Construction and Building Materials 217 (2019) 265–272

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Special Issue
Inspection Techniques for Damage Detection in Civil Engineering Structures
Strain monitoring of low carbon steel in a corrosive environment using
fiber Bragg technology
A. Cinitha a,⇑, V. Sampath b, K. Kesavan a
a
CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai 600113, India
b
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India

h i g h l i g h t s

Presents progressively accumulated strains measured with FBG sensor in a corrosive medium.

Uniaxial strains corresponding to metal loss in unrestrained and restrained methods are presented.

Variation of pH, temperature and O2 in a corrosive medium is presented.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper explores the use of a technique to determine the strain that progressively accumulated in a
Received 8 December 2018 low carbon steel coupon on exposure to a corrosive medium. The strains developed in the steel coupon
Received in revised form 17 April 2019 were independently measured by an electric resistance strain gauge (ESG) as well as using a fiber Bragg
Accepted 3 May 2019
grating (FBG) sensor. The uniaxial strains measured using these two different techniques were compared.
Available online 16 May 2019
The strains accumulated in coupons in both the unrestrained and restrained conditions were measured
and the difference in their mechanical response were brought out by the change in volume accompanying
Keywords:
the formation of rust, which, in turn, could be sensed by a change in the wavelength by the FBG sensor.
Corrosion
Low carbon steel
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Electric resistance strain gauge
Wavelength
Fiber Bragg grating sensor

1. Introduction such as pressure and temperature. A critical review of advances

The sensors that are based on fiber optics have shown high
adaptability and precision in the monitoring of health and life
assessment of civil engineering structures. Optical fiber technology
is well advanced and is highly relevant for use in remotely moni-
toring the state of health of diversified engineering structures, such
as industrial plants, towers, silos, oil and gas pipelines, offshore
platforms, wind turbines, bridges, railway infrastructures, etc.
The benefits of using optical sensors over the conventional electric
resistance gauge sensors are smallness of size, lightweight, non-
susceptibility to electromagnetic interference, corrosion resistance
and durability. In addition, they are also leak-proof and resist dam-
age by explosion. Sensors that are based on fiber Bragg grating
technology are useful in monitoring strain in harsh environments.
These sensors are also capable of measuring other parameters,
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cinitha@serc.res.in (A. Cinitha).
in FBG sensor technology can be found in [1–3]. Unlike electric
resistance based sensors FBG sensors are extremely accurate and
are not susceptible to limitations posed by environmental condi-
tions. Furthermore, gratings may be placed at several points along
the length of fiber with only a single input/output point, thereby
reducing the number of equipment necessary. Ander Montero
et al. [4] demonstrated the advantages of estimating the strains
experienced by the aged F114 steel specimens using infrared ther-
mography and FBG sensor techniques. Fernandez et al. [5] carried
out temperature and strain measurement simultaneously by FBG
sensor technique. The high resolution of modern optical fiber cor-
rosion sensors (OFCSs) is useful to determine corrosion in the ini-
tial stages unlike in visual assessment. Apart from the use in the
fields of oil and gas and construction OFCSs can also be used to
detect corrosion of aircraft structures [6–12]. Moreover, OFCSs
are passive sensors as they do not need electrical energy for oper-
ation [13]. Corrosion leads to a decrease in the metal layer thick-
ness. When wave length of light exceeds the thickness of the

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.05.017
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
266 A. Cinitha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 217 (2019) 265–272

Nomenclature

n Effective refractive index of the core e Unit engineering strain on the specimen surface
pe Effective photoelastic coefficient m Poisson’s ratio
Pij Pockels coefficients of the stress optic tensor K Grating pitch
RH Relative humidity De Incremental increase in strain
DT Incremental increase in temperature a, b, c Constants
aT Thermal expansion coefficient n Factor relating thermal expansion and thermo-optic
aK Thermal expansion coefficient of the optical fiber coefficient of the fiber
an Thermo-optic coefficient of the fiber kB Bragg wavelength

layer, then the light is reflected by the OFCS resulting in total inter-
nal reflection. Such behaviour can be brought out in the form of a
plot relating the incident angle and reflectance of light [14,15].
Therefore, it can be used to predict the onset of corrosion before
the occurrence of any major damage to the structure. An FBG sen-
sor coated with Fe-C was proposed by Wenbin et al. [16] to deter-
mine corrosion of steel and to find out changes in the
microstructure brought about on rust formation and also validated
the reliability of performance of the sensor in harsh environments.
Yizheng et al. [17] measured the accuracy of long period fiber grat-
ing sensors produced by depositing outer layer of Fe-C and an inner
layer of silver. They established that the loss of mass in the outer
layer varied linearly with a change in the resonant wavelength
for some specific ranges. Fiber Bragg grating sensors have exten-
sive uses in civil engineering, especially in monitoring the health
of structures [18].
The process of corrosion of structural steel involves the interac-
tion of a material with its environment. The local pH, temperature
and access to oxygen influence the corrosion process and thereby
the rate of reaction [19,20]. In this study, the results of experimen-
tal investigations on accelerated corrosion of coupons are reported.
The change in oxygen concentration in the electrolyte and temper-
ature and pH were measured using probes adhering to the specifi-
cation as per DIN EN ISO 9001. The ESG and FBG sensor were
calibrated in tension under ambient conditions as the two sensors
were glued to the tensile coupon. The fiber with FBG is glued on
steel coupons subjected to accelerated corrosion by galvanic
method. Based on the experimental studies, the reliability of mea-
surements with FBG sensor in an aggressive environment is
demonstrated.
2. Corrosion rate studies
Low carbon steel samples of size 3cmx3cm, which were mirror
polished to 800 grit grade, were used as the substrate material. The
surface preparation was carried out by abrading the steel sample
successively using grits of decreasing size of SiC-coated abrasive
paper followed by polishing to a mirror finish using diamond paste
and thoroughly rinsing it with deionised water and acetone. The
solution was prepared by using 35 g of laboratory grade sodium
chloride solution in 1000 ml of deionized water, i.e. 3.5% NaCl.
Fig. 1 shows the electrochemical set-up that was used in the pre-
sent work.
The steel samples were placed in a special holder of electro-
chemical cell in order to expose 1 cm2 area. The corrosion tests
were performed on an Autolab Potentiostat and Galvanostat work-
station. In the present study, a mirror finished surface, a platinum
foil and a silver chloride electrode were used as the working elec-
trode, counter electrode and reference electrode, respectively. The
electrodes were all placed in a cell containing the corrosive med-
ium for 30 min and the corrosion potential was recorded. The com-
position of steel samples used is given in Table.1. Based on the
studies, it was observed that the low carbon steel studied showed
a corrosion rate of 0.276 mm/y in a 3.5% NaCl solution, simulating
marine environment.
3. Fiber Bragg grating technique
Fig. 2 illustrates the operating principles of FBG sensors. FBG
sensors are passive optical components obtained by recording a
local, longitudinal and period modulation of the refractive index
Table 1
Chemical analysis of samples used in the present study.
Element Fe C Mn Ni Si P Cr S
Wt % Base 0.07 0.99 0.01 0.04 0.008 0.03 0.004

Fig. 1. Experimental set-up for electrochemical studies.

 A. Cinitha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 217 (2019) 265–272
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of principles of operation of fiber Bragg grating sensor.
along the optical fiber core with a 9-mm diameter, as depicted in
Fig. 2(a). They can be used to sense any reaction to the environ-
ment, through modulation of light. The measured data is encoded
in the wavelength of the light reflected by the FBG, which reflects a
narrowband of light. Any change in the environment causes the
FBG to deform and thereby shift the reflected wavelength. The
magnitude of the shift denotes the strength of the measured
parameters. Any physical and chemical reaction with the environ-
ment results in a local change in the refractive index, with the light
ray passing through the fiber core undergoing partial reflection at
each of the gratings. As a consequence of the periodicity of the
index modulation, constructive interference of the reflected light
rays takes place for those wave vectors that satisfy the Bragg con-
dition given in Eq. (1). This implies that a part of the incident spec-
trum is not transmitted, but is only reflected, by the grating as
shown in Fig. 1(a). The specifications pertaining to the FBG sensor
are given in Table 2. Since the wavelength reflected by the grating
is a function of n and K, variations in temperature and pH con-
tribute to variation in strain due to loss of metal (i.e. subsequent
change in geometry of the corroded surface) giving rise to an
appreciable wavelength change, as shown in Fig. 1(b). The princi-
ples of operation of FBG sensor involve measuring the change in
Bragg wavelength and relating the change in wavelength (Dk) to
the shift in values measured [21,22].
The following expression correlates the change in Bragg wave-
length to the physical and chemical parameters as given in Eq. (1).
kB ¼ 2nK
The refractive index of the core material changes with wave-
length as per Eq. (2)
DkB ¼ ð1  pe ÞkB e þ kB ðaK þ an ÞDT
In the present study the value of pe is assumed to be 0.2 and
0.55E-6 and 8.6E-6 for aK and an respectively. The variation in
the fiber refractive index is attributed to photoelastic effect. The
Table 2
Specifications of FBG sensor.
Center wave length (nm) CW tolerance (nm) Reflectivity (%)
1540 ±1 0.70
267
change in wavelength caused by a change in the fiber refractive
index can be correlated to strain, pH and temperature [21] as per
the following expression:
n2 ðdnÞ
DkB ¼ 2nKðf1  ð Þ½P12  mðP11 þ P12 ge þ ½aK þ dT DTÞ ð3Þ
2 n
The numerical value of ðn2 Þ½P 12  mðP 11 þ P12 Þ is found to be
2
0.2. However, there have not been many studies to measure the
variation in refractive index caused by synergistic effect of the
changing strain, pH and temperature of the corrosive environment.
A strain gauge made of a metal with resistance of 120 X and a
gauge length of 2 mm and glued to the specimen was used in the
present study. The electric resistance strain gauge transfers the
extensional strain on a metallic surface into a proportional strain
in the resistive strain gauge element [23]. The sensitivity of the
strain gauge depends on the sensitivity of the alloy used. However,
since the electric strain gauges show lesser sensitivity to tempera-
ture and pH, their use is not recommended in hostile
environments.
4. Monitoring corrosion with FBG sensor
Experimental investigations were carried out using an FBG sen-
sor and a conventional ESG sensor to measure the strain intro-
duced during accelerated corrosion of coupons subjected to
unrestrained and restrained conditions. From 65NB (as per IS
ð1Þ 1161:1998, [24]) tubular specimen, tensile coupons were fabri-
cated and subjected to accelerated corrosion. The experiments
were performed keeping the parent metal as cathode (low carbon
steel) and the gauge length region of the specimen as the anode.
3.5% NaCl solution was used as the electrolyte. Fig. 3 shows the
ð2Þ
specimen dimensions (ASTM E8M-04 [25]). Based on Faraday’s
laws of electrolysis the accelerated corrosion experiments were
carried out [26]. The anode was connected to the +ve terminal,
while the cathode to the ve terminal. The initial and final poten-
3 dB bandwidth (nm) Fiber Type Grating Length (mm)
0.25 ± 0.05 SMF28-C Polymide 10
268 A. Cinitha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 217 (2019) 265–272

Fig. 3. Figure showing a structural steel coupon glued to FBG and ESG sensors.

tials were measured under zero current using a Calomel electrode.
Fig. 3 illustrates the gauge length region of steel coupon bonded to
a single type of FBG strain sensor with a center wavelength of
1540 nm and a grating length of 10 mm and a ESG with a gauge
length of 2 mm. Fig. 4 shows specially fabricated chambers used
for the unrestrained and restrained conditions. Fig. 5 shows the
specimen set-up. The FBG and ESG sensors were calibrated at room
temperature using tension test. The specimens designated as TE-
FBG-01, TE-FBG-02, TE-ESG-01 and TE-ESG-02 were used for the
tension test. Fig. 6 shows the experimental set-up that was used
for conducting the tension test. A set of four coupons was used
(UR-FBG-01, UR-FBG-02, UR-FBG-03 and UR-FBG-04) in the unre-
strained condition and the set-up is as shown in Fig. 7. On the other
hand, specimens RST-FBG-05, RST-FBG-06, RST-FBG-07 and RST-
FBG-08, were used in the restrained condition and the set-up is
as shown in Fig. 8. In the restrained condition, the tensile specimen
was mounted on a 25 Ton UTM and applied a load that was only
10% of the ultimate load.
The progress of corrosion in the thin film of the sputtered iron
was assessed by determining the shift in the peak points of wave-
length of the FBG [27]. A steel coupon was attached to the FBG sen-
sor using cyanoacrylate adhesive and an M-BOND and silicone coat
as sealant. The strain measured during the experiment is a sum of
low strains developed because of metal loss and variations in tem-
perature of the electrolyte. The function of conventional strain
gauges was restricted to the ambient conditions (T = 23 °C;
RH = 50%) while the apparent strain is valid for T = 0–80 °C. It has
been observed that the rate of corrosion varies with pH and tem-
perature. The pH and temperature of the electrolyte during corro-
sion were measured using WTW probes connected with
multiparameter following procedures enumerated in DIN EN ISO
9001.

Fig. 4. Specially fabricated chambers used for unrestrained and restrained conditions.

Fig. 5. Specimen immersed in corrosion chamber for unrestrained and restrained conditions.
 A. Cinitha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 217 (2019) 265–272 269

Tensile
Coupon

FBG and
ESG sensor

Fig. 6. Experimental set-up utilized in the tensile calibration tests.

Fig. 7. Experimental set up utilized for corrosion tests on unrestrained specimens.

Fig. 8. Experimental set up utilized for corrosion tests on restrained specimens.

5. Principle of corrosion monitoring with FBG sensor An oxidation reaction takes place at the anode as per Eq. (5).

2Fe ! 2Fe2þ þ 4e ð5Þ

The corrosion of steel involves the following electrochemical
reactions. A reduction reaction takes place at the cathode as per The reactions occurring at the anode and cathode during the
Eq. (4) process of corrosion leads to the formation of solid debris as per
Eq. (6).
2H2 O þ O2 þ 4e ! 4OH ð4Þ
270 A. Cinitha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 217 (2019) 265–272

Fe2þ þ 2OH ! FeðOHÞ2
In addition, oxidation and hydration reactions take place lead-
ing to the formation of rust precipitation of Fe(OH)2 resulting in
variation of enthalpy and pH
4FeðOHÞ2 þ xH2 O þ O2 ! 2Fe2 O3 ðx þ 4ÞH2 OðrustÞ
The hydrated ferric oxide on further dehydration results in the
formation of a  Fe2 O3 [28].
The density of porous a  Fe2 O3 is lower than that of steel. This
results in bloating of the steel, which can be traced through appro-
priate sensors, such as an FBG sensor. During the electrochemical
progressive corrosion, the change in temperature and pH bring
about a change in the refractive index of the optical fiber. The vari-
ation in Bragg wavelength can therefore be estimated as follows:
DkB
¼ ð1  Pe Þe þ nDT
kB
The shift in Bragg wavelength in a corrosive environment could
be expressed as a function of metal loss and temperature and pH,
i.e. as given in Eq. (9).
DkB
¼ ð1  Pe ÞeM þ fð1  Pe ÞaT þ an gDT
kB
The first term on the right hand side of the equation indicates
the strain resulting from metal loss due to corrosion (precipitation
of iron hydroxide) while the strain induced by the temperature and
pH change is represented by the second term on the RHS. The out-
puts from WTW temperature (reference sensor) probes are used to
nullify the effect of temperature on the shift in Bragg wave length.
Then the result can be treated as strain due to metal loss caused by
corrosion. This strain is much lower than the mechanical strain
observed during tensile test (1250  106 closer to yield point)
of low carbon steel.
6. Results and discussion
ð6Þ 10%, 15%, 20% and 25%. The quantitative relationship between shift
in wavelength and strain accumulation and growth in size of cor-
roded region are as shown in Fig. 10(a) and (b) respectively. It is
found that the strain determined using FBG sensor progressively
increases even as corrosion progresses with time. Under these sit-
ð7Þ uations, the performance of ESG sensors is generally found to be
below par. The strains observed in unrestrained and restrained
conditions prove that there was only metal loss in the corroded
coupons. The strains detected by sensors in all cases were gener-
ated by metal loss and variation in pH and temperature. The gauge
length portion of the coupon in both unrestrained and restrained
conditions was so selected as to undergo corrosion within 5 h (i.e
300 min). Both ESG and FBG sensors were initialised for unre-
strained and restrained conditions. The strain measured due to cor-
rosion in unrestrained condition is shown in Fig. 11. However, in
the restrained condition both ESG and FBG sensors showed an ini-
ð8Þ
tial strain of 283le on application of a load [20]. As corrosion pro-
gressed, ESG displayed an apparent strain which occurs so as to
compensate for the strain component arising due to temperature
effect in the unrestrained specimen. But the sample in the
restrained state senses the strain arising because of the combined
role of temperature and decrease in the cross-sectional area. Unlike
ð9Þ
ESG, FBG sensors show adaptability to measure strain caused due
to changes in pH, temperature and decrease in cross-sectional area.
Compared to the electric resistance strain gauge, the FBG sensor
shows its adaptability to measuring strains generated because of
abrupt changes in the area of cross-section, chemical changes
due to variation in temperature and pH of the corrosive environ-
ment. The strain measured by an FBG sensor has three compo-
nents: the strain generated by stress (i.e. strain induced due to
abrupt change in cross-sectional area in the restrained condition),
the strain generated because of variation in temperature, pH and
FBG-ST-05-5% FBG-ST-06-10% FBG-ST-07-15% FBG-ST-08-20% FBG-ST-09-25%
(a)
1541.2

1541
The calibration of single type of FBG strain sensor was carried
Wavelength (nm)

out with an ESG sensor under ambient conditions through tensile 1540.8
tests and extended the application to aggressive environment. 1540.6
From the tensile test under ambient conditions, it is observed that
both the sensors are capable of measuring the stress vs. strain 1540.4
characteristics of low carbon steel under ambient condition as 1540.2
shown in Fig. 9. After validating both the sensors, they were used 0 10 20 30
to monitor strain due to metal loss in corrosive environment. Ini- 40 50 60 70 80 90
tially experiments were conducted to monitor strain resulting from Time (min) 100
the metal loss for different levels of uniform corrosion, such as 5%, FBG-ST-05-5% ESG-TT-03-5% FBG-ST-06-10%
(b)
ESG-TT-04-10% FBG-ST-07-15% ESG-TT-05-15%
FBG-TT-01 ESG-TT-01 FBG-TT-02 ESG-TT-02
FBG-ST-08-20% ESG-TT-06-20% FBG-ST-09-25%

450 ESG-TT-07-25%
500
400
450
350 400
Stress (N/mm2 )

300 350
300
250
Strain (

250
200
200
150 150

100 100
50
50
0
0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 Time(min)
Strain (µ
Fig. 10. (a) Comparison of shift in wavelength of FBG w.r.t different percentage of
Fig. 9. Comparison and validation of tensile strain determination using ESG and corrosion. (b) Comparison of strain outputs from ESG and FBG sensors for different
FBG sensors. levels of uniform corrosion.
 A. Cinitha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 217 (2019) 265–272 271

UR-FBG-01 UR-FBG-02 UR-FBG-03 UR-FBG-04 60

450

400 50

350
40

Temperature (o C)
300
Strain (µ

250
30
200

150 20

100
10
50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0
Time (min) 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (min)
Fig. 11. Strain outputs measured by FBG sensors for the specimens tested under
unrestrained conditions. Fig. 13. Typical time variation of temperature observed in the experiments.

the small strain generated because of metal loss (in a varying pH 16

and temperature environment). In the unrestrained condition,
14
the strain measured by the FBG sensor is caused by a variation in
temperature and metal loss due to corrosion (in a varying pH 12
and temperature environment). The thermal strain is estimated
10
by subtracting the corrosion induced strain from the resultant
strain output of the FBG sensor. The strain measured by the FBG
pH

8
sensor in the unrestrained condition was lower than for the
restrained condition (Fig. 12). This is attributed to the rate of cor- 6

rosion being higher in the restrained specimen. In the unrestrained 4

condition, after 2.17 h of exposure the FBG sensor shows a declin-
ing tendency, this corresponds to the condition when the sensor 2
gets detached from the specimen. Within about 2.5 h of electro- 0
chemical process, about 50% of metal loss occurred from the anode 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
surface. Subsequently irregularities were observed on the anode Time (min)
surface which was precisely measured by FBG. Time evolution of
Fig. 14. Typical time variation of pH observed in the experiments.
measured strains in the unrestrained and restrained conditions is
shown in Figs. 11 and 12, respectively. While the reaction was in
progress, the temperature varied from 30 °C to 50 °C, (Fig. 13),
while the pH varied from 7.08 to 13.63, (Fig. 14), and the concen-
tration of oxygen from 8 mg/l to 1 mg/l, (Fig. 15). The experimental
results indicate that the electrons on the metal surface interact
with oxygen from environment dissolved in the corrodant and
absorbed on the metal surface to produce hydroxyl ions. Further
hydration and oxidation reactions result in the formation of rust
(mixture of FeO, Fe2O3 and Fe3O4). It has been observed that rust-

RST-FBG-05 RST-FBG-06 RST-FBG-07 RST-FBG-08

900

800

700

600
Strain (µ )

500
Fig. 15. Typical time variation of oxygen content observed in the experiments.
400

300
ing of steel is accompanied by expansion, which can be sensed by a
200
Bragg wavelength shift under strain.
100

0
0 50 100 150 200 7. Conclusion
Time (min)

Fig. 12. Strain outputs measured by FBG sensors for the specimens tested under In the present work, galvanic corrosion experiments were per-
restrained conditions. formed on specimens made of low carbon steel. The metal loss in
272 A. Cinitha et al. / Construction and Building Materials 217 (2019) 265–272
specimens that were allowed to undergo different magnitudes of
strain due to corrosion was monitored. Two different modes of
tests were conducted using restrained or unrestrained specimens.
ESG and FBG sensors were used to measure the strain undergone
by the specimens. From these studies, it can be concluded that
FBG sensors are found to be more appropriate to determine the
strain caused by corrosion, as they are capable of measuring the
strain caused by variation in temperature (0–50 °C) and pH
(7.08–13.63). The data from the experiments reveal that the strain
developed in the specimen in the unrestrained condition can be
attributed to the collective influence of corrosion and temperature.
However, the resultant strain is attributed to the combined role of
pH, temperature and stress in the restrained condition. As the cor-
rosion progresses, it is observed that ferrous hydroxide precipita-
tion takes place in the pH range 7.08–13.63. Further hydration
and oxidation of ferrous hydroxide result in the formation of rust.
The strain corresponding to metal loss is estimated by eliminating
the temperature component from the measured value. Thus it can
be established that FBG sensors have comparatively better sensi-
tivity compared to conventional ESG sensors. It is therefore con-
cluded that FBG sensors can be used to indicate the onset of
corrosion well ahead of any major damage occurring to the surface
of the metal specimen.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest of any
kind.
Acknowledgements
This work has been supported by CSIR-SERC as part of an in-
house R&D work. The technical assistance rendered by the techni-
cal staffs, Mr. D. Deivaraj and Mr. G. Muthuramalingam and project
assistants of Structural Health Monitoring Laboratory and Fatigue
and Fracture Laboratory are greatly acknowledged.
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