ReAX EPS = A electric motor built on existing hydraulic power staring pump.

Easy to satre a truck at low speeds. Its one of key peace for autonomous driving technology.
On track line change assist = uses radar devices to detect vehicles coming next to him. Alert the driver
if he doesn’t respond then the line assistance feature will kick in, this will bring back the truck to the
line.
Stabilise staring in rough roads.
The electrical power supply of trucks is a direct current (DC) voltage network with 24 V and a typical
battery capacity is about 220 Ah
torque is the rotational equivalent of linear force. It is also referred to as the · moment, · moment of
force, · rotational force T = rFsin (t0)
when the force is applied away from the point of rotation. T = r*d.
What is Active Steering system?
Active steering describes a steering system for a vehicle in which the relationship between the driver's
steer inputs and the angle of the steered road wheels may be continuously and intelligently altered.
What is Redundant Steering system?
Redundant functions ensure that all safety-critical functions continue during the time span in which a
driver realizes that an intervention is necessary
hydraulic steering,
input steering torque of the driver amplified by the hydraulic assistance via a related linkage to the
wheels.
The input of the steer-ing system == steer-ing column transmits == hydraulic valve. The internal
combustion engine drives the Power Steering Pump which supplies the valve with hydraulic oil from
the tank. The steering gear is a RCB gear with an integrated hydraulic piston, whereby it adds the
hydraulic power to the mechanical power from the driver. == pitman arm == steering arm == left
steering knuckle. tie rod, push road.
input torque (𝑀H) and input angle (𝛿H), hydraulic force (𝐹h) ++ = output torque and angle
The amount of hydraulic force is controlled by the torsion angle.
recirculating ball RCB steering gear.
The input shaft gear, rotary slide valve similar rack-and-pinion but design higher volumetric flows
rates and higher hydraulic pressures. torsion bar connects the input shaft with spindle. balls transform
the rotation of the spindle to a lateral movement of the ball nut. also functions as the piston of the
hydraulic cylinder. ball nut to the output shaft
Robust, very reliable, better damping against ex-ternal impacts, compact compared to a rack-and-
pinion but high weight, the high costs and the indirect steering feel.
active describes = the output variable is controlled by an actuator and auxiliary power
Electric Power Steering
The input torque is measured by a sensor transfers this information to an electric control unit (ECU).
The ECU calcu-lates the required assistance torque depending on the current driving state and on
demands of ADAS or AD functions. Using the electric power stored in a battery, supplied by a
generator driven by the ICE, the ECU controls an electric motor which overlays its torque to the
driver’s torque at the shaft between the steering wheel and the steering gear via a torque overlay gear.
The kinematics from the steering gear to the steered wheels vary depending on the vehicle and are
shown here exemplary for a truck.
A powerful EM with a max-imum torque of 70 Nm in combination with a 48 V on-board vehicle
power supply system generates all required steering torque without any hydraulics.

Hydraulic Power Steering Systems with Active Valve

The ECU also uses electric energy from the battery and the generator to control the active valve (2)
and thereby to control the hydraulic assistance torque. The hydraulic energy is supplied by a PSP
driven by an ICE, which pumps the hydraulic oil to the active valve and the hydraulic piston inside
the steering gear.
implement the overlay mechanism based on an adjustable valve sleeve. sleeve is twisted inde-
pendently of the driver by an additional actuator, e.g., an electric motor or an electro-magnet.
Ex = Knorr-Bremse’s “intelligent Hydraulic Steering Assist” (iHSA) with a recirculating ball (RCB)
gear.
Hybrid Steering Systems
The electric subsystem is similar to the described EPS and includes the sensor, the ECU, the battery,
the generator, the electric motor and the torque overlay gear. The hydraulic subsystem contains the
passive valve, the steering gear with an integrated hydraulic piston, the PSP and the tank.
EPS is mounted between the steering wheel and the torsion bar (TB) of the hydraulic valve at the
input shaft of the steering gear.
The hydraulics are shut off when only low steering power is required, which the EPS is able to
provide alone.
Both use an electric motor and a worm gear to overlay electrically generated torque to the input shaft
of the passive hydraulic valve of the HPS.
Two similar examples for hydraulic power steering with electric torque overlay are ZF’s “ReAX Gear
Mounted” and Bosch’s “Servotwin”,
Steering Model and calculations.
horizontal coordinate system.
vehicle’s velocity, torque at the steering wheel, the accelerations at the vehicle’s front axle, angle, the
angular velocity and the angular acceleration at the vehicle’s pitman arm. These parameters are used
to calculate the steering ratios, steering angles, forces at the front axle.
second step calculation of the different steering torques and the overall torque at the pitman arm,
steering angle at the pitman arm.
“Geometry y-z-plane is called camber angle, inclination of the kingpin is kingpin angle, scrub radius
(𝑟0) defines the distance in y-direction between the wheel contact patch and the point where the
kingpin axis crosses the road surface. The distance between those two points in the x-direction is
called the castor offset (𝑟τ) and the inclination of the kingpin in the x-z-plane is the castor angle (𝜏).
The caster angle, also known as castor angle is the angle between the ZV -axis and the
steering axis, heavy trucks a typical caster angle is 5 degrees at standstill.”
The diameter of the steering wheel, acts as a lever arm for the driver and it also strongly influences
the total inertia of the steering system. Input, steering wheel, angle and steering wheel torque.
Steering Gear
incoming axle, from the steering shaft, a torsion bar is located. This torsion bar causes opening and
closing of valves for hydraulic high-pressure fluid. The steering shaft also turns a ball screw, known
as the worm. The high-pressure fluid is also acting on the worm to amplify the torque applied by the
driver. The other member of the ball screw causes the outgoing axle to turn the Pitman arm.
design of the valves within the hydraulics has large influence on the amplification characteristics and
therefore also on the steering characteristics.
amplification characteristics is visualised with hydraulic assistance pressure as a function of torsion
bar torque, known as boost curve.
common ratio between incoming and outcoming shaft angle is 16:1 to 27:1.
Wheelbase, l, is defined for a conventional two-axle vehicle, with a steered front axle and an
unsteered rear axle, as the longitudinal distance between the front and rear axle wheel contact centre.

design principles for precision mechanisms

Achieve optimal combination of mass and stiffens.
Stiffness (element) = load applied on the element / elastic deflection.
Translational & rotational stiffness.
High stifnees for optimum dynamic behaviour and for DB less mass. HS for small virtual backlash.
High youngs modulus, low mass == high stifneess and high frequencies vibration modes
Effect of transmition ration = convert input movement to output movement. = output velocity / input
velocity. > 1 (out > input) deteriorating effect in terms of stiffness.

GD & T
Language for communicating engineering design specifications.
Communicating nominal dimension and tolerance.
Definitions, Dimensional units, Fundamental units = 16, General rules = 2, concepts = 14 geometry
characteristic symbols.
50 mm, 50.0 inh, 0.5 mm, .5 ich, 50.5 mm, 50.50 inch.
Unilateral tolerance = 50 ° +0.1, 50.0, - .0, +.1 (numer of decimal 000 depend on tolerance decimals)
50 -0.10, +0.15, 50 - .10, +.15
Limit system = 50.15, 50.00 mm , 50.25, 50.10 inch.
Feature control frame (Box) left side
Type of dimension: - Any dimension should carry a tolerance; tolerance is difference between upper
and lower limit 90 +- 0.1 = 90.1 - 89.9 = 0.2
Nominal dimension which is specified in the drawing by the design. Ex 90 which is difficult to achie
Basic dimension with in square box to indicate the Location, orientation or profile
Equal bilateral tolerance if its +- tolerance is same +- 0.1.
Un Equal bilateral tolerance if its +- tolerance is different + 0.2 -0.1.
Reference dimention = 89.9, 30.1, 30.1 so remaining is 29.7 which is not in the tolerance limit.
So, this is a non-functional dimension and written in ().
Feature = term used for physical portion of a part (total surface of a cube). Or drawing
Complex feature = single surface of compound curvature. Or collection of features
Interrupted feature = is one with a gap or gaps in a feature that divide it into two or more features.
Feature of size = term used to refer either a regular feature of size or irregular feature of size.
regular feature of size = cylindrical, spherical surface, circular element, set of two opposite line
elements, opposed parallel surface associated with a directly toleranced dimension.
““Any dimension which is able to measure using a vernier calliper is RFOA””
Irregular feature of size = (type A) = directly tolerance feature or collection of features that may
contain or be contained by an unrelated actual mating envelope that is cylindrical, spherical or two
opposed parallel lines “” U have to create a mapping envelope to measure using a vernier calliper””
Irregular feature of size = (type B) = directly tolerance feature or collection of features that may
contain or be contained by an unrelated actual mating envelope that is other than a cylindrical,
spherical or two opposed parallel lines
Actual mating envelope = is inversed feature of size that just co-insides with the high points of the
feature.
Un-related Actual mating envelope = is an envelope that is similar perfect feature counterpart that
doesn’t constrained (take any reference) of the datum.
Related Actual mating envelope = is an envelope that is similar perfect feature counterpart that is
constrained (take any reference) in either orientation or location or both to any applicable datum.
Actual minimum material envelope = (opposite of Actual mating envelope which is outside the
material). But Actual minimum material envelope inside the element. === is an envelope that is
similar perfect feature counterpart expanded within an external feature that co insides with the surface
at low points.
Un related Actual minimum material envelope = is an envelope that is similar perfect feature
counterpart expanded within an external feature that doesn’t constrain (take any reference) of the
datum.
related Actual minimum material envelope = is an envelope that is similar perfect feature counterpart
expanded within an external feature that doesn’t constrain (take any reference) of the datum. in either
orientation or location or both to any applicable datum.
Material condition modifiers = tolerance applied to a size dimension of a regular size establishes high
and low limits these limits are called Material condition modifiers.
Max Material condition modifiers = condition in which a feature of size contains max amount of
material within the stated limits of size. “” MMC added material to the part with in the limits to size
and increases the weight of the part”” External FOS = MMC is max limit of size,, Internal FOS =
MMC is min limit of size “”M circle””
Least Material condition modifiers = condition in which a feature of size contains least amount of
material within the stated limits of size. “” LMC remove material to the part within the limits to size
and decrease the weight of the part”” External FOS = LMC is min limit of size,, Internal FOS = LMC
is max limit of size “”L circle””
Regard less of feature of size = indicates that a geometric tolerance applies at any increment of size of
the feature of size. “”condition used when the geometric tolerance on the feature needs to be
independent of feature of size””
When to use RFS, MNC, LMC ?
Vertiual conditio or Inner boundry = MMC – tolerance vaslue , RFS = when tight tolerance is
required , gicks, fictures, machine tools.
(ensure assemble and max flexiability MMC)
Vertiual conditio or Outer boundry = LMC + GTV (Minimum wall thickness) (aeronotical)
MMC and LMC are applicable to GT applied to a feature of size only. (Straightness, flatness,
Angularity, Perpendicularity, Parallelism and position.
MMC and LMC are not applicable to GT applied to a feature. (Straightness, flatness, circularity,
cylindricity, Angularity, Perpendicularity, Parallelism, concentric, symmetric, circular runout, total
runout, Profile of line, Profile of surface)
Rule 1 = (perfect form of MMC, Enveloped principle, Individual FOS Rule) = when only a tolerance
of size of an individual regular feature prescribe the extent to which variations in its geometric form
as well as in its size not allowed.
When only limit of size is given, this controls size of the part also the geometric form of the part.
Limits satisfy and enter into an envelope.
Requirement: =
1. Actual local size of the regular FOS at each cross section shall be within the specific size
tolerance.
2. Where regular FOS is produced at MMC. It must have perfect form.
3. When the actual local size of a regular FOS departs from MMC towards LMC a variation in
the form is allowed equal to the amount of departure.
4. There is no requirement for a perfect form boundary at LMC. A part produced at its LMC
limit of size is permited to have maximum form variations up to MMC boundary.
5. Rule 1 applies to regular feature of size only. Or orientation feature of size.
Excemptions,
1. Rule 1 doesn’t apply to non-rigid parts (O rings, belts, gaskets)
2. Doesn’t apply to stock size (Bar stock, tubing, sheat metal, or structural shape, L, I section)
Override rule 1
Rule 1 autometically applies to all individual regular feature of size on a drawing. In some
applications producing a part at perfect form at MMC may not be required and if given will increase
the cost of manufacturing.
1. Applying straightness tolerance to a regular feature of work.
2. Applying flatness tolerance to a regular feature of work.
3. Specifying Independency symbol “I” to a regular FOS dimension.
Verification
1. MMC size to enter into envelope.
2. Actual local size must be with the limit of size.
Rule 2
Regardless FS with respect to individual tolerance and Regardless MB with respect to individual
datum reference no modifier symbol is specified. Default condition.
Where a geometric tolerance is applied on an RFS basic the geometric tolerance is limited to a
specific value regardless of the size of the FOS.
Where a featured control frame is applied to a feature of size dimension. MMC & LMC can be
applied to the tolerance portion and datum reference of FCF.
RMB = Datum reference is a FOS and no modifier is applied.
Max MB = Datum reference is a FOS and Max material modifier is applied.
Least MB = Datum reference is a FOS and Least material modifier is applied.
When MMC or LMC is applied in Tolerance and MMB and LMB is applied in datum of the FCF then
rule 2 is overruled.
Reduce Manufacturing and Inspection Cost.
Bonus tolerance = potential additional tolerance for geometric tolerance.
Where the MMC and LMC modifier is specified, it indicates that the stated geometric tolerance
applies when the FOS is at its MMC or LMC size limit.
When the actual mating envelope of the FOS departs from MMC to LMC or vice versa. An increase
in the stated tolerance is permitted.
Bonus tolerance applies only when a geometric tolerance is applied at MMC or LMC to a FOS.
Bonus tolerance doesn’t affect the size of tolerance.
Bonus tolerance = diff btw actual size and MMC or LMC.
Max Bonus tolerance permitted = Diff btw MMC and LMC of the actual mating envelope of the
tolerance FOS.
Bonus tolerance are applicable to GT applied to a feature of size only. (Straightness, flatness,
Angularity, Perpendicularity, Parallelism and position.
Bonus tolerance are not applicable to GT applied to a feature. (Straightness, flatness, circularity,
cylindricity, Angularity, Perpendicularity, Parallelism, concentric, symmetric, circular runout, total
runout, Profile of line, Profile of surface)
How to calculate boundary conditions to ensure assembly b/w mating parts, calc sizes for the
functional gauges.
Boundary condition
Internal FOS, Worst case boundary (outer boundary) = (LMC) Larg FOS of hole + geometrical
tolerance
(Inner boundary) = Smallest FOS (MMC) - geometrical tolerance
External FOS, Worst case boundary (outer boundary) = Biggest size of the part + geometric tolerance
(Inner boundary) = Smallest (LMC) – geometrical tolerance
Worst case boundary = general term used to refer to an inner boundary, Outer boundary or virtual
condition.
Virtual conditions
A fixed size boundary generated by a collective effect of a considered FOS Specified MMC or LMC
and the geometric tolerance of that material condition.
MMC condition – internal FOs, VC = IB = MMC – GTV --1
LMC condition – internal FOs, VC = OB = LMC + GTV --2
MMC condition – External FOs, VC = OB = MMC + GTV --3
LMC condition – External FOs, VC = IB = LMC – GTV –4
1 === 3 we can assemble it.
RFS condition – internal FOs, VC = IB = MMC – GTV
RFS condition – internal FOs, VC = IB = MMC + GTV
Resultant condition = Single worst-case boundary generated by a collective effect of a considered
FOS specified At MMC or LMC and the geometric tolerance of that material
MMC condition – internal FOs, RC = OB = MMC + GTV + BT --1
LMC condition – internal FOs, RC = IB = MMC - GTV - BT –2
MMC condition – External FOs, RC = IB = LMC - GTV – BT –3
LMC condition – External FOs, RC = OB = MMC + GTV + BT –4
Feature control frame = 1 – geometry characteristics symbols, 2 – tolerance shape zone modifier (no
symbol consider as 2 parallel lines or planes) cylindrical, square, Spherical D then the GT should be
applied to RFOS, 3 – tolerance zone size. 4 - tolerance zone size modifier L M P ST T F, 5 – primary
datum, 6 – material modifier, 7 – secondary datum, 8 -tertiary datum.
Controlled radius = Struss concentration at sharp edges so add fillet radius, CR 5 +- 0.1.
Straight ness,
Applying on a surface = point the surface with – value, value must be less than the size tolerance.
/\/\/\/\ but differ b/w high to low should not be more than the value. /\/\/\/ line or taper. 2d entity and
tolerance zone is parallel lines. It is a Feature controlled so no MMC and LMC.
Axis straightness of a shaft = point to the dimension in line, diameter to the axis and can’t exceed that
value. Its is a FOS, 3d entity. Tolerance zone cylinder. You can apply M or L modifier. M – L 0.1 –
0.3
Flatness tolerance
Flatness tolerance surface = point the surface with symbol value, value must be less than the size
tolerance. /\/\/\/\ but differ b/w high to low should not be more than the value. /\/\/\/ line or taper.
Flatness tolerance centre plane = point to the dimension in line, parallel planes can’t exceed that
value. You can apply M or L modifier. Bones tolerance.
Circularity tolerance surface = point the surface with symbol value, value must be less than the size
tolerance. Concentric circles. 2d entity entity and tolerance zone is parallel lines. It is a Feature
controlled so no MMC and LMC.
Cylindricity tolerance = = point the surface with symbol value, value must be less than the size
tolerance. Tolerance zone 2 Co-axial cylinders, 3d entity, it is a Feature controlled so no MMC and
LMC. Complicit control because it as circularity & straightness. It is surfaced controlled so it can be
applied only to a feature so no MMC and LMC.
Datums = reference plane, creating reference b/w interested feature and existing feature.
We have to bring the part to a stable condition. So, we have to harest the DOF so we ake help of
datum reference frame.
Implied datum = we give dimensional + tolerance, position tolerance with no reference or datum
Order of precedence depending on the functionality and assembly requirements.
Datum types
Planer datum = when you consider any plane surface as a reference datum. (Primary datum). If you
place the part on it becomes simulated datum and origin of measurement.
Centre plane datum = feature of size as a datum. Simulator = 2 parallel planes holding the part
(industial wise). Harest 3 DOF.
Axis datum = axis of cylindrical taken in reference as a datum. Harest 4 DOF.
Spherical datum = Spherical surface taken in reference as a datum. Harest 3 DOF.
Conical surface = Conical surface taken in reference as a datum. Harest 5 DOF.
Datum shift
Expanding man drill to get the datum axis and take that as reference for further.
3-2-1 principle.
When the part is placed on to a primary datum it requires min 3 points to bring that part to a stable
condition. 2 points to secondary datum and the one point to thresher datum to completely constrain or
stable. (High point)
3-2-1 for spherical surface = resting on planer surface is not possible. We use Spherical surface taken
in reference as a datum.
Datum targets = User for cast surface or mould surface.
Datum target point = min 3 points, circle / X1 pointing “X” with basic dimentions
Datum target line = min 2 lines. Vertical line ------- in one view. “”X”” in the second view. circle / Y1
pointing the line and “”X””
Datum target area = if area is more take areas. Based on availability. O O O circle Dia size, squre,
rect/ X1 pointing
Moveable datum point << circle / X1 pointing “X”
Orientation controls = when ever we have a feature or FOS having angular relationship with the
neighbouring feature then we call it as orientation controls.
Angularity tolerance = Angle other than 0, 90, 180, 270 is called angularity. Related feature so give
datum. ‘’’’Parallel planes”” = plane angularity.
Axis lining b/e the lines. We can apply Material modifier.
Perpendicular tolerance = any shape b/w two parallel planes
Parallelism = \ \ /\
Position tolerance = in order to get the position of the feature.
1. give over all dimension +-
2. co-ordinates for hole using basic dimension within a box. It is a related feature do give
datums.
3. Give a Feature Controlled Frame. With positional tollerance, circle ____ value (square find
diagonal), Primany, 2nd, nrd ref.
Verify position tolerance
1. Harest DOF.
2. Unrelated actual mating envelope.
3. Use dial indicator to measure position of 2 holes.
Projected tolerance = next to M add P, diagram with dia M6 and project hight value == to the top
mating part. Projection of the tolerance is outside at the top mating part.
Increasing the dia of the free hole, H = F + T1 + T2(1 + 2P/D)
H = min iterial conditn of the hole, F =max MC of the fasner, T1 = position tolerance of free hole. T2
= position tolerance of threaded hole. P = thickness of free hole , D = thick ness of threaded hole.
Position tolerance Floating fasners = assembling 2 free holes, H = F + T, fixed fasner free + thread H
= F + 2T
Modified Fixed fasner H = F + T1 + T2. 75% to t2 and 25% to t1.
Tol of Position for complex fixture = (H1 + H2) = (F1 + F2) + (T1 + T2) more t1 and less t2 or
proportional
Zero tolerance at MMC = Make the existing position toll zero and subtract that with the lower limit
so you can extend the limit and no rejecting from quality department.
Position tolerance without datum = when we want to get position of 2 feature of sizes and take these 2
features as a primary datum then you can.
Min wall thickness
1. @MMC: x = y – (MMC/2) – (TOP/2)
 2. @LMC: x = y – (LMC/2) – (TOP/2)
Composite tolerance
Concentricity tolerance = with 2 cylinders. If you want the axis of one cylinder to fallow other, we
need concentricity tolerance. only feature no MMC and LMC. If the line pass through the other mean.
But this is deleted and replaced by position tolerance.
Symmetry tolerance = the axis of one cylinder to fallow other hallow feature, only feature no MMC
and LMC. is deleted and replaced by position tolerance.
Circular runout / radial run out = Pointed surface, have a datum because it is related. Datum should be
Regardless FOS. no MMC and LMC. 2D entity. We have to n number of time through the length.
Measure using dial indicator should not be greater than the value.
Total runout = rotate the part and move the dial indicator through the length. Can be applied to planer
surface. Control flatness and perpendicul.
Profile tolerance
Profile of line = tolerance zone is a space within a uniform 2D boundary. We have tospecy from
which surface and where to where.

Plastic component
factors influence on the performance
External noise: environmental conditions, such as dust, temperature and humidity
2. Internal noise: Corrosion, such as product wear, material aging
3. Unit-to-unit noise: Difference in products built to the same specifications caused by variability in
materials, manufacturing equipment and assembly processes.
causes for plastic failures
1. Inadequate product specification and wrong material selection
2. Poor design
3. Processing faults
4. Misuse
Quality Plastic Part for Life
1. Design = part geometry and material selection to achieve a comprehensive design.
For material selection
Required strength (including impact and flexural strength)
 Specified range of service temperatures
 Exposure to chemicals and harsh environments
 Appearance requirements
 Dimensional tolerances
 Required agency approvals
 Processing method
 Assembly method
 Recycling considerations
2. Tooling = manufactured by injection molding.
3. Processing: Injection Molding ::: Melting, Injection, Cooling, Ejection.
4. Assembly and Handling ;;; reduce the amount of additional components or fasteners
5. Service ::: understand part performance requirements
6. End of Life ::: recycling, disposal methods, reducing waste by minimizing the produced reject
during manufacturing.
The Nature of Plastic Materials
Molecular behavior of the polymer determines the performance of the plastic product.
Polymers = any of a class of natural or synthetic substances composed of very large molecules, called
macromolecules, which are multiples of simpler chemical units called monomers.
Thermoplastics and thermosets. Amorphous polymers = molecules are structured randomly exhibit
low chemical resistance. Semi-crystalline polymers = molecules are arranged in an ordered fashion
exhibit larger shrinkage variation than amorphous polymers.
Characteristics of plastic materials = viscoelastic material, responds to stresses as a combination of
elastic solids and viscous fluids.
Strength = facture load, Impact strength = load absorbed, Modulus = ability to resist deformation
under stress. Toughness = ability to absorb energy by plastic deformation rather than crack or
fracture. Ductility = ability to sustain large permanent deformation in tension. Brittleness = tendency
to break without significant deformation. Glass transition temperature (Tg) = is the temperature under
which a plastic behaves like glass and is rigid.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 Factors in Plastic Part Performance
4.2 Principles for Tooling
4.3 Manufacturing Aspects of Design
4.4 Assembly and Storage
4.5 After Use and Recycling

Influence Failure Mode Cause

Short-term mechanical Brittle fracture Impact
loading Rapid crack propagation Scratches
Long-term mechanical Creep Constant applied load
loading Cracking Cyclic load
Dynamic fatigue Vibration
Ductile deformation
Wear
Temperature Dimensional instability Glass transition
Embrittlement Elevated and sub ambient
Thermal fatigue temperatures
Melting
Environmental factors Dimensional instability Moisture
Environmental Stress Chemicals, essential oils
Cracking (ESC) UV-radiation
Molecular degradation, Extreme weather
shattering
Factors in Plastic Part Performance
Part performance and life expectancy
Structural part design ::: stiffness, strength and impact resistance
mechanical performance is a combination of part geometry and material’s property.
material’s modulus (E) and the moment of the inertia (I) = part stiffness
increasing wall thickness, adding Ribs. elevated temperatures and moisture decrease stiffness.
flexibility improves toughness to a certain extent and provides better durability.
Sharp corners and ribs can act as stress concentrators that initiate cracking that leads to a failure.
Reducing wall thickness or relocating ribs contributes to energy absorption and distribution.
temperature conditions influence impact resistance.
Effect of time
Apart from environmental effects, a plastic part’s stiffness or strength does not decrease over time.
However, the occurring deformation over time is a response to a constant loading. type of the applied
load, plastics exhibit time-dependent behaviors such as creep, stress relaxation or fatigue.
Creep is increased deformation of a part under constant static loading,
Stress relaxation refers to reduction of stress when a part is placed under constant strain over time.
Fatigue is a part failure due to dynamic loading, such as repeated deflections or heavy vibration.
Selection between polymer types
Aesthetical requirements
Effect of environment
Agency approvals
Principles for Tooling
Tooling basics gate location
Tolerances and dimensions
Tool revision and ramp-up
Manufacturing Aspects of Design
Part design considerations for molding
Mold filling
Cooling
Ejection
Assembly and Storage
Designing plastic parts for assembly
Supported assembly
Finishing operations
Storability
After Use and Recycling
Plastic recovery
Disassembly

Sheet metal components

material properties
• High yield and tensile strength
• High Young modulus value
• High level of formability
• High cost-efficiency.
When choosing a material, two of the most prominent things to consider is the material properties and
how the usage of the material impacts the environment.
most commonly used materials in sheet metal, steel and aluminium
thickness should be roughly one and a half times more for same strength.
constituents in steel are iron and carbon. alloys are achieved by adding other alloying elements such
as chromium, copper and nickel.
carbon steel, alloy steel, tool steel and stainless steel.
Wall Thickness
thickness ranging from 0.4 mm to 6 mm

Designing consideration:
Wall Thickness: uniform wall thickness
Bend Radii: inside at least equal to sheets thickness.
Orientation of Holes & Slots: at least as large as sheet metal thickness. If the hole gets too close to an
edge a bulge can appear near an edge. Spacing between holes should be at least two times the sheet
metal thickness.
K Factor: ratio of the neutral axis / to the material thickness. varies from 0.3 to 0.5.
Bend Allowance: , Bend Deduction: , Bend Reliefs:
Hemming :: hem return length should be minimum four times the sheet thickness.
fibre reinforced plastics (FRP), which is a polymer-matrix reinforced with fibres. may carry and
transfer both compressive and tensile stresses (ex- glass).
high breaking stress, high tensile modulus, low specific gravity and linear elastic behaviour up to
failure.
Carbon fibres are very strong, stiff and light, but more expensive
anisotropic and load carrying along its lengthwise direction, volumetric ratio between the
reinforcement and the matrix
Thermosets are the most common matrices used in FRP’s ex= Epoxy, Polyester