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§10.2 Heat Conduction in a Steam Pipe 281

c. At interfaces the continuity of temperature and the heat flux normal to the interface
are required.
d. At a solid-fluid interface, the normal heat-flux component may be related to the
difference between the solid-surface temperature T|s and the “bulk” fluid temper-
ature Tb :
qn = h(T|s − Tb ) (10.1-2)
where the normal vector is directed into the fluid. This relation is referred to as
Newton’s law of cooling. It is not really a “law” but rather the defining equation for
h, which is called the heat-transfer coefficient. Chapter 14 deals with methods for
estimating heat-transfer coefficients.
All four types of boundary conditions are encountered in this chapter. Still other kinds of
boundary conditions are possible, and they will be introduced as needed.

§10.2 HEAT CONDUCTION IN A STEAM PIPE

In this section we will obtain the radial temperature distribution in the wall of a pipe
through which steam is flowing. The temperature at the inner pipe surface at r = nR is fixed
at the steam temperature Ts . For the condition at the outer pipe surface at r = R, we will
consider three different types of boundary conditions. These different cases, illustrated
in Fig. 10.2-1(a)–(c), are considered separately below. For each situation, the goals are to
obtain the temperature distribution T(r) for nR ≤ r ≤ R, as well as the rate of heat loss from
the pipe.
a. Temperature at the outer surface of the pipe is specified.
Here the temperature at the outer surface of the pipe r = R, is maintained at To , as
illustrated in Fig. 10.2-1(a). To find the temperature distribution within the pipe wall, T(r),
we start by writing a steady-state energy balance over a cylindrical shell of thickness 2r
and length L within the pipe wall. The shell is thin in only the r direction because we

Region II

Region I
κR
qr│r qr│r + ∆r

Ri

T(r) T(r) T(r)

Ts Ts Ts

Ta Ta Ta

κR R r κR R r κR R Ri r

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 10.2-1. Radial temperature distribution in the wall of a steam pipe, (a) when the
temperature of the outer surface is specified; (b) when heat is lost to the ambient air
(described by Newton’s law of cooling); (c) when the pipe is surrounded by a layer of
insulating material and heat is lost to the ambient air (described by Newton’s law of cooling).
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282 Chapter 10 Shell Energy Balances and Temperature Distributions in Solids and Laminar Flow

assume that the temperature depends only on r. Since energy is being transported only by
conduction (v = 0), the total energy flux e reduces to the conductive flux q. The rates of
energy transport in and out of the shell will thus consist of the appropriate components
of the conductive heat-flux vector q ([=] energy∕time ⋅ area), multiplied by the relevant
areas. Because there are no sources of energy production, and no work done on the system
by external forces, the only contributions to the energy balance are
Rate of energy transported
in across the cylindrical qr |r ⋅ 20rL = (20rLqr )|r (10.2-1)
surface at r:
Rate of energy transported
out across the cylindrical qr |r+2r ⋅ 20(r + 2r)L = (20rLqr )|r+2r (10.2-2)
surface at r + 2r:
The notation qr means “heat flux in the r direction,” and (· · ·)|r+2r means “evaluated at
r + 2r.” Note that we take “in” and “out” to be in the positive r direction.
The steady-state energy balance can then be written as
(20rLqr )|r − (20rLqr )|r+2r = 0 (10.2-3)
If we now divide the equation by 20L2r and then take the limit as 2r → 0, we get
(rqr )|r+2r − (rqr )|r d
lim = (rqr ) = 0 (10.2-4)
2r→0 2r dr
where use has been made of the definition of the first derivative.
Integration with respect to r gives
rqr = C′1 (10.2-5)
where C′1 is the constant of integration. Insertion of Fourier’s law of heat conduction
qr = −k𝜕T∕𝜕r gives us then
dT
−kr = C′1 = kC1 (10.2-6)
dr
where we have chosen to replace C′1 by kC1 so that the k will drop out. Another integration
with respect to r then gives
T(r) = C1 ln r + C2 (10.2-7)
To determine the constants of integration, we must specify the boundary conditions. These
have been discussed above, and are as follows:
B. C. 1: at r = nR, T = Ts (10.2-8)
B. C. 2: at r = R, T = To (10.2-9)
Application of these boundary conditions to Eq. 10.2-7 gives the two equations
B. C. 1: Ts = C1 ln nR + C2 (10.2-10)
B. C. 2: To = C1 ln R + C2 (10.2-11)
From these relations we get C1 = (Ts − To )∕ ln n and C2 = To − (Ts − To ) ln R∕ ln n, and thus,
the temperature profile is
T(r) − To ln(r∕R)
= (10.2-12)
Ts − To ln n

Note that both sides of this equation are dimensionless, which suggests some natural
dimensionless variables. In fact, this problem can be solved in terms of dimensionless
variables from the very beginning (see Problem 10B.21).
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§10.2 Heat Conduction in a Steam Pipe 283

Finally we get the rate of heat loss from a length L of pipe

( )
dT ||
Q = (20RL)qr |r=R = (20RL) −k
dr ||r=R
T − To 1 | 20kL(Ts − To )
= (20RL)(−k) s | = (10.2-13)
|
ln n r |r=R ln (1∕n)
Here Eq. 10.2-12 has been used to evaluate the temperature gradient at the outside surface
of the pipe.
b. Heat is lost to the surroundings from the outer surface of the pipe according to Newton’s law of
cooling
Here we consider a different boundary condition at the outer surface, namely,
Newton’s law of cooling,
𝜕T
B. C. 2: at r = R, = h(T − Ta )
qr = −k (10.2-14)
𝜕r
in place of the known, fixed temperature To . Here, Ta is the air temperature far from the
pipe surface (the “ambient” temperature).
Because this case differs from the previous case only by a boundary condition, the
shell energy balance analysis of part (a) up to and including Eq. 10.2-7 still applies here.
Thus, the temperature profile will still have the form
T(r) = C1 ln r + C2 (10.2-15)
but the values of the constants C1 and C2 will differ from that in part (a). The boundary
conditions are now
B.C. 1: T = Ts
at r = nR, (10.2-16)
dT
B.C. 2: at r = R, − k = h(T − Ta ) (10.2-17)
dr
When we apply the boundary conditions, we get two equations for the constants of
integration C1 and C2
B.C. 1: Ts = C1 ln nR + C2 (10.2-18)
kC1
B.C. 2: − = h(C1 ln R + C2 − Ta ) (10.2-19)
R
Note that the profile T(r) from Eq. 10.2-15 was substituted into both sides of Eq. 10.2-17 to
arrive at Eq. 10.2-19. Solving these equations for C1 and C2 gives the temperature distri-
bution
T(r) − Ta 1 − Bi ⋅ ln(r∕R)
= for nR ≤ r ≤ R (10.2-20)
Ts − Ta 1 − Bi ⋅ ln n

where Bi ≡ hR∕k is the Biot number.1

The heat loss from a length L of pipe can be obtained from either of the following
expressions:
( )
𝜕T ||
Q = h ⋅ (20RL) ⋅ (T|r=R − Ta ) or Q = 20RL −k (10.2-21)
𝜕r ||r=R

1 The Biot number is named after Jean Baptiste Biot (1774–1862) (pronounced “Bee-oh”). A

professor of physics at the Collège de France, he received the Rumford Medal for his development of a
simple, nondestructive test to determine sugar concentration. Note that the Biot number contains the
thermal conductivity of the solid, whereas the Nusselt number (see §10.8) contains the thermal
conductivity of the fluid. Both dimensionless groups have the same structure: (heat transfer
coefficient)(length)/(thermal conductivity).
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284 Chapter 10 Shell Energy Balances and Temperature Distributions in Solids and Laminar Flow

When the profile T(r) is substituted into either expression, we obtain

Bi
Q = 20kL(Ts − Ta ) (10.2-22)
1 + Bi ⋅ ln(1∕n)
It is instructive to examine the temperature at the outer pipe surface,
1
T|r=R = Ta + (Ts − Ta ) (10.2-23)
1 + Bi ⋅ ln(1∕n)
In the limit Bi = hR∕k → ∞, we see that T|r=R → Ta . In this limit, heat transfer in the sur-
rounding air is so fast relative to conduction within the pipe wall (i.e., h is so large relative
to k∕R) that the temperature of the pipe surface is equal to the ambient temperature. One
can verify that the temperature profile Eq. 10.2-20 reduces to Eq. 10.2-12 (with To replaced
by Ta ) in this limit. In the opposite limit Bi = hR∕k → 0, we see that T|r=R → Ts . Here the
heat transfer in the surrounding air is so slow relative to conduction within the pipe wall
(i.e., h is so small relative to k∕R) that the entire pipe wall is at the steam temperature Ts .
From the analysis of these two limits, it is thus apparent that the Biot number may be
interpreted qualitatively as the following ratios:
hR heat-transfer rate in the surrounding fluid
Bi = =
k heat-transfer rate in the solid
heat-transfer resistance in the solid
= (10.2-24)
heat-transfer resistance in the surrounding fluid

c. Steam pipe with an insulating layer, and heat loss according to Newton’s law of cooling
Next we add a layer of insulating material on the outside of the steam pipe as
illustrated in Fig. 10.2-1(c). The thermal conductivity of the insulating layer is ki (the
thermal conductivity of the steam pipe still being k), and the outside of the insulation has
a radius Ri . The heat transfer to the surrounding air is still modeled using Newton’s law
of cooling. We will obtain the temperature distribution over the entire region nR ≤ r ≤ Ri ,
that is, in the steam pipe wall (region I, nR ≤ r ≤ R) and in the insulation (region II,
R ≤ r ≤ Ri ). We assume that the insulation fits tightly around the pipe, so that there are
no air spaces between the pipe and the insulation. This enables us to specify as boundary
conditions at the pipe/insulation interface that the temperature and radial heat flux are
continuous.
Shell energy balances over regions I and II proceed as in cases (a) and (b), and give
the forms for the temperature profiles
TI (r) = CI1 ln r + CI2 (10.2-25)

TII (r) = CII1 ln r + CII2 (10.2-26)

The boundary conditions are
B. C. 1: at r = nR, T I = Ts (10.2-27)

B. C. 2: at r = R, TI = TII (10.2-28)
𝜕TI 𝜕TII
B. C. 3: at r = R, −k = −ki (10.2-29)
𝜕r 𝜕r
𝜕TII
B. C. 4: at r = Ri ,
= h(TII − Ta )
− ki (10.2-30)
𝜕r
When the profiles in Eqs. 10.2-25 and 10.2-26 are substituted into Eqs. 10.2-27 to 10.2-30,
we obtain the following four equations that can be solved simultaneously to obtain the
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§10.3 Heat Conduction Through Composite Walls 285

four constants of integration:

B.C. 1: Ts = CI1 ln nR + CI2 (10.2-31)

B.C. 2: CI1 ln R + CI2 = CII1 ln R + CII2 (10.2-32)

B.C. 3: kCI1 = ki CII1 (10.2-33)

CII1
B.C. 4: − ki = h(CII1 ln Ri + CII2 − Ta ) (10.2-34)
Ri
Solving for the constants of integration, we obtain the temperature profiles
[ ]
TI (r) − Ta 1 − Bii (ki ∕k) ln(r∕R) − ln(Ri ∕R)
= [ ] for nR ≤ r ≤ R (10.2-35)
Ts − Ta 1 − Bii (ki ∕k) ln(n) − ln(Ri ∕R)

[ ]
TII (r) − Ta 1 − Bii ln (r∕R) − ln(Ri ∕R)
= [ ] for R ≤ r ≤ Ri (10.2-36)
Ts − Ta 1 − Bii (ki ∕k) ln(n) − ln(Ri ∕R)

where Bii ≡ hRi ∕ki . In addition, we can get the heat loss from a length L of the
pipe-plus-insulation
( )
|
Q = h ⋅ (20Ri L) ⋅ TII | − Ta
|r=Ri
1
= h(20Ri L)(Ts − Ta ) [ ] (10.2-37)
1 − Bii (ki ∕k) ln n − ln(Ri ∕R)
One can verify that this expression reduces to Eq. 10.2-22 as Ri → R.

§10.3 HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH COMPOSITE WALLS

In industrial heat-transfer problems one is often concerned with conduction through walls
made up of layers of various materials, each with its own characteristic thermal conduc-
tivity. In this section we show how the various resistances to heat transfer are combined
into a total resistance.
In Fig. 10.3-1 we show a composite wall made up of three materials of different thick-
nesses, x1 − x0 , x2 − x1 , and x3 − x2 , and different thermal conductivities k01 , k12 , and k23 . At
x = x0 , substance 01 is in contact with a fluid with ambient temperature Ta , and at x = x3 ,
substance 23 is in contact with a fluid at temperature Tb . The heat transfer at the bound-
aries x = x0 and x = x3 is given by Newton’s law of cooling with heat-transfer coefficients
h0 and h3 , respectively. The anticipated temperature profile is sketched in Fig. 10.3-1.
First, we set up the energy balance for the problem. Since we are dealing with heat
conduction in a solid, the terms containing velocity in the e vector can be discarded, and
the only relevant contribution is the q vector, describing heat conduction. For the shell
of thickness 2x (width W and height H) in region 01 illustrated in Fig. 10.3-1, the rate of
energy transported into the shell is qx |x WH, and the rate of energy transported out of the
shell is qx |x+2x WH. The energy balance for the shell in region 01 is thus
Region 01: qx |x WH − qx |x+2x WH = 0 (10.3-1)
which just states that the energy entering at x must be equal to the energy leaving at x + 2x,
since no energy is produced within the region. After division by WH2x and taking the limit
as 2x → 0, we get
dqx
Region 01: =0 (10.3-2)
dx