Actuators and Drives System

Reporters:
Guzman, Lyd Ryan A.
Subere, Pearl Joyce A.

Actuators and Drives

• A robot is an autonomous machine (capable of operating without direct human control)
capable of sensing its environment, carrying out computations to make decisions, and
performing actions in the real world.
• Actuators and Drive Systems which are one of the key components contained in a robotic
system.

Basic Theory
Robots achieve the ability to move or execute specific mechanical tasks with the help of
various types of actuators, such as electric, hydraulic, pneumatic, etc. Often called the muscles of
robots, actuators significantly impact a robot’s functional features, such as degrees of freedom
(DOF), speed or velocity, accuracy, repeatability, load capacity (payload), etc.

What are drives?

• A typical drive system is assembled with an electric motor (there may be several) and a
sophisticated control system that controls the rotation of the motor shaft.
• A robot will require a drive system for moving their arm, wrist, and body.
• A drive system is usually used to determine the capacity of a robot.

Types of Drives
Electrical Drives
• An electrical drive is defined as an electronic device designed to control certain parameters
of the motor for controlling the electrical energy into mechanical power in a precise
controllable way.
• The electric drive systems are capable of moving robots with high power or speed. The
electric drive system will be perfect for small robots and precise applications. It has greater
accuracy and repeatability. The one disadvantage of this system is that it is slightly costlier.
• The types of electrical drives are two such as a standard inverter as well as a servo drive.
• A standard inverter drive is used turn DC current to AC current and to control the torque and
speed.
• A servo drive is used to control the torque as well as speed, and components of the
positioning machine utilized within applications that need difficult motion.
Pneumatic Drives
• Pneumatic drive is normally used for smaller robots used in simple material transfer
applications. It can offer fine accuracy and speed. This drive system can produce rotary
movements by actuating the rotary actuators.
• The translational movements of sliding joints can also be provided by operating the piston.
The price of this system is less when compared to the hydraulic drive. The drawback of this
system is that it will not be a perfect selection for the faster operations.

Hydraulic Drives
• Hydraulic drives are used on sophisticated industrial robots. Hydraulic systems consist of
several components which work closely together to get desired performance which may be
pressure control, flow control, direction control or miscellaneous functions.
• The hydraulic drive systems are meant for the large –sized robots. It can deliver high power
or speed than the electric drive systems. The leakage of hydraulic oils is considered as the
major disadvantage of this drive.
• Pascal's law is the basis of hydraulic drive systems. As the pressure in the system is the same,
the force that the fluid gives to the surroundings is therefore equal to pressure × area. In
such a way, a small piston feels a small force and a large piston feels a large force.
• The same principle applies for a hydraulic pump with a small swept volume that asks for a
small torque, combined with a hydraulic motor with a large swept volume that gives a large
torque.
Mechanical Drives

What are Actuators?

• An actuator is a device that receives some sort of energy and convert it to move or operate
something.
• Actuators come in various types and sizes, depending on the load associated with factors like
force, torque, speed of operation, precision, accuracy, and power consumption. One of the
prevalent types of actuators is electric motors. A motor allows the robot to control a wheel,
a switch, or even an arm. And the rest Is for industry that requires greater torques for
greater load.

Linear and Rotary Actuators

An actuator can move something in a straight line, also referred to as linear. And can make
something move in a circular motion, also referred to as rotary.

Types of Actuators
Electrical Actuators
• A mechanical device used to convert electricity into kinetic energy
• Robot manufacturers usually use electric actuators since they are fast, efficient, and
accurate. They are easy to control, can achieve high velocities (1000 – 10000 rpm), and have
ideal torque for driving. At the same time, they are very weak or unpleasantly heavy because
of their complexity.
 • One of the prevalent types of actuators is electric motors such as servomotor, stepper
motor, and direct current (DC) motors. A motor allows the robot to control a wheel, a
switch, or even an arm.
• Servo motor is a mechanism based on feedback control. It has a high maximum torque/force
that allows high (de)acceleration. It is robust and has a high bandwidth that provides
accurate and fast control.
• Stepper motors provide rotation in the form of discrete angular displacement. They can
achieve precision angular rotation in both directions and are commonly employed to
accommodate digital control technology. Stepper motors are, in general, heavier than
servomotors for the same power.

Pneumatic Actuators
• A valve actuator converts energy from compressed air into mechanical motion.

Hydraulic Actuators
• An actuator that utilizes the hydraulic pressure as input in order to provide excitation to the
plant (controlled process) of the control system.
• It operates like the pneumatic actuator, but it uses uncompressible liquid, making it operate
faster and has greater force compare to pneumatic actuator. It is used in high force and
speed applications like cranes.
Derivation of the Pneumatic System Transfer Function
In pneumatic systems, change in fluid inertia energy and the fluid's internal thermal energy are
assumed negligible. The pneumatic devices involve the flow of gas or air, through connected pipe
tines and pressure vessels. Hence the variables of pneumatic system are mass flow rate, qm and
pressure, P.

The two basic elements of the pneumatic system are resistance and capacitance.

The gas flow resistance, R is defined as the rate of change in gas pressure difference for a
change in gas flow rate.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑁/𝑚2

𝑅=
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝐾𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐
The pneumatic capacitance is defined for a pressure vessel and depends on the type of
expansion process involved. The capacitance of a pressure vessel may be defined as the ratio of
change in gas stored for a change in gas pressure.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑, 𝐾𝑔
𝐶=
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑁/𝑚2

A simple pneumatic system is shown in the below figure, and it consists of pneumatic
bellows in line with the restriction. The pneumatic bellows consist of a hollow chamber with thin
pneumatic walls. The sidewalls of bellows are corrugated, and the input and output surface is flat.
An increase in pressure within the bellows results in an increase in separation between the input and
output surfaces.

Let
Pi = Steady state value of input air pressure
pi = Increase in the pressure air source
P = Steady State value or pressure inside the bellows
p =Increase in pressure inside the bellow
Qm = Steady state value of airflow rate
qm = Area of each flat surface of the bellows
R = Resistance of the restriction
C = Capacitance of the bellows
x= Displacement of the movable surface of the bellows
 The force exerted on the movable surface of the bellows is proportional to the increase in pressure
inside the bellows,

fb ∝ p(t)
The force exerted on the movable surface of the bellow,

fb=A p(t)
The force opposing the movement of the flat surface of bellow walls is proportional to displacement,

fo ∝ x(t)
Force opposing the motion

fo= K x(t)
where K constant represents the stiffness of bellows.

At steady state the above two forces are balanced,

fb = fo
A p(t) = K x(t)
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑖 (𝑡) − 𝑝(𝑡)
𝑅= =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑞𝑚 (𝑡)
𝑝𝑖 (𝑡) − 𝑝(𝑡)
∴ 𝑞𝑚 (𝑡) =
𝑅
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑞𝑚 (𝑡)
𝐶= =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑝(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝(𝑡)
∴ 𝑞𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
On equating the two equations of qm(t) we get,

From above equation we get , p(t) = K/A x(t)

On differentiating above equation w.r.t t , we get,
𝑑𝑝(𝑡) 𝐾 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
=
𝑑𝑡 𝐴 𝑑𝑡
On substituting for p(t) and dp(t)/dt , we get,

𝐾 𝑑𝑥 (𝑡) 𝐾
𝑅𝐶 [ ] + 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑝𝑖 (𝑡)
𝐴𝐾 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐴
𝐾
𝑅𝐶 [ ] + 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑝𝑖 (𝑡)
𝐴 𝑑𝑡 𝐴
On taking Laplace Transform with zero initial conditions, we get,
 𝐾 𝐾
𝑅𝐶 [ 𝑠𝑋(𝑠)] + 𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑃𝑖 (𝑠)
𝐴 𝐴
𝐾
(𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1)𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑃𝑖 (𝑠)
𝐴
𝑿(𝒔) 𝑨/𝑲 𝑨/𝑲
∴ = =
𝑷𝒊 (𝒔) 𝑹𝑪𝒔 + 𝟏 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
where τ = RC = Time constant of the system

Derivation of the Hydraulic System Transfer Function

The most frequently used hydraulic device in control system is hydraulic motor-pump set. It
consists of a variable stroke hydraulic pump and a fixed stroke hydraulic motor as shown in the
below figure. The device accepts a linear displacement (stroke length) input and delivers a large
output torque.

The hydraulic motor is controlled by the amount of oil delivered by the pump.By
mechanically changing the pump stroke, the oil delivered by the pump is controlled.Like in a DC
generator and dc motor, there is no essential difference between hydraulic pump and motor.In a
pump the input is mechanical power and output is hydraulic power and in a motor, it is vice versa.

Let
qp = Rate at which the oil flows from the pump
qm = Oil flow rate through the motor
q = Leakage flow rate
qc = compressibility flow rate
x = Input stroke length
θ = Output angular displacement of motor
P = Pressure drop across motor

The rate at which the oil flow from the pump is proportional to stroke angle,
qp ∝ x
Oil flow rate from-the pump,
qp = Kp x
where Kp = Ratio of rate of oil flow to unit stroke angle.

The rate of oil flow through the motor is proportional to motor speed,
qm ∝ dθ/dt
Oil flow rate through motor,
qm = Km dθ/dt
where Km = Motor displacement constant.
It is usually assumed that the leakage flow is proportional to motor pressure,
qi ∝ P
Leakage flow rate,
qi = Ki P
where Ki = constant.

The rate of flow is proportional to the rate of change of pressure,

qc ∝ dP/dt
Compressibility flow rate,
qc = Kc dP/dt
where Kc = Coefficient of compressibility.
The rate at which the oil flows from the pump is given by sum of oil flow rate through the motor,
leakage flow rate and compressibility flow rate.
qp = qm + qi + qc
On substituting from above equations, we get,
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑃
𝐾𝑝 𝑥 = 𝐾𝑚 + 𝐾𝑖 𝑃 + 𝐾𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The torque Tm developed by the motor is proportional to pressure drop and balances load torque.
Hydraulic motor torque,
Tm = Kt P
where Kt is motor torque constant.
If the load is assumed to consist of moment of inertia J and viscous friction with coefficient B, then,
𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒, 𝑇𝑓 = 𝐽 2 + 𝐵
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑞𝑚 𝑃
On substituting for qm, we get,
𝑑𝜃
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝑚 𝑃
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑇𝑚
𝑑𝑡
On substituting for Tm, we get,
𝑑𝜃
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝑡 𝑃
𝑑𝑡
If hydraulic motor losses are neglected or included as a part of load, then the hydraulic motor input
is equal to mechanical power output of hydraulic motor.
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐾𝑚 𝑃 = 𝐾𝑡 𝑃 ∴ 𝐾𝑚 = 𝐾𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Hence, we can write,

Tm = Kt P = Km P

Since the motor torque equals load torque, Tm = Tl

𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
∴ 𝐾𝑚 𝑃 = 𝐽 2 +𝐵
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐽 𝑑2𝜃 𝐵 𝑑𝜃
𝑃= 2 +
𝐾𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝐾𝑚 𝑑𝑡
On differentiating above equation w.r.t ,we get,
 𝑑𝑃 𝐽 𝑑3𝜃 𝐵 𝑑2𝜃
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝐾𝑚 𝑑𝑡 3 𝐾𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2
On substituting for P and dP/dt ,we get,

𝑑𝜃 𝐽 𝑑2𝜃 𝐵 𝑑𝜃 𝐽 𝑑3𝜃 𝐵 𝑑2𝜃

𝐾𝑝 𝑥 = 𝐾𝑚 + 𝐾𝑖 [ + ] + 𝐾𝑐 [ + ]
𝑑𝑡 𝐾𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 𝐾𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝐾𝑚 𝑑𝑡 3 𝐾𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2

𝐾𝑐 𝐽 𝑑 3 𝜃 𝐾𝑖 𝐽 𝐾𝑐 𝐵 𝑑 2 𝜃 𝐾𝑖 𝐵 𝑑𝜃
𝐾𝑝 𝑥 = 3 + ( + ) 2 + (𝐾𝑚 + )
𝐾𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝐾𝑚 𝐾𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝐾𝑚 𝑑𝑡
On taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions, we get,
𝐾𝑐 𝐽 3 𝐾𝑖 𝐽 𝐾𝑐 𝐵 𝐾𝑖 𝐵
𝐾𝑝 𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑠 𝜃(𝑠) + ( + ) 𝑠2 𝜃(𝑠) + (𝐾𝑚 + ) 𝑠𝜃(𝑠)
𝐾𝑚 𝐾𝑚 𝐾𝑚 𝐾𝑚
𝜃(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝
∴ =
𝑋(𝑠) 𝐾𝐽 𝐾 𝐽 + 𝐾𝑐 𝐵 𝐾 2 + 𝐾𝑖 𝐵
𝑠 [ 𝑐 𝑠2 + ( 𝑖 )𝑠 + 𝑚 ]
𝐾𝑚 𝐾𝑚 𝐾𝑚
In hydraulic systems, normally Kc << Km , therefore, put Kc = 0 in above equation.
𝐾𝑝
2
𝐾𝑚
+ 𝐾𝑖 𝐵
𝜃(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑚 𝑲
∴ = = =
𝑋(𝑠) 𝐾𝐽 2
𝐾 + 𝐾𝑖 𝐵 𝐾𝑖 𝐽 𝒔(𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏)
𝑠[ 𝑖 𝑠+ 𝑚 ] 𝑠 [𝐾 2 + 𝐾 𝐵 𝑠 + 1]
𝐾𝑚 𝐾𝑚 𝑚 𝑖

𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑖 𝐽
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐾 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏 = 2
𝐾𝑚 + 𝐾𝑖 𝐵 𝐾𝑚 + 𝐾𝑖 𝐵
𝐾𝑚

Derivation of the Field-Controlled DC Motor Transfer Function

If the motor is Field Controlled, let the following variables:

𝑅𝑓 = 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒()
𝐿𝑓 = 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑖𝑓 = 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑓 = 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝐸𝑀𝐹(𝑉)
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐽 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐵 = 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐾𝑏 = 𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐾𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Armature Resistance is the opposition offer by the motor to the flow of electric current.
Armature inductance can be treated as the inductance offered by the coil of the motor. It is the one
that causes the waveform of armature current to be much smoother than the waveform
of armature voltage.
Armature current, is the current that passes through the coils of the motor.
Armature voltage is the voltage at the terminal of the windings.
Back emf – is the electromotive force that opposes the one that controls the motor.
Torque – the force that is exerted by the motor.
Angular Displacement – the change in angle of the shaft
Moment of Inertia - quantity that determines the torque needed for a desired angular acceleration
about a rotational axis
Friction Coefficient – the friction between rotor and the stator

Using KVL
𝑑𝑖𝑓 (𝑡)
𝑅𝑓 ∗ 𝑖𝑓 (𝑡) + 𝐿𝑓 = 𝑣𝑓 (𝑡) → eq. 1
𝑑𝑡
Torque of the DC motor is proportional to the product of flux and current.
𝑇𝑀 ∝ ∅ 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡)
𝑇𝑀 = 𝑘𝑡𝑓 𝑖𝑓 (𝑡) → eq. 2
The formula for the mechanical system
𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑇𝑀 = 𝐽 +𝐵 → 𝑒𝑞. 3
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Using Laplace Transform, we can get the frequency domain of the equations.
𝑅𝑓 𝐼𝑓 (𝑠) + 𝑠𝐿𝑓 𝐼𝑓 (𝑠) = 𝑣𝑓 (𝑠) → 𝑒𝑞. 4
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝑘𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑓 (𝑠) → 𝑒𝑞. 5
2
𝑠 𝐽𝜃(𝑠) + 𝑠𝐵𝜃(𝑠) = 𝑇(𝑠) → 𝑒𝑞. 6
Equating equations 5 and 6,
𝑘𝑡𝑓 𝐼𝑓 (𝑠) = 𝑠2 𝐽𝜃(𝑠) + 𝑠𝐵𝜃(𝑠)
𝑠2 𝐽 + 𝑠𝐵
𝐼𝑓 (𝑠) = 𝜃(𝑠) → 𝑒𝑞. 7
𝑘𝑡𝑓
We can rewrite eq. 4
(𝑅𝑓 + 𝑠𝐿𝑓 )𝐼𝑓 (𝑠) = 𝑣𝑓 (𝑠) → 𝑒𝑞. 8
Equating equation 7 and 8
𝑠 2 𝐽 + 𝑠𝐵
(𝑅𝑓 + 𝑠𝐿𝑓 )( )𝜃(𝑠) = 𝑣𝑓 (𝑠)
𝑘𝑡𝑓
𝜃(𝑠) 𝑘𝑡𝑓
𝐻(𝑠) = =
𝑣𝑓 (𝑠) (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑠𝐿𝑓 )(𝑠2 𝐽 + 𝑠𝐵)
 𝜃(𝑠) 𝑘𝑡𝑓
𝐻(𝑠) = = 3
𝑣𝑓 (𝑠) 𝑠 𝐽𝐿𝑓 + 𝑠 𝐽𝑅𝑓 + 𝑠2 𝐵𝐿𝑓 + 𝑠𝐵𝑅𝑓
2

𝒌𝒕𝒇
𝜽(𝒔) 𝑱𝑳𝒇
𝑯(𝒔) = =
𝒗𝒇 (𝒔) 𝑱𝑹𝒇 + 𝑩𝑳𝒇 𝑩𝑹𝒇
𝒔[𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔+ ]
𝑱𝑳𝒇 𝑱𝑳𝒇

Derivation of the Current-Controlled DC Motor Transfer Function

The armature control is the most commonly used for a DC motor because of its efficiency and the
closed loop system, yet it Requires high power amplifiers, cost has a higher cost.

If the motor is Armature Controlled, let the following variables:

𝑅𝑎 = 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒()
𝐿𝑎 = 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑖𝑎 = 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑎 = 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝐸𝑀𝐹(𝑉)
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
Ɵ = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝐽 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐵 = 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐾𝑏 = 𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐾𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Using KVL
𝑑𝑖𝑎 (𝑡)
𝑅𝑎 ∗ 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) + 𝐿𝑎 + 𝑣𝑏 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑎 (𝑡) → eq. 1
𝑑𝑡
The back-emf is proportional to angular velocity.
𝑣𝑏 (𝑡) ∝ 𝜔(𝑡)
𝑑𝜃
𝑣𝑏 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑏 𝜔(𝑡) = 𝑘𝑏 → 𝑒𝑞. 2
𝑑𝑡
Torque of the DC motor is proportional to the product of flux and current.
𝑇𝑀 ∝ 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡)
 𝑇𝑀 = 𝑘𝑡 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) → eq. 3
The formula for the mechanical system
𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑇𝑀 = 𝐽 +𝐵 → 𝑒𝑞. 4
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Using Laplace Transform, we can get the frequency domain of the equations.
𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) + 𝑠𝐿𝑎 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) + 𝑣𝑏 (𝑠) = 𝑣𝑎 (𝑠) → 𝑒𝑞. 5
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝑘𝑡 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) → 𝑒𝑞. 6
𝑠2 𝐽𝜃(𝑠) + 𝑠𝐵𝜃(𝑠) = 𝑇(𝑠) → 𝑒𝑞. 7
𝑣𝑏 (𝑠) = 𝑠𝑘𝑏 𝜃(𝑠) → eq. 8
Equating equations 6 and 7,
𝑘𝑡 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) = 𝑠2 𝐽𝜃(𝑠) + 𝑠𝐵𝜃(𝑠)
𝑠2 𝐽 + 𝑠𝐵
𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) = 𝜃(𝑠) → 𝑒𝑞. 9
𝑘𝑡
We can rewrite eq. 5
(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑠𝐿𝑎 )𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) + 𝑣𝑏 (𝑠) = 𝑣𝑎 (𝑠) → 𝑒𝑞. 10
Combining equation 9 and 10.

𝑠2 𝐽 + 𝑠𝐵
(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑠𝐿𝑎 ) 𝜃(𝑠) + 𝑠𝑘𝑏 𝜃(𝑠) = 𝑣𝑎 (𝑠)
𝑘𝑡
(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑠𝐿𝑎 )(𝑠2 𝐽 + 𝑠𝐵) + 𝑠𝑘𝑡 𝑘𝑏
[ ] 𝜃(𝑠) = 𝑣𝑎 (𝑠)
𝑘𝑡

𝜃(𝑠) 𝑘𝑡
𝐻(𝑠) = =[ 2 ]
𝑣𝑎 (𝑠) (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑠𝐿𝑎 )(𝑠 𝐽 + 𝑠𝐵) + 𝑠𝑘𝑡 𝑘𝑏
𝜃(𝑠) 𝑘𝑡
𝐻(𝑠) = =[ 2 ]
𝑣𝑎 (𝑠) (𝑠 𝑅𝑎 𝐽 + 𝑠 𝐿𝑎 𝐽 + 𝑠𝑅𝑎 𝐵 + 𝑠2 𝐵𝐿𝑎 ) + 𝑠𝑘𝑡 𝑘𝑏
3

𝒌𝒕
𝜽(𝒔) 𝑱𝑳𝒂
𝑯(𝒔) = =[ ]
𝒗𝒂 (𝒔) 𝑱𝑹 + 𝑩𝑳𝒂 𝑩𝑹𝒂 + 𝒌𝒕 𝒌𝒃
𝒔[𝒔𝟐 + ( 𝒂 )𝒔 + ]
𝑱𝑳𝒂 𝑱𝑳𝒂

Sample Problem:
Assume that we have a DC motor with the following parameters.
𝑅𝑎 = 2.45 Ω
𝐿𝑎 = 0.035 𝐻
1.2𝑉
𝐾𝑡 =
𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐽 = 0.022 𝑘𝑔 ∗ 𝑚2 /𝑟𝑎𝑑
Nm
𝐵 = 0.0005
rad/sec
We can determine the transfer function of the angular position with respect to armature voltage
using the values.
 𝑘𝑡
𝜃(𝑠) 𝐽𝐿𝑎
𝐻(𝑠) = =[ ]
𝑣𝑎 (𝑠) 𝐽𝑅 + 𝐵𝐿𝑎 𝐵𝑅𝑎 + 𝑘𝑡 𝑘𝑏
𝑠[𝑠 2 + ( 𝑎 )𝑠+ ]
𝐽𝐿𝑎 𝐽𝐿𝑎
1.2
=[ 0.022 ∗ 0.035 ]
2.45 ∗ 0.022 + 0.0005 ∗ 0.035 0.0005 ∗ 2.45 + 1. 22
𝑠[𝑠 2 + ( )𝑠 + ]
0.022 ∗ 0.035 0.022 ∗ 0.035
𝟏𝟓𝟓𝟖. 𝟒𝟒
=[ 𝟐 ]
𝒔(𝒔 + 𝟕𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒔 + 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟏. 𝟕𝟐)
To determine the transfer function of angular speed with respect to armature voltage is
𝑘𝑡
𝜔(𝑠) 𝐽𝐿𝑎
𝐺(𝑠) = =[ ]
𝑣𝑎 (𝑠) 2 𝐽𝑅𝑎 + 𝐵𝐿𝑎 𝐵𝑅𝑎 + 𝑘𝑡 𝑘𝑏
[𝑠 + ( )𝑠 + ]
𝐽𝐿𝑎 𝐽𝐿𝑎
1.2
=[ 0.022 ∗ 0.035 ]
2 2.45 ∗ 0.022 + 0.0005 ∗ 0.035 0.0005 ∗ 2.45 + 1. 22
[𝑠 + ( )𝑠 + ]
0.022 ∗ 0.035 0.022 ∗ 0.035
𝟏𝟓𝟓𝟖. 𝟒𝟒
=[ 𝟐 ]
𝒔 + 𝟕𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒔 + 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟏. 𝟕𝟐

Simulating the response of the system

Using SCILAB to simulate the response of the transfer function.

Angular Speed Angular Position

As we can see that the graph for angular speed as we apply a 1V step function in the system,
the response of the system is that it rises from 0 to 0.843 creating an overshoot and then returned
to its steady state which is 0.833, note that the values is in rad/sec. Therefore, we can conclude that
the system is increasing by a factor of 0.833 per voltage. We can also conclude in the system that the
system has an overshoot, therefore if we need the system to be precise, we will need a PID
controller between the drive and the DC motor. For the angular position, we can see that the speed
of the DC motor is constant as its angular position forms a linear graph, this graph shows the
difference of angular position of the rotor of the DC motor from its starting point.

Design Application
𝑟𝑎𝑑
Using these parameters: 𝑅𝑎 = 0.5Ω, 𝐿𝑎 = 0.003𝐻, 𝐾 = 0.8𝑁𝑚 , 𝑇𝐿 = 100 𝑁𝑚,
𝑠
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝐵 = 0.0005 𝑁𝑚 ∗ , 𝐽 = 0.022 𝐾𝑔 ∗ 𝑚2 /𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑠
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑢𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐷𝐶 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 100 .
𝑠
Since: 𝜔 = 100 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑑𝜔(𝑡) 𝑑𝜔(𝑡)
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎: 𝐽 + 𝐵𝜔(𝑡) = 𝑇𝑀 (𝑡) − 𝑇𝐿 (𝑡), 𝑙𝑒𝑡: = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑀 (𝑡) = 𝐾 ∗ 𝐼𝑎 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐵𝜔(𝑡) + 𝑇𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝐾 ∗ 𝐼𝑎 (𝑡) → 0.0005(100) + 100 = 0.8 ∗ 𝐼𝑎 (𝑡)
𝐼𝑎 (𝑡) = 125.0625
By KVL:
𝑑𝐼𝑎 (𝑡) 𝑑𝐼𝑎 (𝑡)
𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 (𝑡) + 𝐿𝑎 + 𝑣𝑏 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑎 (𝑡), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑏 (𝑡) = 𝐾𝜔(𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 (𝑡) + 𝐾𝜔(𝑡) = 𝑣𝑎 (𝑡)
𝑣𝑎 (𝑡) = 0.5(125.0625) + 0.8 ∗ 100 = 142.53125 V
𝒗𝒂 (𝒕) = 𝟏𝟒𝟐. 𝟓𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝑽
In designing a response with a load, we just add a summing block between the constant and
the 1/sJ+B block, subtracting the torque to the product of the K constant, so in the design of the
transfer function block diagram, the following parameters are used.

Using SCILAB to simulate the response of the transfer function.

Angular Speed Angular Position
 𝑑𝜃 𝜃𝑓 − 𝜃𝑖 73.775 − 10.835
𝜔= = = ≈ 100𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 2.541 − 1.911
As we can see in the graph, the transient response of the angular speed overshoots and
becomes steady in 100 rad/s which is the requirement of the design. Also, the graph for the angular
position starts to change after some time, while we are experimenting with the values, it was found
out that the delay is because of the torque load, thus we can conclude that it is the time interval
where the motor is accumulating torque to move the load.

Analysis and Observation

• Drive system is the one that controls the signal that is passed to the actuator.
• Drive system has 4 types: mechanical, electrical, pneumatic, and hydraulic.
• Actuators has 3 types: electrical, hydraulic, and pneumatic.
• Actuator motions can be rotary or linear.
• The Hydraulic and Pneumatic actuators are used in applications that requires high force.
• The Electrical Actuator is commonly used as it is easily made and easy to manipulate.
• Electrical actuators can be controlled using Armature control or Field Current Control.
• It was observed that we can predict and manipulate the response of the actuator(its angular
distance travelled and its angular speed) using its transfer function.
• It was also observed in the simulation, that the system also shows the movement delay of
the motor if there is load applied to the system.
• It was also observed that the graph of the angular speed has a transient response and a
steady state response that can be controlled by a PID controller.
• It was also observed that the graph of the angular displacement is linear showing that the
speed is constant.

Conclusion
• From the above information, we can conclude that a drive is one kind of electrical device
used to control the energy which is sent to the electrical motor. The drive supplies energy to
the motor in unstable amounts & at unstable frequencies, thus ultimately controls the speed
and torque of the motor.
• We can conclude that without actuators, automation is almost impossible.
• We can also conclude that the graph of the angular speed is a normal system that has a
transient and a steady-state response. For the angular position, the graph is linear.

Recommendation
• For the report, we recommend to further study all the types of Actuators that we missed.
• We recommend to study further the transfer function of the other actuators such as the
Hydraulic and Pneumatic actuators.
• We also recommend discussing the process on solving the parameters of the DC motor using
a datasheet.