Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Prepared by Mr. THANMAY J.S, HOD Mechanical, Vidya Vikas Polytechnic, Mysore. Page 1 of 58
Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
Vidya Vikas Polytechnic
27-128, Mysore - Bannur Road Alanahally,Alanahally Post, Mysuru, Karnataka 570028
Syllabus
Product Development and Design:
1. Explain Product Development-Stages of Product Development-Need and Feasibility study
2. Explain Development of design-Selection of Materials and Process
3. Explain Protype –launching of product –Product life cycle
Torsion of Shaft:
1. Assumptions in Shear stress in a shaft subjected to torsion –Strength and Rigidity (Solid and Hollow
shaft)
2. Power Transmitted by Solid and Hollow shaft - ASME and BIS Code for power Transmission
3. Problems on Shafts subjected to only Shear based on Rigidity and Strength
Validate the Problems on Shafts for Strength and Rigidity using Ansys (One each on Strength and
Rigidity)
1. Problems on Shafts subjected to only Shear based on Rigidity and Strength
2. Problems on Shaft subjected to only Bending
3. Problems on Shaft subjected to only Bending
Practice on Section of Solids
a) Prisms
b) Pyramid
1. Problems on Shaft subjected to combined Shear and Bending.
2. Problems on Shaft subjected to combined Shear and Bending
3. Problems on Shaft subjected to combined Shear and Bending
Practice on Section of Solids
a) Cylinder
Prepared by Mr. THANMAY J.S, HOD Mechanical, Vidya Vikas Polytechnic, Mysore. Page 2 of 58
Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
Vidya Vikas Polytechnic
27-128, Mysore - Bannur Road Alanahally,Alanahally Post, Mysuru, Karnataka 570028
b) Cone
Springs:
1. Classification of springs- Application of springs- Leaf springs –Application
2. Terminology of Helical spring-Materials and Specification of springs
3. Design of helical spring
Sections on Simple Machine Elements (CAD)
a) Sectional front view, Front view with Right half in Section, Front view with Left half in Section
b) Sectional Top View
c) Sectional Side View
Coupling:
i. Design of Muff coupling
ii. Design of Protected type Flange Coupling
iii. Design of Knuckle Joint
Using CAD, prepare Part Models for Muff coupling based on designed parameter and assemble the same.
Extract the Sectional views for the above machine element indicating Surface Texture and Bill of Materials
3D Printing
1. Introduction, Process, Classifications, Advantages of additive over conventional Manufacturing,
Applications, Modeling for Additive Manufacturing
2. Additive Manufacturing Techniques, 3D Printing Materials and its forms, Post Processing Requirement and
Techniques.
3. Product Quality, Inspection and Testing, Defects and their causes, Additive Manufacturing Application
Domains
Preparation of 3D Printer for printing – Modeling, Saving CAD file into STL file, Slicing, Material loading
and printing parameter selection
1. Working of Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) Machine- Single and Multi Nozzle printers,
Machine Configuration- Cartesian, Delta, Polar and robotic arm configuration 3D printers
2. Common FDM materials- PLA, ABS, PA, TPU,PETG, PEEK and PEI, Printer Parameters – Temperature
of the nozzle and the platform, the build speed, the layer height, Warping, Layer Adhesion, Support Structure,
In-fill & Shell Thickness
3. Benefits & Limitations of FDM, Software Tools- 3D modeling, Slicers & 3D Printer Hosts
Prepared by Mr. THANMAY J.S, HOD Mechanical, Vidya Vikas Polytechnic, Mysore. Page 3 of 58
Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
Vidya Vikas Polytechnic
27-128, Mysore - Bannur Road Alanahally,Alanahally Post, Mysuru, Karnataka 570028
Prepared by Mr. THANMAY J.S, HOD Mechanical, Vidya Vikas Polytechnic, Mysore. Page 4 of 58
Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
Vidya Vikas Polytechnic
27-128, Mysore - Bannur Road Alanahally,Alanahally Post, Mysuru, Karnataka 570028
Prepared by Mr. THANMAY J.S, HOD Mechanical, Vidya Vikas Polytechnic, Mysore. Page 5 of 58
Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
Vidya Vikas Polytechnic
27-128, Mysore - Bannur Road Alanahally,Alanahally Post, Mysuru, Karnataka 570028
From all the ideas under consideration, the company selects those that appear to be worthy of further
development, applying broad criteria such as whether the product can use existing production facilities and
how much technical and marketing risk is involved.
c) Business Analysis
A product idea that survives the screening stage is subjected to a business analysis. During this stage, the
company reviews the sales, costs, and profit projections to determine whether they meet the company's
objectives. Given these projections, analysts calculate the potential profit that will be achieved if the product
is introduced. If the product meets the company's objectives, it can then move to the prototype development.
d) Prototype Development
At this stage, the firm may actually develop a product concept into a functioning "prerelease" product. For
physical goods, the firm creates and tests a few samples, or prototypes, of the product, including its packaging.
These units are rigorously analyzed for usability, durability, manufacturability, customer appeal, and other
vital criteria, depending on the type of product.
Prototypes - Preproduction samples of products used for testing and evaluation.
e) Marketing Strategy
Once a company decides on the product, they will have to spend time developing a marketing strategy for it.
Experts will evaluate the size of the market, demand for the product, and revenue estimates. The marketing
team will get a budget for their efforts and they can select distribution channels.
f) Business Model
The development of a business model works very similarly to the development of a marketing strategy. The
experts in the company will estimate the costs and profits and manage the potential of the product. Also, they
will estimate the economic feasibility of the new product.
g) Manufacture
At this stage, the production finally begins. The company will make multiple prototypes and choose on which
designs get to go to the next stage. Also, the company will, once again, perform a cost analysis to see if it
matches the estimates. And if the costs go above the higher-end estimates, the company might abandon the
project.
h) Branding and Product Launch
Once the company finally has a physical product in their hands, the marketing team can get to work. For
starters, they can develop the brand name, packaging, and the marketing message behind the product. They
will also determine the price of the product.
The final phase of the product development process is the commercialization phase. The product is launched,
and it is followed by a developed marketing strategy in order to maximize its earning potential.
Prepared by Mr. THANMAY J.S, HOD Mechanical, Vidya Vikas Polytechnic, Mysore. Page 9 of 58
Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
Vidya Vikas Polytechnic
27-128, Mysore - Bannur Road Alanahally,Alanahally Post, Mysuru, Karnataka 570028
The essential requirements of a good product design are listed as follows:
1. Product must optimally perform its main function (task).
2. It must be easy to repair at a low repair cost.
3. It must be very reliable to use.
4. It must follow principles of aesthetics.
5. It must be a durable one.
6. It can be easily produced in large numbers at minimum
production cost.
7. It must be simple to produce and use (handle).
8. It must also be compact.
8. Essential requirement of a good product design Based on:
a. Functional requirement
The product must be designed in such a way that it optimally performs the main task or function for which
it is purchased by a buyer. In other words, the product must satisfy the needs and wants of the consumer.
b. Effect on environment
Eco-design minimizes a product’s negative impact by factoring environmental concerns into its specifications,
such as the preservation of precious or non-renewable resources, the prevention of pollution and the absence
of danger for animal and plant species.
c. Life, Reliability, Safety
Durability refers to the life of a product. A durable product performs flawlessly for a longer period. It is a
sign of a good-quality product. Consumers want their products to have a longer life. The product must be
designed in such a way that it can be easily repaired whenever necessary during a malfunction. The product
repairs must be done quickly that too at a low repair cost.
Reliability means dependability on a product. Consumers prefer to purchase and use often those products
which perform their main function or task optimally for a longer period without any annoying malfunctions,
breakdowns or failures.
The designer must ensure that the products they design are safe to use. Quality products will have certificates
such as BSI, ISO, and other standards. Designers must create their products according to the regulations of
these organizations. Gaining these certificates validates the product's quality and tempts the general public to
buy and use these products
d. Principles of Standardization
The design of the product must be very simple. The simpler a design, the easier, it is to produce and use
(handle). Simple products are also economical and reliable. The product must have the least number of
operations without affecting its functionality.
e. Assembly Feasibility
Prepared by Mr. THANMAY J.S, HOD Mechanical, Vidya Vikas Polytechnic, Mysore. Page 10 of 58
Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
Vidya Vikas Polytechnic
27-128, Mysore - Bannur Road Alanahally,Alanahally Post, Mysuru, Karnataka 570028
Design for assembly is an Analysis of products that results in simplified product designs that are easier and
less costly to assemble, particularly by attempting to reduce the number of parts. It is primarily a cost-saving
tool that is concerned with reducing the product assembly cost by minimizing the part count, the number of
assembly operations needed to produce the part and by making these assembly operations as easy and fail-
proof as possible.
f. Maintenance-Cost-Quantity
Most of the designers concentrate more on functions and aesthetics, and forget about maintenance. Proper
maintenance can prolong the longevity of the product. Using durable materials for easy maintenance adds to
the overall cost of the product. But this cost can be justified.
Designers are trained to design a cost-efficient and higher quality product that will attract more consumers.
While designing a complementary product, the designer must consider the primary product's price and make
their plans accordingly.
g. Legal issues and Patents
Legal issues to consider during product development are
Licensing: Licensing your product basically gives someone else the right to produce and sell your product for
a given period of time.
Product Liability: some products may be recalled due to defects. There are manufacturing defects, which
you aren’t in control of, and design defects, which you most definitely are to be guaranteed for replacement
or warranted or money back policy or free services.
Patents: Patents are the best way to ensure that your invention is legally protected, should someone try to
copy your idea or challenge your ownership
h. Aesthetic and Ergonomic factors
Aesthetics must be kept in mind while designing a product. It refers to, how the product looks, feels, sounds,
tastes or smells. That is, the product must look, feel, sound, taste or smell very good. It must be attractive,
compact and convenient to use. Its packaging must also be made graphically appealing and colorful. If this
aspect is not considered, product will fail in the market.
Aesthetics is the final and most crucial factor that needs to be considered in product design. Customers have
their own aesthetics, and they purchase products guided by this sense. Even when the product quality is less
than other products of the same cost, consumers will recommend buying a product because of its aesthetics.
Ergonomics is defined as “The applied science of equipment design, as for the workplace, intended to
maximize productivity by reducing operator fatigue and discomfort”. Ergonomic design customizes a product
to meet specific user needs, we can surmise that ergonomic design is the process of developing a
product/service that is easy to use and provides a favorable, enjoyable experience for the end user. It involves
creating and designing a product in its most effective and useful form.
i. Choice of Materials
Prepared by Mr. THANMAY J.S, HOD Mechanical, Vidya Vikas Polytechnic, Mysore. Page 11 of 58
Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
Vidya Vikas Polytechnic
27-128, Mysore - Bannur Road Alanahally,Alanahally Post, Mysuru, Karnataka 570028
Before manufacturing a product, the designer must decide the material to be used. The designer must ensure
that their choices are compatible with each other. Since the materials used in their products also define its
quality and guarantee, the designer must have perfect knowledge about the product's materials.
j. Feasibility of Manufacturing Processes
The product must be designed in such a way that it can be produced in large quantities with ease at a
minimum production cost. The production department must be able to produce the product easily, quickly, in
ample quantities and at a low production cost. The production process must not be very complex, and it must
not require costly machines to produce the product.
9. Aesthetic and Ergonomic consideration in Design:
Aesthetic is defined as a set of principles of appreciation of beauty.
a. Aesthetic is deals with the appearance of the product. Appearance is the outward expression of quality
of the product and is the first communication of the product with the user is nothing but the appearance
of the product.
b. Now days, number of products available in the market are having most of the parameters identical, so
the appearance of the product plays a major role in attracting the customer.
c. To compete and succeed in the market place, manufacturers will have to look beyond reliability and
physical quality, and pay more and more attention to the aesthetic and subjective quality of the product.
i. Aesthetic basic types of product forms
Form (Shape): form is the image presented by the outer surface of an object or structure. There are 05 basic
types of the products namely, step, taper, shear, streamline and sculpture.
a. Step form: - structure having vertical ascent. Ex. Multi-store building.
b. Taper form: - It consists of tapered blocks or taper cylinders.
c. Shear form: - It has a square outlet.
d. Streamline form: - It has a streamlined shape having a smooth flow as seen in automobile and aero
plane structures.
e. Sculpture form: - It consists of ellipsoids, paraboloids and hyperboloids.
ii. Aesthetic designing for appearance
The appearance should contribute to the performance of the product. Example, the aerodynamic
shape of the car will have a lesser air resistance, resulting in lesser fuel consumption.
The appearance should reflect the function of the product. Example, the aerodynamic shape
indicates the speed.
The appearance should reflect the quality of the product. Example, the robust and heavy appearance
of the hydraulic press reflects its strength and rigidity.
The appearance should not be at too much of extra cost unless it is a prime requirement.
Prepared by Mr. THANMAY J.S, HOD Mechanical, Vidya Vikas Polytechnic, Mysore. Page 12 of 58
Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
Vidya Vikas Polytechnic
27-128, Mysore - Bannur Road Alanahally,Alanahally Post, Mysuru, Karnataka 570028
The appearance should be achieved by the effective and economical use of materials.
The appearance should be suitable to the environment in which the product is used.
iii. Aesthetic design features
Aesthetics are in all our senses, not just the sight. There are 4 important categories, which can make or break
the aesthetics of our designs.
a) Vision: The most dominant sense in majority of people is our sight. We can’t stop ourselves to look at
what we find beautiful. Visual aesthetics have these key elements: Color, Shape, Pattern, Line, Texture,
Visual, weight, Balance, Scale, Proximity and Movement.
b) Hearing: Our ears are capable of perceiving a whole another level of aesthetic design. Sound aesthetics
have these key elements: Loudness, Pitch, Beat, Repetition, Melody, Pattern and Noise.
c) Touch: Skin is the largest organ in human body. It also helps us experience the aesthetics. Material
aesthetics are especially important for physical products. Material aesthetics key elements are: Texture,
Shape, Weight, Comfort, Temperature, Vibration and Sharpness.
d) Taste and Smell: Taste and Smell are sense that help us experience aesthetics even more deeply.
Especially in food industry and different environment designs, these senses play an important role in
experiencing aesthetics. Key elements are: Strength, Sweetness, Sourness and Texture (for taste).
iv. Aesthetic Materials
In aesthetic meaning, material (stone, wood, metal, concrete, etc.) is a medium, with visual and sensory form
recording creations of the artists. In virtue of its criteria, materialness is an essential component of artistic
creation. Materials make influence in the aspect of engineering structures, they are fundamental for the shape
of engineering structures. Durability, mouldability, texture, color and load capacity of the materials are
important factors of aesthetic quality
Aesthetic analysis of the material points out two factors fundamental from the aspect of construction:
1. Particulars (inner structure, color, texture etc.),
2. Decision over the structure (strength, physical characteristics).
In Mechanical manufacturing of products beside steel, Alumunium is a valuable, developing structural
material. Its structural aesthetics resides in its homogeneity. Anticorrosion, weathering resistance, water
tightness and metallic surface. It needs no painting: its color, shine and materialness are of a special aesthetic
value.
v. Aesthetic Finishes
Aesthetic Finishes change appearance and also make attractive, Finishes are added to a product’s surface after
production to improve its functionality and/or aesthetic. They can be applied to:
stop corrosion
prevent decay
Prepared by Mr. THANMAY J.S, HOD Mechanical, Vidya Vikas Polytechnic, Mysore. Page 13 of 58
Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
Vidya Vikas Polytechnic
27-128, Mysore - Bannur Road Alanahally,Alanahally Post, Mysuru, Karnataka 570028
stop UV light degradation
Defend against attack (from insects or fungus etc.)
improve hygiene
make a product tougher
insulate
decorate
color
make a product smooth
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Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
Vidya Vikas Polytechnic
27-128, Mysore - Bannur Road Alanahally,Alanahally Post, Mysuru, Karnataka 570028
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Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
Vidya Vikas Polytechnic
27-128, Mysore - Bannur Road Alanahally,Alanahally Post, Mysuru, Karnataka 570028
2.0 DESIGN OF SHAFTS
Shaft is a common machine element which is used to transmit rotary motion or torque. It generally has circular
cross-section and can be solid or hollow. Shafts are supported on the bearings and transmit torque with the
help of gears, belts and pulleys etc. Shafts are generally subjected to bending moment, torsion and axial force
or a combination of these three. So the shafts are designed depending upon these conditions.
Shafts are designed on the basis of strength or rigidity or both. Design based on strength is to ensure that stress
at any location of the shaft does not exceed the material yield stress. Design based on rigidity is to ensure that
maximum deflection (because of bending) and maximum twist (due to torsion) of the shaft is within the
allowable limits.
In designing shafts on the basis of strength, the following cases may be considered:
(a) Shafts subjected to torque
(b) Shafts subjected to bending moment
(c) Shafts subjected to combination of torque and bending moment
(d) Shafts subjected to axial loads in addition to combination of torque and bending moment
2.1 Torsion of Shaft
Assumptions in Shear stress in a shaft subjected to torsion Strength and Rigidity
The material is homogeneous (elastic property throughout)
The material should follow Hook’s law
The material should have shear stress proportional to shear strain
The cross-sectional area should be plane
The circular section should be circular
Every diameter of the material should rotate through the same angle
The stress of the material should not exceed the elastic limit
A shaft is said to be under pure torsion when it is subjected to two equal & opposite couples in a plane
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the shaft (i.e. twisting couples) in such a way that the magnitude of
twisting moment remains constant throughout the length of the shaft Its magnitude is given as the product of
the force and the distance between the forces. 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒, 𝑇 = 𝑃 × 𝑑
The shear modulus (G) is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. Like the modulus of elasticity, the shear
modulus is governed by Hooke’s Law: the relationship between shear stress and shear strain is proportional
up to the proportional limit of the material.
𝝉 𝑻. 𝑳
𝑮= =
𝜸 𝑱. 𝜽
𝑱/𝑹 is known as torsional section modulus., & 𝑮. 𝑱 is known as torsional rigidity of the bar or the shaft.
The above relation states that the intensity of shear stress at any point in the cross-section of a shaft subjected
to pure torsion is proportional to its distance from the center and the variation of shear stress with respect to
radial distance is linear.
𝐷 4 𝜋 [𝐷4 − 𝑑4 ]
𝜋 𝑅4 𝜋 [ 2 ] 𝜋 𝐷4 𝐽=
𝐽= = = 32
2 2 32
2.3 Torsional rigidity
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Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
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Torsional stiffness or torsional rigidity is a measure of the amount of torque required to twist one unit length
of an object by one unit radian.
Torsional rigidity is the product of shear modulus (G) and polar moment of inertia (J). The torsional rigidity
shows the resistance offered by a material to angular deformation.
Torsional rigidity is also defined as the torque required to produce a unit radian angle of twist per unit length
of the shaft. The term torsional rigidity is expressed as,
Torsional rigidity = G x J
𝜏 𝑇 𝐺𝜃
we know that Torsional equation is = =
𝑅 𝐽 𝐿
Thus the equation of torsional rigidity can also be written as,
𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝑻𝑳
= ≫ 𝑮. 𝑱 = … … N. m²
𝐽 𝐿 𝑱𝜽
Where,
L = Length of shaft (mm)
T = Torque (N.m)
θ = Angle of Twist (Radians)
Prepared by Mr. THANMAY J.S, HOD Mechanical, Vidya Vikas Polytechnic, Mysore. Page 20 of 58
Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
Vidya Vikas Polytechnic
27-128, Mysore - Bannur Road Alanahally,Alanahally Post, Mysuru, Karnataka 570028
2.5 Torsional Deflection of Shaft
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Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
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Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
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Integrating this equation twice with respect to x and applying the boundary conditions, y can be calculated. y
should be ≤ allowable value of deflection, [y].
In designing shafts on the basis of strength, the following cases may be considered:
(a) Shafts subjected to twisting moment or torque only,
𝐷
𝑇. 𝑅 𝑇. 2 16. 𝑇
𝜏= = 4 =
𝐽 𝜋𝐷 𝜋. 𝐷3
32
(b) Shafts subjected to bending moment only,
Maximum bending stress developed in a shaft is given by,
𝑴. 𝐲
𝝈𝒃 = ≤ 𝜎𝑡
𝑰
Where
M = Bending Moment acting upon the shaft,
I = Moment of inertia of cross-sectional area of the shaft about the axis of rotation
𝜋 𝐷4
= for solid shafts with diameter d
64
𝜋 [𝐷 4 −𝑑4 ]
= for hollow shafts with D and d as outer and inner diameter.
64
y = Distance from neutral axis to the outer most fibre = d / 2 (or do/2)
So dimensions of the shaft subjected to bending moment can be determined from above relation for a
known value of allowable tensile stress, [τ].
𝐷
𝑀. 𝑦 𝑀. 2 32. 𝑀
𝜎𝑏 = = =
𝐼 𝜋 𝐷4 𝜋. 𝐷3
64
(c) Shafts subjected to combined twisting and bending moments
When the shaft is subjected to combination of torque and bending moment, principal stresses are calculated
and then different theories of failure are used. Bending stress and torsional shear stress can be calculated using
the above relations.
Maximum Shear Stress Theory
𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 2
Maximum shear stress is given by, 𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √( ) + (Maximum shear stress)2
2
32. 𝑀 2
𝜎𝑏 2 3 16. 𝑇 2 16. 𝑀 2 16. 𝑇 2 𝟏𝟔
𝝉 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √( ) + (𝜏)2 = √( 𝜋. 𝐷 ) + ( ) = √( ) + ( ) = √𝑴𝟐 + 𝑻𝟐 ≤ 𝜏 𝑦
2 2 𝜋. 𝐷3 𝜋. 𝐷3 𝜋. 𝐷3 𝝅. 𝑫𝟑
𝑇𝑒 .𝑅
√𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 is called equivalent torque, Te, such that 𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐽
≤ 𝜏 𝑦𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑
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Maximum Principal Stress Theory
Maximum principal stress is given by,
32. 𝑀 32. 𝑀 2
𝜎𝑏 𝜎𝑏 2 3 3 16. 𝑇 2 16. 𝑀 16. 𝑀 2 16. 𝑇 2
𝜎= + √( ) + (𝜏)2 = 𝜋. 𝐷 + √( 𝜋. 𝐷 ) + ( ) = + √( ) + ( )
2 2 2 2 𝜋. 𝐷3 𝜋. 𝐷3 𝜋. 𝐷3 𝜋. 𝐷3
𝟏𝟔
∴𝝈= [𝑴 + √(𝑴)𝟐 + (𝑻)𝟐 ] ≤ 𝜎 𝑡
𝝅. 𝑫𝟑
𝑀.𝑦
[𝑀 + √(𝑀)2 + (𝑇)2 ] is called equivalent bending moment, Me, such that 𝜎 𝑏 = ≤ 𝜎𝑡
𝐼
(d) Shafts subjected to axial loads in addition to combined torsional and bending loads.
Tensile Stress due to axial load is given by,
𝑃
𝜎𝑡 =
𝐴
Where,
P = axial load acting on the shaft
A= cross-sectional area of the shaft
As nature of the bending stress and this axial stress is same, these can be added for any location on the shaft,
so as to get the resultant tensile/compressive stress, which can then be used to find the principal stresses in the
shaft.
𝒅
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑪 = 𝑫
𝐷 𝐷
𝜏 𝑇 𝑇. 𝑅 𝑇. 2 𝑻. 𝑫 𝜏 𝑇 𝑇. 𝑅 𝑇. 2 𝑻. 𝑫
= ≫𝜏= = ≫𝝉= = ≫𝜏= = ≫𝝉=
𝑅 𝐽 𝐽 𝐽 𝟐. 𝑱 𝑅 𝐽 𝐽 𝐽 𝟐. 𝑱
𝑑4
𝜋 [𝐷4−𝑑 4] 𝜋 𝐷4 . [1 − ]
𝐷4
𝜋 𝐷4 𝐽= =
𝐽= 32 32
32
𝜋 𝐷4 . [1 − 𝐶 4 ]
=
32
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𝑇. 𝐷 𝑇. 𝐷 𝑇. 𝐷 𝑇. 𝐷 𝑇. 𝐷 𝑇. 𝐷
𝜏= = 4 = 𝜏= = =
2. 𝐽 𝜋𝐷 𝜋 𝐷4 2. 𝐽 𝜋 𝐷4 . [1 − 𝐶 4 ] 𝜋 𝐷4 . [1 − 𝐶 4 ]
2. ( 32 ) 2. ( )
16 32 16
𝜋 𝐷4 𝜋 𝐷4 . [1 − 𝐶 4 ]
𝜏. ( 16 ) 𝜋 𝐷4 𝝅 𝑫𝟑 𝜏. 𝝅 𝑫𝟑 . [𝟏 − 𝑪𝟒 ]
𝑇= = 𝜏. ( ) ∴ 𝑻 = 𝝉. ( ) 𝑇= 16 ∴ 𝑻 = 𝝉.
𝐷 𝐷. 16 𝟏𝟔 𝐷 𝟏𝟔
𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻 𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻
𝑷 = 𝐓 = 𝑷 = 𝐓 =
𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎
𝝅 𝑫𝟑 𝝅 𝑫𝟑 . [𝟏 − 𝑪𝟒 ]
𝑷𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 = 𝝉. ( ). 𝑷𝑯𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 = 𝝉. .
𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟔
Case 1: If outer diameter of solid and Hollow shaft are of same diameter and same material and length.
𝜋 𝐷3
16 ) .
𝑷𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝜏. ( 𝟏
= 3 4 =
𝑷𝑯𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝜋 𝐷 . [1 − 𝐶 ] 𝟏 − 𝑪𝟒
𝜏. .
16
𝑑 𝟏
is always less than 1, that is 𝐂 < 𝟏 ∴ > 𝟏 ∴ 𝑷𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 > 𝑷𝑯𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘
𝐷 𝟏 − 𝑪𝟒
Case 2: If Area of cross section of solid and Hollow shaft are of same diameter and same material and
length.
𝝅 𝒅𝟑 𝝅 𝑫𝟑 . [𝟏 − 𝑪𝟒 ]
𝑷𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 = 𝝉. ( ). 𝑷𝑯𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 = 𝝉. .
𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟔
𝜋 𝑑3
𝑷𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝜏. ( 16 ) . 𝒅𝟑 𝟏
= = … … … 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏
𝑷𝑯𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝜋 𝐷3 . [1 − 𝐶 4 ] 𝑫𝟑 (𝟏 − 𝑪𝟒 )
𝜏. .
16
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒈
= 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 × 𝒈
∴ 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 × 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 × 𝒈 = 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 × 𝒍 × 𝝆 × 𝒈
(𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕)𝑺𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒅 = (𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕)𝑯𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘
𝝅 𝒅𝟐 𝝅 [𝑫𝟐 − 𝒅𝟐 ]
×𝒍×𝝆×𝒈 = ×𝒍×𝝆×𝒈
𝟒 𝟒
𝒅𝟐
𝒅𝟐 = [𝑫𝟐 − 𝒅𝟐 ] = 𝑫𝟐 [𝟏 − ] = 𝑫𝟐 [𝟏 − 𝑪𝟐 ]
𝑫𝟐
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𝒅𝟐
= [𝟏 − 𝑪𝟐 ]
𝑫𝟐
𝒅
∴ = √[𝟏 − 𝑪𝟐 ] … … … . 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟐
𝑫
𝑷𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝟑 𝟏 𝟑
𝟐 ]) .
𝟏
𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟐 𝒘𝒆 𝒈𝒆𝒕 = 𝟑. 𝟒
= ( √[ 𝟏 − 𝑪
𝑷𝑯𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝑫 (𝟏 − 𝑪 ) (𝟏 − 𝑪𝟒 )
𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
𝑷𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝟑 𝟏 [𝟏 − 𝑪𝟐 ]𝟐 [𝟏 − 𝑪𝟐 ]𝟐 × [𝟏 − 𝑪𝟐 ] [𝟏 − 𝑪𝟐 ]𝟐 √[𝟏 − 𝑪𝟐 ]
= (√[𝟏 − 𝑪𝟐 ]) . = = = =
𝑷𝑯𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 (𝟏 − 𝑪𝟒 ) (𝟏 − 𝑪𝟒 ) [𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 ] × [𝟏 − 𝑪𝟐 ] [𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 ] [𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 ]
𝑷𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 √[𝟏 − 𝑪𝟐 ]
∴ =
𝑷𝑯𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 [𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 ]
Transmissible torques
The values of transmissible torques have been calculated from the following formulae and rounded off to
normal numbers of the exceptional R 80 series (l):
a) Transmission of pure torque:
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𝜋 𝝅 × 𝟗. 𝟖𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟓
𝑇= × 10−3 × 𝑑1 3 (𝑘𝑔𝑓 − 𝑚) 𝑜𝑟 𝑻 = × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 × 𝒅𝟏 𝟑 (𝑵 − 𝒎)
4 𝟒
This torque corresponds to a stress of 4 kgf/mm2. In case of reversal of rotation fluctuations, of high or
irregular torque, or of high bending and deformation moments in the coupling, the stresses will have to be
checked by appropriate means.
b) Transmission of torque and bending moment both of c known size:
𝑇 = 6 × 10−5 × 𝑑1 3.5 (𝑘𝑔𝑓 − 𝑚) 𝑜𝑟 𝑻 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟖𝟑𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 × 𝒅𝟏 𝟑.𝟓 (𝑵 − 𝒎)
This formula may be applied subject to checking when the torque and bending moment are disproportionate
in their influence.
c) Transmission both of a known torque and of an undetermined bending moment:
𝑇 = 2.8 × 10−5 × 𝑑1 3.5 (𝑘𝑔𝑓 − 𝑚) 𝑜𝑟 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟒𝟓𝟖𝟔𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 × 𝒅𝟏 𝟑.𝟓 (𝑵 − 𝒎)
This formula is applicable to the dimensioning of shaft ends of primary machines (for example, electric
motors, pumps, etc.) of general manufacture and capable of meeting all conditions of usage.
NOTE. - The three formulae assume the use of steel having a tensile strength of 50 to 60 kgf/mm2.
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3.0 Springs
Spring is a mechanical component which stores mechanical energy when force is applied and release that
energy when the load is removed. Spring goes back to its original shape when the load is removed. Springs
are mainly used for
1. To absorb shock
2. To reduce friction and vibration
3. To store energy and release when required
4. To ease in locking, pivoting, holding, etc
3.1 Classification of springs
Below is the list of different types of springs that most of the industry uses. The main types of springs which
are further categorized into different subcategories. Based on the shape of the springs, it can be broadly
classified into following types:
1. Helical Spring
2. Leaf Springs
3. Belleville spring
4. Volute and conical spring
5. Special purpose spring
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These springs are open coil helical spring. A helical coil is pressed or squeezes by load. It resists compressive
or push forces. It also shows resistance to linear compressive forces. Sometimes fluid behave as compression
springs such as fluid pressure systems.
Application:
Motorcycle’s suspensions.
Pen
Lock
Couches
Lighter
c.) Torsion spring
In this type of spring the load applied to coil is a torque or twisting force. In other words, Helical springs
which can hold and release angular energy. Or these springs try to hold a system in place. After twisting, the
helical coil applies proportional force to opposite direction. The torsion springs are used in application which
rotates Less than 360 degree. These springs have either clockwise or antilock wise rotation.
Applications:
Mouse trap
Rocker switches
Clothes pin
Automobile starters
Door hinges
d.) Spiral Springs
Spiral spring is also known as clock spring or Constant force spring. A number of times band of steel wrapped
around it to form this type of springs. This type of springs releases a constant amount of force. This types of
springs are used in machines that need to rotate a number of times and the same time has to release same
amount of load constantly. These types of springs are used when more power is required. Some of these
springs are with thicker bond so that they can give fever rotations. These types of springs are used in heavy
duty applications
Applications:
Automotive seat recliners
Alarm timepiece
Watch
Window Regulators
DC Motors
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3.3 Leaf springs
Leaf springs are also called as s semi- elliptical spring or Cart spring. It is one of the oldest forms of springs.
Leaf springs are long and flat slender arc -shaped. These types of springs are used In Vehicle suspensions.
Location for axel is center of the arc. And either end of loop is attached to the vehicle. It spread the load over
vehicle chassis.
Advantages
Leaf springs are easy to construct.
These springs are strong.
No need for separate linkage to hold the axle in
position, leaf springs work as a linkage.
Rear axle location helps in reducing the extra weight.
Axle damping is control by leaf springs.
It reduces cost by eliminating the need of trailing arm and pan hard rod.
Applications:
Automobiles Suspension
Used by blacksmiths (due to its relatively high quality steel.)
3.4 Belleville spring
A Belleville springs also known as a coned-disc spring, conical spring washer, disc spring, Belleville washer
or cupped spring washer. Belleville washers are mostly coin shape spring with a hole in center. This disc
springs are dynamically or statically loaded to its axis. This spring required less space for installation but can
bear a very large load. These springs have more advantages compare to other springs.
Applications:
Slip Clutch
Overload Clutches
High Pressure Valve
Drill Bit Shock Absorber
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4. Pitch (P)
The pitch of the spring is defined as the axial distance between two adjacent coils in unloaded condition.
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3.13 Design of helical spring
Let
P = axial load, N
D = mean diameter of coil, mm
d = diameter of wire, mm
p = pitch of coils, mm
δ = deflection of spring, mm
n = number of active coils
C = spring index = D/d = (Do-d)/d
(4: 12); It is because that less than 4 it is difficult to manufacture, more than 12 is likely to buckle.
G = torsional modulus of elasticity, N/mm2
τs = shearing stress, N/mm2
3.14 General Design consideration for solid circle cross section
The torque equation is equals to
𝑃. 𝐷
𝑇=
2
The shearing stress due to the torque T is
𝑇. 𝑅 𝟖. 𝑷. 𝑫 𝜋. 𝑑 4
𝝉𝑻 = = 𝑎𝑠 𝐽 =
𝐽 𝝅. 𝒅𝟑 32
Direct shearing stress is
𝑃 𝟒. 𝑷 𝜋. 𝑑2
𝝉𝑫 = = 𝑎𝑠 𝐴 =
𝐴 𝝅. 𝒅𝟐 4
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 + 𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝉𝑻 + 𝝉𝑫
8. 𝑃. 𝐷 4. 𝑃 8. 𝑃. 𝐷 1
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + = [1 + ]
𝜋. 𝑑3 𝜋. 𝑑 2 𝜋. 𝑑 3 2. 𝐶
𝟖. 𝑷. 𝑫 𝟏
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟑
[𝟏 + ]
𝝅. 𝒅 𝟐. 𝑪
𝟏
Where [𝟏 + 𝟐.𝑪] is the direct shear factor.
In order to include the effects of both direct shear and wire curvature, a stress factor had been determined by
the use of approximate analytical methods by A. M. Wahl which may be used in the above equation to
determine the maximum shearing stress in the wire as follows:
𝟖. 𝑷. 𝑫 𝟖. 𝑷. 𝑪
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑲𝒘 𝟑
= 𝑲𝒘
𝝅. 𝒅 𝝅. 𝒅𝟐
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𝟖. 𝑲𝒘 . 𝑷. 𝑪
𝒅=√
𝝅. 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙
Where
𝟒𝑪 − 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟓
𝑲𝒘 = +
𝟒𝑪 − 𝟒 𝑪
Deflection equation (δ) may be obtain
𝑷. 𝜹 𝑇. 𝜃 𝑻 𝑻. 𝑳 T. L
= = .( ) 𝑎𝑠 θ =
𝟐 2 𝟐 𝑮. 𝑳 G. J
Where
𝑃. 𝐷
𝑇 =
2
𝐿 = 𝜋. 𝐷. 𝑛
𝜋. 𝑑4
𝐽 =
32
𝑃. 𝐷 2
2 𝑇 𝑇. 𝐿 2
𝑇 .𝐿 ( ) (𝜋. 𝐷. 𝑛) 8. 𝑃. 𝐷3 . 𝑛
δ= × ×( )= = 2 =
𝑃 2 𝐺. 𝐿 𝑃. 𝐺. 𝐽 𝜋. 𝑑 4 𝐺. 𝑑 4
𝑃. 𝐺. ( 32 )
𝟖. 𝑷. 𝑫𝟑 . 𝒏 𝟖. 𝑷. 𝑪𝟑 . 𝒏
𝛅= =
𝑮. 𝒅𝟒 𝑮. 𝒅
(P/δ) is known as the spring rate.
𝐏 𝑮. 𝒅
( )=
𝛅 𝟖. 𝑪𝟑 . 𝒏
3.15 Spring ends:
For helical springs may either plain, plain ground, square, or squared and ground as shown in Figure below.
This results in a decrease of the number of active coils and affects the tree length and solid length of the spring
as shown below.
P= (D/3: D/4), n= (3: 15)
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3.16 Buckling:
Buckling may occur in compression springs if the free length is over 4 times the mean diameter unless the
spring is properly guided. The critical axial load that will cause buckling may be approximated by
𝐹𝑐𝑟 = 𝑘. 𝐿𝑓 . 𝐾𝐿
Where:
𝐹𝑐𝑟 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑁
𝑘 = 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑁/𝑚, 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐿𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑚
𝐾𝐿 = 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝐿𝑓 /𝐷
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4. Design of Coupling
4.1 Design of Sleeve or Muff Coupling
Assembly of muff coupling is shown in Figure below. Sleeve, a hollow cylinder, is fitted on the ends of input
and output shaft with the help of a sunk key. Torque is transmitted from input shaft to the sleeve through key
and from the sleeve to the output shaft through the key again. It is simple to design and manufacture but
difficult to assemble and dismantle. It requires more axial space and has small radial dimensions. Sleeve is
made of cast iron and for it a larger factor of safety of 6-8 is used on the ultimate strength. Standard proportions
used for sleeve are three main components: shafts, sleeve and key.
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Step 3. Design of Hexagonal Bolt
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4.5 Design of Knuckle Joint
There are three main components
1. Eye,
2. Fork and
3. Pin
The eye is formed on one of the rods and the fork is formed on the other. The eye fits inside the fork and the
pin is passed through both the fork and the eye. This pin is secured in its place by means of a split pin. The
ends of the rods are made octagonal to some distance for better grip and are made a square for some portion
before it is forged to make the eye and fork shapes.
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5. 3D Printing
5.1 Introduction:
3D printing is the process of creating a three-dimensional object, usually done by systematically layering
material on top of itself. The printer reads a digital file from the computer which dictates how to layer the
material to build the object.
This is why 3D printing is also known as additive manufacturing. 3D printing and additive manufacturing are
mostly synonymous, although you may hear additive manufacturing used more frequently in the context of
mass consumption or mass manufacturing.
3D printing or additive manufacturing is a process of making three dimensional solid objects from a
digital file.
The creation of a 3D printed object is achieved using additive processes. In an additive process an
object is created by laying down successive layers of material until the object is created. Each of these
layers can be seen as a thinly sliced cross-section of the object.
3D printing is the opposite of subtractive manufacturing which is cutting out / hollowing out a piece
of metal or plastic with for instance a milling machine.
3D printing enables you to produce complex shapes using less material than traditional manufacturing
methods.
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5.3 3D Printing Classifications
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5.4 Advantages of additive over conventional (Subtractive) Manufacturing
Additive Manufacturing Subtractive Manufacturing
In additive manufacturing, layer by layer material is In subtractive manufacturing, layer by layer
added one over another to develop desired solid 3-D material is gradually removed from a solid block
product. to fabricate 3-D product.
This manufacturing concept is usually suitable for This manufacturing concept can be applied to all
materials having low melting point, such as plastic. solid materials irrespective of melting point.
Material density cannot be controlled during
Volumetric density (thus weight) of the constructive
operation. Density of object remains same with
material of final component can be controlled during
that of the initial solid block (usually a cast
operation.
product).
These processes are associated with material
No material wastage takes place in these processes. wastage in the form of chips, scraps, dissolved
ions, vapors, etc.
Subtractive manufacturing processes have
Complex shapes can be easily fabricated using additive
limited capability in fabrication of complex
manufacturing techniques.
shapes.
Structures containing enclosed hollow parts
Structures containing fully closed internal hollow parts
cannot be produced by these processes, unless
can be produced by these processes.
joining is allowed.
These processes are applicable to a narrow range of These processes can efficiently handle a wide
materials. variety of materials.
These processes are time efficient and
These processes are time consuming and costly but can
economic. These are usually suitable for mass
provide superior quality and desired property without
production where requirement of product
requiring any further processing.
quality is not so tight.
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5.6 Modeling for Additive Manufacturing: [Based on part quality, cost and production rate]
a) VAT PHOTOPOLYMERISATION
VAT Photopolymerisation is also known as stereolithography. This type of additive manufacturing uses a
vat of liquid photopolymer resin—which is how VAT Photopolymerisation received its name.
A build platform is lowered from the resin’s top, moving downward, and a laser beam draws a shape in the
resin, creating a layer. The average thickness of one layer is between 0.025 and 0.5mm. After each layer
of resin, it must then be cured using ultraviolet (UV) light.
This process of Photopolymerisation uses motor controlled mirrors to direct the UV across the resin
surface, causing it to harden. These steps are repeated to add layers. For increased accuracy and finish,
most equipment uses blades that go over each layer to remove defects before applying and curing the next
layer. Using a liquid creates a great deal of accuracy and detail in the finished project; however, it lacks
the structural support provided by other types of additive manufacturing. This is corrected by adding
support structures. Although the VAT Photopolymerisation process is quick to complete, the clean -up and
post-processing time is lengthy. VAT Photopolymerisation is used in several industries to create parts and
products ranging from hearing aids to Nike shoes.
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B) MATERIAL JETTING
With material jetting, the print head is above the platform, and material is deposited onto the surface in the
form of droplets. Hundreds of micro-droplets are positioned with charged deflection plates, providing
increased control and accuracy. These droplets then solidify, creating a layer. This is repeated, building up
layers.
The droplets may be distributed continuously or individually using the Drop-on-Demand (DOD) method.
This method is similar to an inkjet printer. Material jetting can be done with various materials, including
polymers and waxes. This type of additive manufacturing is precise, and you can use multiple materials
for one project. Although accurate, it is not the most efficient method as time is spent re-filling the reservoir
that depletes quickly. Material jetting is often used to create realistic models or prototypes.
c) BINDER JETTING
This type of additive manufacturing uses a binder and a powder-based material. This powder-based
material is applied to the build platform with a roller, and then the print head deposits the binder on top.
The binder adheres the layers together and is usually in liquid form. Followin g a layer, the product is
lowered on the platform. This is repeated to create more layers until the product is finished. When using
this process, you can use different materials, including polymers, ceramics, and metals.
Binder jetting is considered one of the speediest additive manufacturing methods and allows for
customization. For example, if you require material of a specific quality, you can change the binder -powder
ratio, or if you want to create a product that has color variation, you can do so. One of the drawbacks of
binder jetting is the increase in post-processing time, and it may not be the best choice for creating
structural parts. Binder jetting is used in industrial applications, dental and medical devices, aerospace
components, part casting, luxury applications, and more.
d) MATERIAL EXTRUSION
Material extrusion is a type of additive manufacturing process often used in inexpensive at -home 3D
printers where the material is drawn through a nozzle, heated, and then deposited in a continuous stre am.
This nozzle moves along horizontally and the platform moves up, down, and vertically. This is how the
layers are created. Because the material is heated (melted) when it is applied, it fuses to the previous layer.
The bonding between layers can also be controlled through temperature and chemical agents.
Although material extrusion is often seen in inexpensive models, it has many capabilities. Polymers and
plastics can be used, which provide strong structural support. However, there are also limitations to this
additive manufacturing process.
Accuracy is reduced because of the nozzle thickness.
Material extrusion is also one of the slower types of additive manufacturing.
Many automotive companies use material jetting to create manufacturing devices used in assembly lines.
e) POWDER BED FUSION
For powder bed fusion additive manufacturing, a layer of powder is applied to the platform. A thermal
energy source like an electron beam or laser fuses the powder before a second layer is applied with a roller
or blade. This layering process is then repeated.
There are slight variations within powder bed fusion, including:
Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)
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Despite the differences between these variants, all powder bed fusion manufacturing occurs in a near -
vacuum, pre-heated chamber with inert gas. Metals and polymer powder materials can be used, which act
as a support structure, making it a suitable type for prototypes and visual models.
f) SHEET LAMINATION
Sheet lamination is a process that binds layers using ultrasonic welding or an adhesive.
There are two variations of sheet lamination; ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) and laminated
object manufacturing (LOM). The difference between the two is found in the material used and the bonding
process.
UAM uses metal that is bound together with ultrasonic welding.
LOM uses paper that is bound together using an adhesive.
Sheet lamination is done by placing the material on a cutting bed. Layers are applied and bonded to that
material and the shape is cut with a knife or laser. This process can bind different materials and is relatively
low cost and speedy. Accuracy is sometimes lacking in sheet lamination and may projects that utilize this
additive manufacturing process may require post-processing. Sheet lamination is often used for
prototypes.
g) DIRECTED ENERGY DEPOSITION
Directed Energy Deposition (DED) is one of the most complex types of additive manufacturing. A four -
or five-axis arm will move around, depositing melted material around a fixed object. The material is melted
by an electron beam or laser and will then solidify.
Metal powder or wires are the most common material used with DED, but ceramics and polymers may als o
be used. You can achieve a high degree of accuracy due to the ability to repair and control grain structure
in DED. The finish varies based on the material used. In the case of metal, a powder will provide a much
better finish than wire; however, you can achieve your desired effect with wire through post-processing.
Direct Energy Disposition is often used to repair or fabricate parts.
These are the 3D printing materials that are covered in this guide:
1) ABS Filament 9) Metal Filament
2) PLA Filament 10) HIPS Filament
3) PET Filament 11) Magnetic Iron Filament
4) PETT Filament 12) Conductive Filament
5) Nylon Filament 13) Carbon Fiber Filament
6) PVA Filament 14) TPE Filament
7) Sandstone Filament 15) Glow in the Dark Filament
8) Wood Filament 16) Amphora Filament
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3D Printing Post Processing Requirement and Techniques.
Parts manufactured with 3D printing technologies usually require some degree of post -production
treatment. This important step of the 3D printing process is known as post-processing. In short, post-
processing in 3D printing refers to any process or task that needs to be performed on a printed part, or any
technique used to further enhance the object. Think of it as a finishing touch to treat and refine parts that
come out of a 3D printer. The options for post-processing 3D printed parts include removing support or
excess material, washing and curing, sanding or polishing a model to painting or coloring.
We can identify 5 steps in post-processing, although not all steps are required for all projects:
1. Cleaning
2. Fixing
3. Curing or hardening
4. Surface finishing
5. Coloring
Many different post-processing techniques are employed and we will try to understand 8 such techniques
for post-processing of FDM 3D printed parts.
a) Support removal
Support removal is the first technique employed for post-processing of FDM 3D printed parts. Mainly,
there are two types of support materials, Insoluble and Soluble.
Insoluble: Insoluble materials are the generic materials like PLA, ABS, Nylon, PC, etc. These are
either removed by hand or by pliers and flush cutters. However, sometimes the supports are located
in critical positions and it becomes difficult to reach and remove them.
Soluble: Soluble materials like HIPS (used as a support with ABS material) and PVA (used as a
support with PLA material) are far easier to operate with as they dissolve in a chemical called
Limonene and water respectively.
Support removal usually leaves some marks on the touch points but these can be post-processed further for
a smoother finish.
b) Sanding
It is one of the simplest method for post-processing of FDM 3D printed parts. It is similar to sanding wood
objects but it requires a lot of effort. The sanding has to be carried out in successive stages starting from a
low grit sandpaper (usually 150 grit) and moving towards higher grit sandpapers like 400grit, 600 grit till
2000 grit or even more depending on the requirement. The drawback of sanding is the amount of time and
effort it takes. Additionally, the material is unequally removed so the dimensional accuracy of the part will
be hampered. Apart from this, the fine particles of the material are released into the air and can enter the
lungs while breathing so it is recommended to use a mask while sanding 3D printed parts.
c) Vapour smoothing
Acetone is used in this post-processing technique. This technique is usually employed while operating with
ABS filament. The 3D printed object is exposed to vapours of acetone in a closed environment. The vapours
react with the outer layer of the object and it starts to melt. The process melts the layer lines and
smoothening the outer layer of the object giving it a glossy look.
Again the drawback of employing this technique is the unequal removal of the material which affects the
dimensional accuracy of the product. Since the process cannot be controlled the part has to be constantly
observed and has to be removed from the enclosure once the desired finishing is achieved. This method
can be used for luxury goods where aesthetics are more important than dimensional accuracy.
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d) Priming & Painting
Priming is the process of coating the part with primer. It mostly acts as a base for a further painting job.
Priming and painting are one of the most popularly employed post-processing techniques for FDM 3D
printed parts. Priming can be carried out only after the 3D printed part is sanded with a moderate grit
sandpaper (close to 600 grit). After sanding the part, spray the primer onto the part in two separate coats.
Do take care of the safety precautions before spraying the primer and even while painting in the next step.
After the first coat of primer, sand the part again and then follow it up with a second coat of primer. Spray
the primer in quick light sprays.
After priming, let the model dry and then painting can be carried out. Painting can be regular painting with
a brush or by using sprays. While painting with brush can help in making intricate designs, the spray
painting will be a quick approach to paint specific colour regions. One tip is to mask the parts not to be
painted by a specific colour, as this will help in sharp colour intersections.
e) Polishing
Polishing can be achieved by using buffing wheel using a Dremel tool. A separate 3D printing Dremel
toolkit is available for makers and creators to buy. Polishing is done only after sanding. This will enhance
the finish of the print.
f) Electroplating
Electroplating is a great option for post-processing of FDM 3D printed parts. Generally, plating services
are available. ABS can be easily and readily electroplated and such a care should be taken while choosing
the material for the part. Electroplating can not only enhance the look and feel but also increases the
strength of the part.
g) Gluing and Welding
In case of parts bigger than the build volume of the printer, the part is broken down into multiple pieces.
At such times, the PLA parts can be easily glued together by bonding agents like Anabond, mostly used in
industrial applications. ABS prints can be welded together. Welding here is by means of acetone. Light
layers of acetone can be applied to the mating surfaces and held together under force or by clamping. This
will cause the bond to be chemically glued together. Such bonds are pretty strong. More the surface area
of the mating parts, more strong will be the bond.
h) Hydrographics
One of the most exciting techniques for post-processing of FDM 3D printed parts is Hydrographics. It is
also called Hydro Dipping, Immersion printing Water Transfer printing, water transfer imaging, etc., is a
process of applying printed graphic designs to solid objects. This post-processing technique is used on
various materials like plastics, metals, wood, glass, etc.
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5.9 Additive Manufacturing Defects and their causes
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A plastic filament or metal wire is unwound from a coil and supplies material to an extrusion nozzle which
can turn the flow on and off.
The nozzle is heated to melt the material and can be moved in both horizontal and vertical directions by a
numerically controlled mechanism, directly controlled by a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software
package.
The model or part is produced by extruding small beads of thermoplastic material to form layers as the material
hardens immediately after extrusion from the nozzle. Stepper motors or servo motor are typically employed
to move the extrusion head.
b) Multi-Nozzle Design
The multi-nozzle design features a separate nozzle for each material. The
nozzle can either be mounted on the same print head or on independent
print heads. For this approach to work the different nozzles have to be
calibrated to the exact same height relative to the print surface to
circumvent the interference of an inactive nozzle with the printed object.
Such a design reduces the amount of waste material during the printing
process significantly compared to a single nozzle design
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5.14 3D Printer Machine Configuration
a) Extruders are a crucial component in 3D printers. In simple
terms, the extruder is the tool that holds the filament in place
and controls the amount that is fed into a Hot-end. One key
point is to highlight that hot-ends are not the same as an
extruder, but rather they are attached to it and they are the
main location that is tasked with the melting process.
b) A print bed is the part that the 3d printed object rests on
during the printing process. As each layer is extruded, the
print bed moves down to allow for the next layering step.
Although being simple, a print bed is an important part of a
3D printer.
c) A hot end is where the filament is melted then extruded
through a nozzle. Hot ends come in many forms but the
standard ones consist of a feed tube, a heatsink, thermal
barrier tube with a heat-break, heat-block and the nozzle in
that order. The feed tube guides the filament from the
extruder, down through the heatsink and thermal barrier tube.
The purpose of the heat sink and thermal barrier tube is
twofold. The top most part of the thermal barrier tube is
located within the heatsink and feeds the filament through.
The bottom section of the thermal barrier tube is connected
to the heat block where the filament is melted. Just before it
however, the thermal tube is thinner and this area is called the
heat-break. This is all done to ensure that before the filament reaches the heat block, that the temperature
is lower, prevent melting of the filament before it reaches the heat block by a process called heat creep.
The heat-break creates a sudden change in temperature so as to better have control of the melting process.
d) Enclosure, it is having a sealed off printing environment for the 3D printing process. The reasoning for
this is for safety but also to create better temperature management to ensure better printing results. Due
to the nature of utilizing high-temperature processes, issues with overheating plastics can create fumes on
select printing materials, such as ABS. Furthermore, an enclosure ensures that the internal ambient
temperature of the printer is stable which plays a major role in reducing printing issues such as warping
and cracking.
e) A filament in the context of Filament Fused Fabrication (Fused Deposition Modelling) is a coil of
thermoplastic or a composite that comes in various diameters. The filament is fed through the printer and
then into the extruders where it is melted then extruded. Unlike other 3D printing techniques, the filament
is solid and cost-effective for many organizations. Additionally, it is the safest printing 3d printing
technique which is a major factor in its popularity.
f) Print speed refers the traveling speed of the extruders as they travel during the printing process. It is
express in mm/s and also determines the print quality of an object. A balance must be met in terms of
print speed when making adjustment before the printing process because it does affect other settings.
g) Slicing software is a category of 3D printing software that is used to convert a basic 3D computer object
into something that the printer can understand and print accurately. There are various options of slicing
software but they all work with the same output.
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h) Infill: slicing software gives you the option to print a fully solid object, or a hollow one and everything
in-between. This is accomplished through setting the infill amount. This is usually how the internal
structure of an object is to be printed and the settings range from 5% infill to 100%. Furthermore, you get
four main infill pattern types which are honeycomb, wiggle, rectangle and triangular.
i) Brims, skirts and rafts are parts that at are used to create better bed adhesion for the 3D printed object
before the printing process and to check that everything is set-up correctly. A skirt is an outline of the
print area of the object, but doesn’t directly touch the object. It is used as a primer, to check whether there
is excess material in the nozzles, that they are calibrated correctly and to ensure consistent material flow.
a) Cartesian style printers are the most common printers used in the market right now. They utilize the
Cartesian coordinate system to orient the print bed and the print head. Motors allow the print bed and print
head to move in the X, Y, or Z direction.
b) The Polar style printers use the polar coordinate system. This system is similar to Cartesian but the
coordinate describes points on a circular grid rather than a square.
c) The Delta printer has a circular base with the print head suspended from the top. This printer also works
on the Cartesian coordinate system, but not as simply. The base of this printer never moves. The print head
is suspended by three metal arms in a triangular formation. All three of these arms move the print head in
the X, Y, and Z directions.
d) Robotic arms are most commonly known for assembling components on industrial production lines,
especially in large automotive plants. While 3D printing has begun to incorporate robotic arms into their
production process,
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5.16 Common FDM materials- PLA, ABS, PVA, TPU, PETG, PEEK and PEI,
a) Polylactic acid (PLA) has excited significant observations for its numerous biomedical applications
and non-toxic consistency. PLA polymers are synthesized and acquired from renewable agricultural resources,
such as sugar cane and corn, High stiffness, good detail, affordable. PLA is a biodegradable thermoplastic for
low-cost, non-functional prototyping. Greater detail than ABS, but more brittle. Unsuitable for high
temperatures
b) Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), the most commonly-used FDM material, is a copolymer
constructed by polymerizing styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of polybutadiene. Commodity plastic,
improved mechanical and thermal properties compared to PLA. ABS is a common thermoplastic with good
mechanical properties and excellent impact strength, superior to PLA but with less defined details. It possesses
toughness, dimensional stability, chemical resistance, and low cost
c) Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) functions as a substitute for non-degradable, petroleum-based plastics for
use in adhesives, packaging materials, and medical items. PVA derives from ethanol and is one of the
uncommon thermoplastics that is water-soluble, verifying its capability to be biodegradable in compost and
aqueous surroundings. PVA also possess gas blocking properties and has useful bonding interactions to the
hydroxyl groups it possesses. However, PVA has relatively poor mechanical stability;
d) Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPU) has been used to strengthen PC and enhance its resistance to
environmental stress and corrosion cracking. Increased miscibility results from the hydrogen bonding between
amine (NH) groups of TPU and carbonyl (C=O) groups of PC. Rubber-like material, suitable for tubes, grips,
seals and gaskets. TPU is a thermoplastic elastomer with low Shore Hardness 85-95A.
e) Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is one of the most extensively used materials in the production of
containers and packaging. Nonetheless, its purpose is limited by its low barrier properties relative to oxygen
and carbon dioxide. PET is a multifunctional thermoelastic polymer of structural and antifriction designation
that possesses high mechanical strength, viscosity and hardness, excellent wear resistance, and effective
electrical insulation properties and radiation resistance. Good for mechanical parts with high impact resistance
and flexibility. Serializable. PETG is a thermoplastic with improved properties over PLA, with high impact
resistance and excellent chemical and moisture resistance. PETG can be sterilized.
f) Polyether ether ketone (PEEK) it is High-performance thermoplastic, very high strength, thermal
and chemical resistant. PEEK is a high-performance engineering thermoplastic with excellent mechanical
properties and chemical over a very wide temperature range.
g) Polytherimide (PEI) this Engineering plastic, high performance applications, flame retardant. PEI is
an engineering thermoplastic with good mechanical properties and exceptional heat, chemical and flame
resistance.
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5.17 3D Printer Parameters – Temperature of the nozzle and the platform, the build speed,
Most of the time, the FDM system allows the adjustment of different parameters. These parameters include
setting up the temperature of both the nozzle and built platform. Other important parameters involve speed
adjustment, height adjustment of the cooling fan, and the build platform. All such parameters are adjusted by
designers and operators.
3D printing layer height: sometimes known as layer thickness, layer resolution, or Z-axis resolution — is a
measure of the thickness of each extruded layer of material. Given in millimeters or microns, it shows the
resolution of the part along its Z-axis: thinner layers allow for more detail. Layer height is a user-controlled
parameter that can be adjusted using 3D printer software, but the minimum and maximum layer height is
limited by physical aspects of the printer, such as the nozzle diameter and the stepper motors that move the
print head up the Z-axis in fixed increments.
Warping is one of the most common defects in FDM. When extruded material cools during solidification,
its dimensions decrease. Since different sections of the printed part cool at different rates, their dimensions
also change at different speeds. Differential cooling causes the buildup of internal stresses that pull the
underlying layer upward, causing it to warp.
Layer adhesion is to secure adhesion between deposited layers of a part is critical in FDM. When an FDM
machine extrudes molten thermoplastic through the nozzle, this material presses against the previously
printed layer. High temperature and pressure cause this layer to re-melt and enable it to bond with this
previous layer.
Support structure: FDM printers can’t feasible deposit molten thermoplastic on thin air. Certain part
geometries require support structures, which are usually printed in the same material as the parts
themselves. Oftentimes, removing support structure materials can be difficult, so it’s often far easier to
design parts in such a way that minimizes the need for support structures.
Infill and shell thickness is to reduce print time and save on materials, FDM printers usually don’t produce
solid parts. Instead, the machine traces the outer perimeter - called the shell - over several passes, and fills
the interior - called the infill - with an internal, low-density structure.
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5.18 Benefits & Limitations of FDM
Benefits Limitations
Compact Design
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5.21 Saving CAD file into STL file
Prepare and export your CAD models for 3D printing and which file types we recommend, here are 3 main file
types used in 3D printing
IGES or IGS (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification)
STL (Stereolithography or Standard Tessellation Language)
STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product model data)
5.22 Slicing
The act of converting a 3D model into a set of instructions for the 3D printers is called Slicing. Quite
literally, it ‘slices’ the 3D model into thin layers, and further determine how each layer should be printed
(the tool path) to get minimum time, best strength, etc. A slicer software takes a 3D CAD model which is
generally an STL format file and converts it into a g-code that gives commands to the printer. Following
are the three major types of settings that can be controlled in a slicer software.
1. Print Settings: layer heights, shells, infill per cent, and speed
2. Filament Settings: filament diameter, extrusion multiplier, the temperature of the extruder, and print bed.
3. Printer settings: nozzle diameter, print bed shape (L x W), and Z offset.
B. Process-based Parameters
i. Melting temperature
The melting temperature is defined as the extruder exiting temperature of the molten material.
ii. Bed temperature
Heated beds are essential for 3D printing. While not all printers have them, those that always have to be set to
a certain temperature. For example, the best range is 55º C to 70º C.
iii. Printing speed
Print speed is the key level setting for 3d printing technologies. As the name implies, print speed determines
how quickly the printer’s motors move. It includes the X- and Y-axis control electric motors and the extruder
motor.
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