl••t t,1 ,. · -.:,o t·t,i.•
-"le,.,..._
t-'.: ... ,
a fo II 1 <t'l i....1, • · , ... ~ .. :'ti\ ,~
commo n d uira cle risI tics tnnn
-
c, h;l\\:
~p hyU nr,r ruo h, :,-1cm (lr lci1\·
'\
1110.l,·rn llnw,; r i,,
Jn,I lwn '· · ,, ii,
1
• ... .1:,
,·x.1rnple. Lro n (ral ll 1a11 fro)
• o ""'·• r...;,._
--j ~ ~
f nl ,111, il1r
~..
S OF CR OS SE S C:t't
pcr ,c, bur t h,,, h C11n "•11 the above thn..~ "rou1\~ HI ur\;.a
SO ME OT HE R EX AM PLE r 1~r,s ) arc d iffer en t , 1 !! r.,. l i\-1,m r,o 1, ."'"' ('
S0. 1 •d I\S distm,1 kingJ11n"
EN T SPE CIE S
J't
•
BE TW EEN TW O DIF FER sam e gen us Tiu s gen us ( Pam
• lr~ra J anJ
.in,,11, . r,- , "llh th• 1.\\o . '"""" ~- .
.Jom ..,,r ,, '' ,,_ ,,.. s, i) "°d Lhes c 10gc1hcr
- -a"" ' 111\
~
(Fel,s) \\'hk h i11du d <'S. the ,.,1. •Is / f u11gr • nruc) and anu nal, I,\ let
.,
• Zeb ra upo n mar tn,L!
..,rh a donkC')·produco . .it -- 1
.•
som e com m on c iarnc t er 1.,1l~
••
. I hcrefurc th" ,,,
.,
ant n.Ao(h.,.. plan !S lPla • tu ,nul1l1)
,.
sdtu te ,vh:\1 I S ~,,nc,1 the h,,. "'"&<lum
,~ ~-., .~
~ ._r-_.A--"
,~t
,..111 ,~ 11,.~
larger c:it- fom il)' (FeUdac ) wh
,ch incl uJ,~ th••• ,, , con · -~ .,,...
"7.<·ru-.-,· hir h= .md
bac k /Ike, rho s,· uf J
.,_ , of I.ton oncf tiger, and Lhe gen
us nf the d,·,,1 &<,,
1
~ lesil(
11°"' "- t'ton a.s 1s given below.
cJ;J5Sh1ca •
~TION
•.,,11
,1~ • •!(
:t
... ~ ~
·~-"
- 1':'>"'. f-' . - ~ ' FIVE l()N GD OM CLA SSIFIC
. _:......_; r '-~ ~ ,.
fom i/ ie ''
Jon i-,·,· a nd ,rrl pt'd OR Df.R : A group o f rela lcd
fam ily Fcli dae <;,
s nt;il s.4 fiva \cingJ oms unu.,cr 1h~ reccm >ehcm, ui - ~ I
L~
leg$ .md hip s /rkt• a ord cr. For o:m npl c, lh e cat
,....
'fbc F
A m11/# bDb y r.n1< 9y with famill' Can,d ae (d,
11 "•: ·on arc : I. Mo11cni . 2. Pro11sru , 1mg,
• .
zcb rn. Zt'n ker i.f li!lerS and cats ) and the do!:~ • d:assifi1cllll ' oUM'lX).oo...,
:.•i~
i...,('" ~'u.
hi s donk ey mot her ~ som e common ', 1a11rae and s. A11i111r1/la. ''-RMit•Jw
sta-i/c. foxes. j:1ck.tls, ere. ) p osse ss 4. p aryot,cj F"l h ~ l -- , ,
prod uce s · ngo n " In the cxarnp;••iu,, l MONFR.t\ (unicellular & prok
• T,g a m:itini; hi th a !<:male lion and so tht!r m ake a n ord er. • c,•,.
l(log doll
1• _ II rn:unlY incl udes bac1rna (fig. S.3) .1,,
ht'.rc: the ord er ,s "Ca rn ivora-: li.1nidum t ,1,1 lu,u2l\1 mu1u-,\1
(s1 ailt.'l. "'-•-
kc a cl • These arc sin gle-celle d org:
ini.snu cul.a.,uu._ >ch\."Of'lri~ •11<1 " l'«lf'"
soar and a sheep. again CL \ SS : Rel ate d ord ers m,1 , ,,. ma.\, ul' o! Ulte,J 11\., '"1'11-<
• Gecp ·· i~ the pro duc t ofa . .
anunals ltkc !hr '
a~,. Ii
• They have no org ani ud nud
cus. Mo,\ !un~
'"'-I<
ste-rilce. cxa mph·. the orders of drffcrcr,1 ""
r.1h•r 1han ct\h md ll1t1 t •tr ml!',,
s d ogs. cats . bats, whales. mon
kers and ewn hUltl,Jr • 1he nuclear material (DNA)
is <l1stributrd ,n dh1nbu1,d tn 1h, ,0011nuuu1 C\1sr
\,-:n
'\i •
t rh :11 pro duc es pot a toe
• Pom:1 10 is a p lan :ibo1•c gro und. b ur ii ere.. have some' com mon feature
s sucl1 ., ha
..., try ·l
·
the cell with oul bein g m doscd
in a nuclear Exum plu llrtid mnu\d, l'o1<h1uu\
, '1«"
un derg rou nd and rom:iroes lar doss of th<' an ' ~ the ccll ,s Pr,11alhu111 ll'I)! ~.5)
and milk-g lands. The particu me.robrane . Thi s co ndil 10n of
produces no seeds. ''. un.,,
ed pro kar yot ic (pro : primitive
, karyon
~· men tion ed here is ''MammaUa call ~I. )
ug ca n occ ur only
d:
~
Suc h crossin g or ,n1erbreedr PHY LU,\ I : A pity /um is t/11.,
largest divlsio , nudeus).
r~ spedc•s, and the
n,i J ,,-
bet ween n,-o ,·en· dosel>• rela al~. Related
:~,_-.,.w,J~
n/Is pnn g are in1J iiablr srcrilf'.
the d assification of plants and anim
cons titu te a ph)'lum . For exa
mpl e, llu· cJasS<i ,;
- /:7..~·J I
·~I
1s, birds, reptile,
differe nl a.nimaJs like the manuna
8.2 CATEGORIES HIGHE
R THAN SP EC IES
GE.'-1VS : Similar species constitute
the nex t higher frogs. fish es, etc.. rogclber con
Chorda ta whi ch have a noloch
stitute rhe phylut
ord or a backbone.
--~.-\~, I ~EASi ~ ~ _,
\~~\JI
genera). Let us Lake ......
category called genus (plu.ral : KINGDOi\l : Th e ki ngd om
is the large,•
aro un d our homes. TJie ,ti I CC"'"'t r f1
an exa mple. Wt· have cro ws
Fig. a_~ fo.,
le cro w) is different divi sion of livin g beings. Fig. 8.3 Sac\ena. Three common
sMDOS - rods w-111!,
Kin%dom PL,\.'\l \\ lmul11cel\11U,. t'Ubr
n11,,
hill cro w (a /so called Lhe j ung TH E OLD TWO and spl) eres (singly , In groups, o,
,n cnai~J
='
n s (the house cro w) 8.3 DR AW BA CK S OF and au1otrol'h1c\ - Th~ m mark 01
from the cro w found on Lhe plai N bran e-bound
n m any fea tures- size , col
our, beak, etc . The hi/J KINGDOM CLASSIFICATIO • The y are also devoid of mem cells lmultict\\ulu \ 1°"' i!l I l l ' <
~~
chlorop\3Sts. and the,· make 1hrn cli'li food b<pbo1l
'-
two differe nt spe des According to the old classific
ation as was girt, organelles like mitochomlria and
row and I.be house cro w are ely synthcsi·, \au\o\1opbic It 1tli nomJun; '
eed; yet Lhey are re appropriat
tt
ire world of li1in~ ~ Kingdo m PROTISTA o r mo
=ig. 10 .2). The y can no t interbr by Linnae us ( 1707- 1778) the ent and mostly
er birds. These two ki ngd oms: Kingdm:i PR OT O CT IST A (eu ka ryo tic
ows, eas ily m ade out from oth organisms was divided inlo two
e genus Corvus. Pla nla e (ind uding all plan ts)
and Kingdom Animali.r
1ds o f cro ws belong 10 tbe sam
Cla.,'1ric:at' i!
s.;;.;..:,tWd I 11 r " l11i:d11n1