Unit-4

Power Quality Management in Smart Grid : Power Quality & Electromagnetic

Compatibility (EMC) in Smart Grid, Power Quality issues of Grid connected
Renewable Energy Sources, Power Quality Conditioners for Smart Grid, Web based
Power Quality monitoring, Power Quality Audit.
EMC in Smart Grid
• The satisfactory function of electrical and electronic equipment with
respect to electromagnetic disturbances is the aim of EMC.
• The IEC-International Electrotechnical Commission defines
Electromagnetic Compatibility as the ability of an equipment or
system to function satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment
without introducing intolerable electromagnetic disturbances to
anything in that environment
• IEC defines the following principal electromagnetic conducted phenomena

• Conducted low-frequency phenomena:

• Harmonics, interharmonics
• Signals superimposed on power lines
• Voltage fluctuationsConducted low-frequency phenomena:
• Harmonics, interharmonics
• Signals superimposed on power lines
• Voltage fluctuations
• Voltage dips and interruptions
• Voltage unbalance
• Power frequency variations
• Induced low frequency voltages
• DC component in AC networks
• Conducted high-frequency phenomena:
• induced voltages or currents
• Unidirectional transients
• Oscillatory transients
Power quality issues due to integration of
renewable energy sources
• Voltage and frequency fluctuations: Variability of sources, grid side
disturbances
• Harmonics : Power electronic converters

• As defined by the IEEE Standard 929-2000, voltage, voltage flicker,

frequency, and distortion are four major parameters used to evaluate
the power quality in PV systems. Deviation from standard values for
these parameters represents out-of-bounds conditions
• Power Quality issue in Renewable Energy side: intermittency ,
uncontrollable variability

• Power Quality issue in Renewable Energy side: power grid-side

disturbances.
• The power grid-code requirements for grid-connected renewable
power plants have experienced a continuous evolution in different
countries to ensure a reliable power system operation.
• According to several European grid codes, PV power plants must be
able to ride through specific disturbances without disconnections
At a low penetration level, the power quality issue is at device and local
grid level, and the solution is usually device specific. At a high
penetration level, the grid-level technologies and strategies are needed

Power Grid side issues: power grid-side disturbances

• The control system for the PV inverter and energy storage system can be
designed to improve voltage level during voltage sags due to power grid-
side disturbances, and, thus, improve PV power plants ride through
capability

• In a power system, voltage variation is related to reactive power flow, while

frequency variation is determined by the rate of change in real power flow

• The smoothing of voltage and frequency fluctuations can, thus, be

achieved through the control of reactive power and real power,
respectively.
• Voltage sag : a drop of 10-90% of the rated system voltage lasting for
half a cycle to 1 min.

• Voltage Swell:increase of fundamental frequency voltage for a short

duration lasting for half a cycle to 1 min. The typical values are 110-
180% of the rated system voltage.
 Power Quality Conditioners
• Passive Filters
APLC: Active Power Line Conditioners:
• Active Power Filters
• STATCOM: Static Compensator
• DVR:
• UPQC: Unified Power Quality Conditioners
• Passive Filters: The principle of the passive shunt filter is to provide a low-
impedance shunt branch for the harmonic currents caused by the nonlinear load.

• Active Filter active shunt filter is to inject into the power system harmonic
currents with the same amplitudes and opposite phases of the harmonic currents
due to nonlinear loads, thus eliminating harmonic current flowing into the AC
source.
Non Linear Loads
• Current source/ current fed/current stiff loads
Rectifiers
• Phase-controlled thyristor rectifier with a filter inductance on the DC side of the
rectifier resulting in DC currents.
• Thyristor rectifiers convert an AC voltage source to a DC current source supplying
current-source inverters (CSIs)and high-voltage DC (HVDC) systems,
• Diode rectifiers with sufficient filter inductance supply DC loads.
• In general, highly inductive loads are served by silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs)
converting AC power to DC power.
Inverters
• Inverter supplies AC power from a DC power source – results in similar current
distortions (e.g., harmonics) on the AC side of the inverter.
• The transfer characteristics and resulting harmonic currents of current-source
nonlinear loads are less dependent on the circuit parameters of the AC side than
those on the DC side.
• passive shunt, active shunt, or hybrid (e.g., a combination of active shunt in series
with passive shunt) filters for harmonic compensation are commonly applied on
the AC side of the converters serving nonlinear loads
Voltage-source (or voltage-fed or voltage-stiff) loads:
• These voltage-stiff loads draw discontinuous and non-sinusoidal currents resulting in
very high THD, low power factor, and distortions of the AC terminal voltage at the
point of common coupling diode rectifiers with a capacitive filter at the DC link
feeding variable-frequency voltage-source inverter (VSI)-based AC motor drives.
• Eg: power supplies with front-end diode rectifier and capacitive filters installed in
computers and other household appliances, battery chargers, etc.
• These loads generate harmonic voltage, rather than harmonic current sources.
• Their harmonic amplitudes are greatly affected by the AC side impedance and
source voltage imbalance, whereas their rectified voltages are less dependent on the
impedance of the AC system.
• Therefore, diode rectifiers behave like a voltage source, rather than a current source.
• passive series, active series, or hybrid (e.g., a combination of active series with
passive series) filters are relied on to compensate distortions due to nonlinear loads.
Combination of current and voltage-source loads:
• Adjustable-speed drives behave as several types of nonlinear loads; variable-
frequency VSI-fed AC motors perform as voltage-stiff loads, whereas CSI-fed AC
motor drives act as current-stiff loads.

• Hybrid topology consisting of active series with passive shunt filter elements is
appropriate
Classifications of filters may be performed based on various criteria,
including the following:
• number and type of elements (e.g., one, two, or more passive and/or active filters),
• topology (e.g., shunt-connected, series-connected, or a combination of the two),
• supply system (e.g., single-phase, three-phase three-wire, and three-phase four-wire),
• type of nonlinear load such as current-source and/or voltage-source loads,
• power rating (e.g., low, medium, and high power),
• compensated variable (e.g., harmonic current, harmonic voltage, reactive power, and
phase balancing, as well as multiple compensation),
• converter type (e.g., VSI and/or CSI to realize active elements of filter),
• control technique (e.g., open loop, constant capacitor voltage, constant inductor current,
linear voltage control, or optimal control), and
• reference estimation technique (e.g., time and/or frequency current/voltage reference
estimation).
Passive Filter
• Passive elements tuned to the harmonic frequencies of the currents
or voltages that must be attenuated.
• Nonlinear load is locally causing significant harmonic distortion
• Passive filters are inexpensive compared with most other mitigating
devices.
• Passive filters have better performances when they are placed close
to the harmonic-producing nonlinear loads.
Active Power Filters
Active filters (AFs) are feasible alternatives to passive filters (PFs)
• applications where the system configuration and/or the harmonic spectra of
nonlinear loads (e.g., orders, magnitudes, and phase angles) change, active
elements may be used instead of the passive components to provide dynamic
compensation

• Topologies classification
• Converter topology
• Supply based
• Power Rating
 shunt

Series

3-phase 3 wire APF

 shunt

3-phase 4 wire APF

 Series

3-phase 4 wire APF

Classification of APF /based on Power Rating
• Low Power APF: Power ratings below 100kVAand response times of about 10 μs to
10 ms are mainly used in residential areas, small to medium-sized factories, electric
drives, commercial buildings, and hospitals.
• Medium Power APF: Power ratings of about 100 kVA to 10 MVA and response
times of about 100 ms to 1 s) are mainly associated with medium- to highvoltage
distribution systems and high-power, high-voltage drive systems, where the effect of
phase imbalance is negligible
• High Power APF: power ratings above 10MVAand response times of tens of
seconds) are mainly associated with power-transmission grids, ultrahigh-power DC
drives, and HVDC. Due to the availability of high switching-frequency power devices
with high-voltage and high-power ratings, these filters are not cost effective
Block Diagram of shunt connected APF
• Sensors and transformers : are used to measure waveforms and inject compensation
signals. Nonsinusoidal voltage and current waveforms are sensed via potential
transformers (PTs), current transformers (CTs), Hall-effect sensors, and isolation
amplifiers (e.g., optocouplers). Connection transformers in shunt and series with the
power system are employed to inject the compensation current and voltage (VAPF),
respectively.

• Distortion identifier is a signal-processing function that takes the measured distorted

waveform, d(t) (e.g., line current or phase voltage) and generates a reference
waveform, r(t), to reduce the distortion.

• Inverter is a power converter (with the corresponding coupling inductance and

transformer) that reproduces the reference waveform with appropriate amplitude for
shunt (IAPF) and/or series (VAPF) active filtering.
• Inverter controller is usually a pulse-width modulator with local current control loop to
ensure IAPF (and/or VAPF) tracks r(t).
• Synchronizer is a signal-processing block (based on phase-lock-loop techniques)
to ensure compensation waveforms (IAPF and/or VAPF) are correctly
synchronized with the power system voltage. Certain control methods do not
require this block.
• DC bus is an energy storage device that supplies the fluctuating instantaneous
power demand of the inverter.

• The inverter block represents either a voltage-source inverter (VSI) or a current-

source inverter (CSI).
• The VSI configuration includes an AC inductor Lr along with optional small AC
capacitor Cr to form a ripple filter (for eliminating the switching ripple and
improving the voltage profile) and a self-supporting DC bus with capacitor Cd.
• The CSI arrangement uses inductive energy storage at the DC link with current
control and the shunt AC capacitors form a filter element.

• VSI structures have more advantages (lower losses, smaller size, less noise, etc.)
and are usually preferred.
Current based PQ problems
• Reactive Power Compensation
• Harmonics
• Unbalanced load/power
• Poor Voltage Regulation

Voltage Based PQ Problems

Voltage Sag Unbalance Voltage
Voltage Swell
Voltage Flicker
Voltage Harmonics
• Is(rms)=I0
Is=0.9 I0
Distortion factor =Is1/Is=0.9
Displacement factor=cos0=1
Power Factor=DF*DPF=0.9
THD=sqrt[(Is2-Is12)/Is12]=48.2%
IEEE519=THD<5%
STATCOM
DVR: Dynamic Voltage Restorer
• DVR (Dynamic Voltage Restorer) is a static var device that
has seen applications in a variety of transmission and
distribution systems.
• It is a series compensation device, which protects sensitive
electric load from power quality problems such as voltage sags,
swells, unbalance and distortion through power electronic
controllers that use voltage source converters (VSC).
The basic principle of the dynamic voltage restorer is to inject a voltage of required magnitude and
frequency, so that it can restore the load side voltage to the desired amplitude and waveform even when the
source voltage is unbalanced or distorted. Generally, it employs a gate turn off thyristor (GTO) solid state
power electronic switches in a pulse width modulated (PWM) inverter structure. The DVR can generate or
absorb independently controllable real and reactive power at the load side. In other words, the DVR is made
of a solid state DC to AC switching power converter that injects a set of three phase AC output voltages in
series and synchronism with the distribution and transmission line voltages.
• The source of the injected voltage is the commutation process for
reactive power demand and an energy source for the real power
demand. The energy source may vary according to the design and
manufacturer of the DVR. Some examples of energy sources applied
are DC capacitors, batteries and that drawn from the line through a
rectifier.
• In normal conditions, the dynamic voltage restorer operates in stand-by
mode. However, during disturbances, nominal system voltage will be
compared to the voltage variation. This is to get the differential voltage
that should be injected by the DVR in order to maintain supply voltage to
the load within limits.

• The amplitude and phase angle of the injected voltages are variable,
thereby allowing control of the real and reactive power exchange
between the dynamic voltage restorer and the distribution system. The
DC input terminal of a DVR is connected to an energy storage device of
appropriate capacity. As mentioned, the reactive power exchange
between the DVR and the distribution system is internally generated by
the DVR without AC passive reactive components. The real power
exchanged at the DVR output AC terminals is provided by the DVR input
DC terminal by an external energy source or energy storage system.
• Also, there is a resemblance in the technical approach to DVRs
to that of providing low voltage ride-through (LVRT) capability in
wind turbine generators. The dynamic response characteristics,
particularly for line supplied DVRs are similar to LVRT-mitigated
turbines. Moreover, since the device is connected in series,
there are conduction losses, which can be minimized by using
Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristor (IGCT) technology in the
inverters.
• Applications

• Practically, the capability of injection voltage by DVR system is 50% of

nominal voltage. This allows DVRs to successfully provide protection
against sags to 50% for durations of up to 0.1 seconds. Furthermore,
most voltage sags rarely reach less than 50%.

• The dynamic voltage restorer is also used to mitigate the damaging

effects of voltage swells, voltage unbalance and other waveform
distortions.
UPQC: Unified Power Quality Conditioners
• The unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) is an advanced hybrid filter that
consists of a series active power filter for compensation of voltage disturbances and
a shunt active power filter for eliminating current distortions.
• This custom power device is mainly employed to protect a critical nonlinear load by
improving the quality of voltage across it, and to improve the waveform of the supply
current.

• Unified power quality conditioners are viable compensation devices that are used to
ensure that delivered power meets all required standards and specifications at the
point of installation.
• The ideal UPQC can be represented as the combination of a voltage source converter
(injecting series voltage vc), a current-source converter (injecting shunt current ic),
and a common DC link (connected to a DC capacitor).
• There are two possible ways of connecting the unit to the terminal
voltage (vt) at PCC:

• Right-shunt UPQC (where the shunt compensator (ic) is placed at the right side of
the series compensator (vc).

• Left-shunt UPQC where the shunt compensator (ic) is placed at the left side of vc.
• The overall characteristics of the right-shunt UPQC are superior (e.g., operation at
zero power injection/absorption mode, achieving unity power factor at load
terminals, and full reactive power compensation).
• A UPQC consists of two voltage-source converters with a common DC link
designed in single-phase, three-phase three-wire, or three-phase four-wire
configurations.
• One converter is connected in series through a transformer between the
source and the critical load at the PCC and operates as a voltage-source
inverter.
• The other converter is connected in shunt at the PCC through a transformer
and operates as a current-source inverter.
• The active series converter compensates for voltage supply disturbances,
performs harmonic isolation, and damps harmonic oscillations.

• The active shunt converter compensates for load current waveform distortions
and reactive power, and performs the DC link voltage regulation
Ideal UPQC
STRUCTURE OF RIGHT SHUNT UPQC
• Assuming a three phase, four-wire configuration with an unbalanced and distorted system voltage (vs) and
• Non sinusoidal load current (iL), the UPQC shall perform the following functions
• convert the feeder (system) current is to balanced sinusoids through the shunt compensator,
• convert the load voltage vL to balanced sinusoids through the series compensator,
• ensure zero real power injection (and/or absorption) by the compensators, and
• supply reactive power to the load (Q compensation).
Power Quality Standards
• The purpose of power quality standards is to protect utility and end-user
equipment from failing or misoperation when the voltage, current or frequency
deviates from normal values.
• Power quality standards provide this protection by setting measurable limits as to
how for the voltage, current or frequency can deviate from normal values, by
setting these limits.
• Power quality standards help utilities and customers to gain agreement to what
are acceptable and unacceptable levels of service.
• The customer should have level of service corresponding to their devices, it is
impossible to obtain a pure voltage wave with fixed amplitude at each customer
terminals.
• So, acceptable and allowed disturbance levels should be specified in networks at
different levels.
• There are many standard organizations provide the acceptable levels:
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE),
• European Union Standards organization (CENELEC),
• International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), American National
Standard Institute (ANSI),
• National Electrical Manufactures Association (NEMA), Underwriters
Laboratories (UL),
• National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and Semiconductor
Equipment and Material International (SEMI).
• IEEE Standard 141-1993, Recommended Practice for Electric Power
Distribution for Industrial Plants. A thorough analysis of the basic
electrical-system considerations are presented. Guidance is provided
in design, construction, and continuity of an overall system to achieve
safety of life and preservation of property; reliability; simplicity of
operation; voltage regulation in the utilization of equipment within the
tolerance limits under all load conditions; care and maintenance; and
flexibility to permit development and expansion. –
• IEEE Standard 142-1991, Recommended Practice for Grounding of
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems. Presents a thorough
investigation of the problems of grounding and the methods for
solving these problems .
• IEEE Standard 242-2001, Recommended Practice for Protection and
Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems. Deals with
the proper election
Power Quality Standards
Power Quality Monitoring
• Power quality monitoring measures the supply of power to AC power
units.
• This includes voltage, current or power factor.
• A sudden, or even a gradual, change in power can greatly affect your
power quality, reducing your efficiency or causing other problems.
• PQM will gather and analyze electricity measurement data into useful
information that can inform upgrades and changes.
A typical monitoring system measures:
1.Voltage
2.Electrical current
3.Sometimes ground quality if unbalanced loads or harmonics are
detected
Power Quality Measurement Devices:
• Harmonic Analyzers : Harmonic analyzers or harmonic meters are relatively
simple instruments for measuring and recording harmonic distortion data.
Typically, harmonic analyzers contain a meter with a waveform display screen,
voltage leads, and current probes.
• Transient-disturbance Analyzers :

•
• Oscilloscopes : Oscilloscopes are useful for measuring repetitive high-frequency
waveforms or waveforms containing superimposed high-frequency noise on power and
control circuits. Oscilloscopes have e sampling rates far higher than transient-
disturbance analyzers.
• Data Loggers And Chart Recorders: Data loggers and chart recorders are sometimes
used to record voltage, current, demand, and temperature data in electrical power
systems. Data loggers and chart recorders are slow-response devices that are useful for
measuring steady-state data over a long period of time.
These devices record one sample of the event at a predetermined duration, such as 1 sec, 2
sec, 5 sec, etc. The data are normally stored within the loggers until they are retrieved for
analysis. The data from data loggers and chart recorders are sufficient for determining
the variation of the voltage or current at a particular location over an extended period and
if there is no need to determine instantaneous changes in the values.
Web Based Power Quality Monitoring
• Power quality monitoring is a process of gathering, analyzing and
interpreting raw measurement data into useful information.
• The process of gathering data is usually carried out by continuous
measurement of voltage and current over an extended period.
• The process of analyzing and interpretation has been traditionally
performed manually, but recent advances in signal processing and
artificial intelligence fields have made it possible to design and
implement intelligent systems to automatically analyze and interpret
raw data into useful information with minimum human intervention
• The power quality data management and monitoring system consists of
• power quality meters (Quality Guards),
• their remote reading software,
• database server,
• web application,
• web server and client (i.e. web browser).

Quality Guard is a fairly cheap smart kWh-meter with power quality

monitoring functions
Power Quality Audit
• See the pdf