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Vol. 82: 15–31, 2020 CLIMATE RESEARCH

Published online November 5
https://doi.org/10.3354/cr01619 Clim Res

Thermal properties based on air temperature

observations in different local climate zones
in Bogotá, Colombia
Edwin Alejandro Ramírez-Aguilar*, Léa Cristina Lucas Souza
Graduate Program in Urban Engineering, Federal University of São Carlos, Rodovia Washington Luis, Km 235, Área Norte,
São Carlos, São Paulo 13565-905, Brazil

ABSTRACT: This paper demonstrates an early application of local climate zones (LCZs) in the city
of Bogotá, Colombia. The main goal was to assess the thermal properties within the areas of influ-
ence (sectors) of 10 meteorological stations in the city, classified into the LCZ scheme. Air temper-
ature observations at 07:00, 13:00 and 19:00 h (T7:00, T13:00 and T19:00) and daily measurements were
obtained from the stations, and the maximum (Tmax), minimum (Tmin) and mean (Tmean) values were
calculated. Their distribution and variation were analyzed, thermal sensation categories were cal-
culated, and the thermal differences (ΔTLCZX-LCZD) between open-compact LCZ types and LCZD
(typical rural type with low plants) were obtained in order to identify patterns between the sta-
tions and their assigned LCZs. Furthermore, we compared urban morphology (form) parameters
to the ranges proposed in the literature to classify LCZs. The results clearly showed variations and
patterns between the stations and their assigned LCZs when using Tmin, T7:00 and T19:00 air temper-
ature data and the indices and categories calculated from these. Values of ΔTLCZX-LCZD > 5°C were
found in the densely urbanised LCZ at night, and some negative values at noon suggested the
presence of an urban cool island. The results show the usefulness of LCZs in understanding dif-
ferences and temperature variations between divergent urban sectors. However, when different
LCZ types are grouped, the thermal differences between them can be better appreciated and
explained. The main conclusion is that the urban surface of Bogotá does not generate high tem-
peratures, but decreases the occurrences of low values in Tmin, Tmean, T19:00 and T7:00.

KEY WORDS: Local climate zones · Air temperature · Thermal differences · Urban cool island ·
Temperature-based indices · Urban form
Resale or republication not permitted without written consent of the publisher

1. INTRODUCTION 7 h after sunset, when the daily minimum air tem-

One of the clearest examples of human-induced
climate change is the urban heat island (UHI),
which is measured by its intensity (ΔTu−r), defined
as the difference between urban (u) and rural (r)
temperature (T). The UHI can be used as an indica-
tor for assessing the severity of the urbanisation
process over the natural environment (Oke 1973,
Arnfield 2003, Rizwan et al. 2008, Oke et al. 2017).
The UHI effect is easily identifiable between 4 and
perature (Tmin) occurs. Consequently, the reduction
in Tmin values within a city shows the clearest differ-
ence between urban and rural environments. Such
a reduction does not happen with the daily maxi-
mum air temperature (Tmax) that is usually recorded
during the day, because the solar radiation exposure
in the early morning is lower in the urban area than
in the rural surroundings due to the shadowing
effect generated by the urban elements. As the day
proceeds, built-up and impervious areas absorb and

*Corresponding author: ealeramirez12@gmail.com © Inter-Research 2020 · www.int-res.com

 16 Clim Res 82: 15–31, 2020

store heat in the urban surface that is then released Variations in the urban form within a city influence
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at nighttime. At this time, the reduction in the visi-
ble sky area and deep urban canyons affect the loss
of longwave radiation emitted by urban surfaces to
the sky because of the obstruction generated by
the buildings, thus producing an increase in sensible
heat convection. The influence of urban morphol-
ogy (i.e. the urban form) in increasing ΔTu−r is well
known.
The cooling effect of green areas during the day
is well documented, as vegetation can increase the
evapotranspiration process and help regulate the
surface temperature by increasing latent heat (Oke
1982, Whitford et al. 2001, Wong & Yu 2005, Coseo
& Larsen 2014, Perini & Magliocco 2014, Oke et al.
2017). In a similar manner, regional wind patterns
are modified when they flow around the rough sur-
faces generated by the structural forms of buildings
and street networks, not only affecting the wind
profiles inside the city, but also the intensity of tur-
bulence and wind speed that determines the for-
mation of local climates inside city neighbourhoods
by the heat exchanges described above (Grimmond
& Oke 1999, Arnfield 2003, Ng et al. 2011, Oke et
al. 2017).
its air temperature distribution (Oke 1982, Unger
2004, Fenner et al. 2014). To standardise this urban
diversity, Stewart & Oke (2012) proposed local cli-
mate zones (LCZs), which are divided into 10 built-
up and 7 land cover types defined according to a set
of urban form, thermal and metabolic parameters
(Table 1). One advantage offered by LCZs is the
redefinition of ΔTu−r through differences between
pairs of LCZs (ΔTLCZX-LCZY) (Leconte et al. 2015,
Martilli et al. 2020). LCZs can explain the variations
in near-surface air temperature more clearly than
simply comparing urban–rural differences as there are
contrasts and a hierarchy as a function of ΔTLCZX-LCZY
between LCZs (Stewart & Oke 2010, Stewart et al.
2014, Lehnert et al. 2018, Yang et al. 2018). This was
demonstrated by Alexander & Mills (2014), Fenner et
al. (2017), Skarbit et al. (2017) and Beck et al.(2018),
who found that mean air temperature (Tmean) and Tmin
decrease in LCZs that are less compact and lower in
height, in Szeged, Berlin, Dublin and Augsburg,
respectively. Moreover, Leconte et al. (2015) identi-
fied the same thermal patterns in Nancy by compar-
ing the thermal amplitude of different LCZs. In gen-
eral, high ΔTLCZX-LCZY values are found at night when

Table 1. Local climate zone (LCZ) types, urban morphology and land cover parameter values that define each LCZ. Source:
Stewart & Oke (2012). Sky view factor: ratio of amount of sky hemisphere visible from ground level to that of an unobstructed
atmosphere; Aspect ratio: mean height to width ratio (H/W) of street canyons (LCZs 1−7), building spacing (LCZs 8−10) and
tree spacing (LCZs A−G); Building surface fraction: ratio of building plan area to total plan area (%); Impervious surface frac-
tion: ratio of impervious plan area (paved, rock) to total plan area (%); Pervious surface fraction: ratio of pervious plan area
(bare soil, vegetation, water) to total plan area (%); Height of roughness elements: geometric average of building heights (BH;
LCZs 1−10) and tree/plant heights (LCZs A−F) (m). (−) Not applicable

LCZ Sky view Aspect Building Impervious Pervious Height

factor ratio surface surface surface of roughness
fraction fraction fraction elements

Built-up type
1: Compact high-rise 0.2−0.4 >2 40−60 40−60 <10 > 25
2: Compact mid-rise 0.3−0.6 0.75−2 40−70 30−50 < 20 10−25
3: Compact low-rise 0.2−0.6 0.75−1.5 40−70 20−50 < 30 3−10
4: Open high-rise 0.5−0.7 0.75−1.25 20−40 30−40 30−40 > 25
5: Open mid-rise 0.5−0.8 0.3−0.75 20−40 30−50 20−40 10−25
6: Open low-rise 0.6−0.9 0.3−0.75 20−40 20−50 30−60 3−10
7: Lightweight LCZ 0.2−0.5 1−2 60−90 < 20 < 30 2−4
8: Large low-rise > 0.7 0.1−0.3 30−50 40−50 < 20 3−10
9: Sparsely built > 0.8 0.1−0.25 10−20 < 20 60−80 3−10
10: Heavy industry 0.6−0.9 0.2−0.5 20−30 20−40 40−50 5−15
Land cover
A: Dense trees < 0.4 >1 <10 <10 > 90 3−30
B: Scattered trees 0.5−0.8 0.25−0.75 <10 <10 > 90 3−15
C: Bush, scrub 0.7−0.9 0.25−1.0 <10 <10 > 90 <2
D: Low plants > 0.9 < 0.1 <10 <10 > 90 <1
E: Bare rock or paved > 0.9 < 0.1 <10 > 90 <10 < 0.25
F: Bare soil or sand > 0.9 < 0.1 <10 <10 > 90 < 0.25
G: Water > 0.9 < 0.1 <10 <10 > 90 −
 Ramírez-Aguilar & Souza: Thermal properties in Bogotá, Colombia
compact LCZs are compared with open LCZs and
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with LCZD, which describes a typical rural environ-
ment (Emmanuel & Krüger 2012, Kotharkar & Bagade
2018, Yang et al. 2018).
Another way to explain thermal variations and pat-
terns between LCZs is by using temperature-based
indices which reflect energy demands (heating and
cooling necessities) and frequencies of different
phenomena (hot and cold events) using air tempera-
ture data classified according to a threshold value
(Matzarakis & Thomsen 2009, Kolokotroni et al.
2010). Emmanuel & Krüger (2012) and Yang et al.
(2018) reported that days when Tmean is >14°C, so-
called ‘heating days’, decreased with urbanisation
intensity from open to compact LCZs, with consider-
able declines recorded in Dublin city centre and in
LCZ2 in Nanjing, respectively. Likewise, Skarbit et
al. (2017) found an increase in ‘heating days’ from
highly urbanised LCZs in Szeged to rural areas
(LCZD), but the greatest difference was found with
‘cooling days’ (Tmean > 18.3°C), showing a 40% in-
crease in LCZ3 (compact) compared with LCZ8
(open). The authors also determined other indices in
Szeged using Tmax and Tmin data. For example, for
‘frost days’, defined as days where Tmin < 0°C, they
found an increasing pattern from compact LCZs to
open LCZs. In contrast, ‘tropical nights’, i.e. nights
with Tmin > 0°C, increased with the density of the
urban environment (LCZ2 and 3).
The aim of the current study was to evaluate the
thermal properties, variations and differences be-
tween different urban sectors of Bogotá, Colombia,
and their assigned LCZs. Our specific objectives were
to: (1) describe the thermal changes using different air
temperature observations; (2) calculate and analyse
the UHI intensity according to the LCZs; and (3) cal-
culate and examine patterns in temperature-based in-
dices and thermal sensation categories. To meet these
objectives, we obtained daily maximum, minimum
and mean values, along with specific hourly data for a
period of 365 d. Furthermore, we assessed the appli-
cability of the LCZ concept in Bogotá by comparing
the urban form parameter values of each evaluated
sector with the LCZ ranges as suggested by Stewart &
Oke (2012). To do this, a classifying process was de-
vised following suggestions found in the literature
(Gál et al. 2015, R. Wang et al. 2018, Zheng et al. 2018)
and using urban form data previously calculated for
Bogotá (Ramírez-Aguilar & Souza 2019). We found
that the correlation between the urbanised area of
Bogotá and its local climate, expressed by local cli-
mate change, is due to the characteristics of its urban
surface. Moreover, this study will contribute to the
17
limited number of scholarly works on this topic, es-
pecially with regard to the urban climate of Bogotá
(Tercera Comunicación Nacional de Cambio Climático
2016, Sarricolea & Meseguer-Ruiz 2019).
2. DATA AND METHODS
2.1. Study city and air temperature data
Our study area is Bogotá (Fig. 1), the capital city of
Colombia, which can be classified as a having a
high-altitude tropical climate (Roth 2007) given its
mean altitude of 2625 m above sea level (a.s.l.). This
altitude and its proximity to the equator (4° 35’ N,
74° 04’ W) create uniform temperatures throughout
the year (mean: 14°C; minimum: 4°C; maximum:
25°C) and a low annual thermal amplitude (< 2°C),
which is also caused by the bimodal season system
and its 2 rainy seasons (April to June and August to
November) (Eidt 1969, Jauregui 1986, Gaitan et al.
2007). Bogotá has a population of 9 500 000 inhabi-
tants who live in an urban area of 385.50 km2, result-
ing in a very high population density of 24 643
inhabitants km−2 (Wheeler 2015).
Ten meteorological stations, comprising 1 rural sta-
tion (Tr) located in an agricultural area near the city,
3 suburban stations placed in low population areas
(including the airport, industrialized areas and edu-
cational institutions) and 6 urban stations located in
high-density and urbanised sectors (Table 2, Fig. 1b),
were used to extract daily maximum (Tmax) and mini-
mum (Tmin) temperature data for a period of 365 d
(2009). Additionally, daily Tmean data were also ob-
tained from the averages of Tmax and Tmin (Eq. 1):
Tmax + Tmin
Tmean = (1)
2
Hourly temperature data were acquired in the same
way. Although the stations only provide data for 3
specific hours (07:00, 13:00 and 19:00 h, i.e. T7:00 ,
T13:00 and T19:00), the thermal properties of different
times of the day (sunrise, noon and sunset) can be
analysed (Table 3). All of the meteorological stations
belong to the Instituto de Hidrología Meteorología y
Estudios Ambientales (IDEAM) network that pro-
vides free and accessible data (www.ideam.gov.co/
solicitud-de-informacion). Information about these
stations is provided in Table 2 (IDEAM 2017). Using
these data, we investigated air temperature varia-
tions and differences between sectors and their
LCZs based on UHI intensity (ΔTLCZX-LCZD), which
was calculated for daily and hourly air temperatures.
 18 Clim Res 82: 15–31, 2020
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Fig. 1. (a) Location of study site (Bogotá, Colombia) and (b) locations of meteorological stations (with station codes shown
in bold) and their areas of influence (sectors)

2.2. Urban form data and classification of stations
in the LCZs
Urban land cover and morphology (form) para-
meter data were calculated for the area of influence
(sector) of each meteorological station. Each sector
has a radius of 0.3 km, based on the recommenda-
tions of Oke (2004) and the World Meteorological
Organization (2008) for high-density cities such as
Bogotá (Wheeler 2015), and the height of the temp-
erature sensor (2 m) at each station (Table 2). These
parameters are summarized and described in Table 4
 Ramírez-Aguilar & Souza: Thermal properties in Bogotá, Colombia 19
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Table 2. Characteristics of the meteorological stations in Bogotá used in this study. Height of air temperature sensor is 2 m for
all stations. See Fig. 1 for locations. Source: IDEAM (2017)

Station name and code Abbr Location Altitude Latitude Longitude

(m a.s.l.) (°N) (°W)

TIBAITATA (2120500151) Tr+ Rural (farm) 2543 4° 41’ 29” 74° 12’ 32”
NVA GENERACION AUT (21206600) NGU Suburban (agricultural) 2590 4° 46’ 56” 74° 5’ 40”
C.UNIV.AGROP. UDCA (21206260) AUD Suburban (university) 2570 4° 47’ 55” 74° 2’ 59”
APTO EL DORADO (21206130) AD Suburban (airport) 2546 4° 42’ 20” 74° 9’ 2”
JARDIN BOTANICO (21205710) JB Urban (botanical garden/urban park) 2552 4° 40’ 10” 74° 6’ 10”
COL SANTIAGO PEREZ (21206660) CSP Urban (local school) 2565 4° 34’ 34” 74° 7’ 51”
INEM KENNEDY (21206560) IK Urban (multifamily residences) 2580 4° 39’ 40” 74° 8’ 5”
BILBAO MAXIMO POTI (21206630) BMP Urban (multifamily residences) 2600 4° 45’ 4” 74° 5’ 30”
UNISALLE CENTRO (21206970) UC Urban (multifamily residences) 2700 4° 35’ 42” 74° 4’ 13”
COL H DURAN (21206620) HD Urban (dense neighbourhood) 2562 4° 38’ 5” 74° 10’ 25”

(also see Ramírez-Aguilar & Souza 2019). These
urban form parameters help determine the LCZ for
each sector. The building surface fraction (BSF, %)
and the building height (BH) (Fig. 2, Table 4) were
the key parameters which defined the classification
process for the LCZ built-up types. These parameters
have also been used to define these classification
types in other studies (Gál et al. 2015, R. Wang et al.
2018, Zheng et al. 2018). Thus, BH identifies the
building type (high-rise: BH > 21 m; mid-rise: BH =
10−21 m; low-rise: BH < 10 m) and BSF determines
the building density type of each sector (compact:
BSF > 40%; open: BSF = 18−40%; sparsely built: BSF
< 18%). The LCZ land cover type classification was
made by observing the visual characteristics of the
land cover in Google Earth satellite imagery of the
sectors (Fig. 2) and based on our local knowledge of
the city. Both approaches help to classify these LCZ

Table 3. Daily maximum (Tmax), minimum (Tmin) and mean (Tmean) air temperature values (°C; 1 yr mean values) along with
hourly air temperature data for 07:00, 13:00 and 19:00 h (T7:00, T13:00 and T19:00) at different meteorological stations in Bogotá
(see Fig. 1 for locations). Tr: rural reference station; (−) no data

Meteorological stations / sectors

Tr NGU AUD AD JB CSP IK BMP UC HD

Tmax Mean 20.30 21.04 20.18 19.72 20.11 21.59 20.59 20.15 20.09 21.63
Amplitude 7.80 9.60 8.40 7.00 6.80 6.20 9.00 6.80 9.10 7.80
Max 24.20 25.80 24.00 23.10 23.40 24.20 25.20 24.00 24.30 25.20
Min 16.40 16.20 15.60 16.10 16.60 18.00 16.20 17.20 15.20 17.40
Tmin Mean 6.87 7.71 8.23 8.65 9.04 9.70 10.80 10.26 10.20 11.93
Amplitude 12.80 9.60 10.20 10.40 7.80 4.80 7.80 6.80 6.70 7.00
Max 11.60 11.40 12.00 12.60 12.60 11.60 14.20 12.80 12.90 15.20
Min −1.20 1.80 1.80 2.20 4.80 6.80 6.40 6.00 6.20 8.20
Tmean Mean 13.57 14.38 14.19 14.18 14.58 15.72 15.75 15.32 15.15 16.69
Amplitude 5.90 5.80 6.10 5.85 5.40 3.80 5.60 4.00 5.70 5.70
Max 16.00 17.40 16.80 17.15 17.20 17.50 18.70 17.10 17.80 19.10
Min 10.10 11.60 10.70 11.30 11.80 13.70 13.10 13.10 12.10 13.40
T7:00 Mean 9.73 10.76 10.23 10.69 12.94 12.91 13.09 11.64 11.96 13.16
Amplitude 10.10 8.20 9.60 8.0 6.20 4.0 7.40 7.20 6.50 8.30
Max 13.10 13.60 13.80 13.80 16.00 15.00 16.80 15.00 14.90 17.30
Min 3.00 5.40 4.20 5.80 9.80 11.00 9.40 7.80 8.40 9.00
T13:00 Mean 18.79 19.02 18.38 18.04 18.47 20.39 18.07 18.42 18.03 19.24
Amplitude 11.1 10.4 10.8 9.9 8.8 6.4 9.4 11.8 11.4 10.9
Max 24.10 24.60 22.40 22.20 21.80 23.40 22.40 22.80 23.40 25.00
Min 13.00 14.20 11.60 12.30 13.00 17.00 13.00 11.00 12.00 14.10
T19:00 Mean 12.85 13.15 13.48 13.70 15.26 − 15.34 14.32 14.45 14.76
Amplitude 5.40 4.60 6.40 5.60 7.80 − 9.40 6.40 5.50 6.30
Max 15.00 14.80 16.60 16.20 18.20 − 19.80 18.40 16.90 18.40
Min 9.60 10.20 10.20 10.60 10.40 − 10.40 12.00 11.40 12.10
 20 Clim Res 82: 15–31, 2020

that describe days (or nights) that

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Table 4. Representative urban form (morphology) parameter values for the

meteorological stations’ area of influence (sectors). Source: Ramírez-Aguilar &
seem hot or cold in an urban sector
Souza (2019). BSF: building surface fraction (fraction of the urban land cover
depend on Tmax and Tmin data (Fenner
plan area occupied by buildings [built-up area]); PSF: pervious surface frac-
et al. 2017, Yoo et al. 2018), where ‘hot
tion (fraction of the area of surfaces such as green areas, parks and vegetation
in relation to the total urban land cover plan area); ISF: impervious surfacedays’ (HoD) (Tmax > 24°C) and ‘cool
fraction (fraction of paved surface area to the total urban land cover plan area,
days’ (CoD) (Tmax < 20°C) can be iden-
outside the buildings); BH: building height area-weighted mean; SVF: sky tified. Considering that Tmin values are
view factor (hemisphere fraction occupied by the sky available for heat
exchange); H/W: aspect ratio (considers BH in relation to the distance
observed at night, values for ‘cold
between the buildings [width]). See Fig. 1 for station locations nights’ (CoN) (Tmin < 10°C) and ‘tem-
perate nights’ (TeN) (Tmin > 12°C) can
Station/ Urban land cover parameters Urban morphology parameters also be obtained. The latter indicate
sector BSF (%) PSF (%) ISF (%) BH (m) SVF H/W nights that tend to be warm. These
indices are based on those used by
NGU 5.35 83.68 10.98 4.67 0.69 0.09 Skarbit et al. (2017).
AUD 8.60 76.33 16.23 4.65 0.68 0.14
The temperatures of specific hours
AD 16.91 43.27 40.47 5.50 0.59 0.14
JB 23.95 50.04 26.16 6.94 0.50 0.19 (T7:00, T13:00 and T19:00) do not present
CSP 25.82 20.92 53.24 9.75 0.47 0.44 maximum or minimum values. For this
IK 19.10 27.82 53.08 13.49 0.36 0.36 reason, only HeD and ColD indices
BMP 26.46 18.01 56.15 16.80 0.45 0.83
were obtained from these data. How-
UC 49.19 14.32 36.68 6.64 0.41 0.35
HD 46.49 8.84 46.98 8.64 0.32 0.70 ever, all thermal sensation categories
were calculated for T7:00, T13:00 and
T19:00 (Table 6). Not all stations pro-
types and to identify specific features that occur in vided a total of 365 daily measurements; therefore, in
some sectors that were subclassified. According to order to make a comparison between the different
Mills et al. (2015), the expertise of an individual who proportions, the indices and categories were calcu-
knows the city is a valid and pertinent step during lated according to the total number of observation
the classification process. days rather than 365 d, as was also done in several
studies that depend on weather station data (e.g.
Emmanuel & Krüger 2012).
2.3. Temperature-based index calculation

Temperature-based indices were calculated using 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

air temperature data to find thermal variations be-
tween stations and LCZs. These indices show the
number of days (frequency) within an established
period (proportion) when temperatures are higher or
lower than a threshold value (Matzarakis & Thomsen
2009, Skarbit et al. 2017). This concept can be ap-
plied to air temperature ranges based on thermal
sensation. For this study, the IDEAM thermal sensa-
tion categories proposed by González (1998) for the
city of Bogotá are used and calculated using Tmean
data. These categories are: very cold < 10°C, cold =
10−14°C, pleasant = 14−18°C, warm = 18−24°C and
hot > 24°C (Table 5).
The above thermal sensation category values help
to fix the threshold limits for the calculation of
temperature-based indices for the city of Bogotá
(Table 5). Thus, the first indices are based on Tmean
and indicate the temperature addition (heating) or
reduction (cooling) demands in the built-up environ-
ment. These are ‘heating days’ (HeD) (Tmean < 14°C)
and ‘cooling days’ (ColD) (Tmean > 18°C). The indices
3.1. Properties of the LCZs in Bogotá
The LCZ classification was made according to the
values summarized in Table 4 and the process out-
lined in Fig. 2. Stations NGU, AUD and AD (see
Table 2 for station details and Fig. 1 for station loca-
tions) had a large pervious surface fractions (PSF >
40%) and they were classified as LCZ9. In JB, there
are many low buildings and several gardens (PSF =
50%), which defined LCZ6. The large urban park
(45.18% of the total JB area) is subclassified as
LCZB. Some difficulties occurred with the classifica-
tion of stations CSP, IK and BMP, due to variations in
BH. However, their BH values (10, 14 and 17 m,
respectively) classified these sectors as LCZ5. More
specifically, CSP was subclassified as LCZ58 due to
the presence of large low-rise buildings related to
services and sports. IK and BMP were subclassified
as LCZ54 to describe the presence of some high-rise
buildings. UC and HD were classified as LCZ3 due to
 Ramírez-Aguilar & Souza: Thermal properties in Bogotá, Colombia 21
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Fig. 2. Classification and subclassification process of the sectors (see Fig. 1) within the local climate zones (LCZs). BH identifies
the building type and BSF determines the building density type. Special features observed in the satellite and 3D images of
the sectors were considered using LCZ subclasses. LCZ types, urban morphology and land cover parameter values that define
each LCZ are defined in Tables 1 & 2
 22 Clim Res 82: 15–31, 2020

Table 5. Number of days of temperature-based indices and thermal sensation categories based on daily air temperature obser-
Author copy

vations (Tmax, Tmin and Tmean) for the different meteorological stations (see Fig. 1 for locations) and their local climate zones
(LCZs; see Table 1 for definitions and Fig. 2 for further explanations). Tr: rural reference station; #*: total number of days with
recorded values; #: number of days featured in the index/category

Temperature-based Meteorological stations and their LCZs

indices/thermal Tr NGU AUD AD JB CSP IK BMP UC HD
sensation categories LCZD LCZ9 LCZ6B LCZ58 LCZ54 LCZ35 LCZ3

Tmean #* 335 345 308 353 323 45 178 171 359 117
Heating days (HeD < 14°C) # 208 120 129 151 105 2 6 12 38 0
Cooling days (ColD > 18°C) # 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 12
Tmax #* 338 347 338 364 336 55 195 265 360 152
Hot days (HoD > 24°C) # 3 24 5 2 1 9 16 5 16 25
Cool days (CoD < 20°C) # 150 102 161 215 154 7 61 139 180 23
Tmin #* 362 347 327 354 334 53 261 217 361 155
Cold nights (CoN < 10°C) # 329 330 248 260 238 33 83 90 152 15
Temperate nights (TeN > 12°C) # 0 0 0 4 7 0 52 11 19 83
Tmean #* 335 345 308 353 323 45 178 171 359 117
Very cold < 10°C # 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cold = 10−14°C # 208 120 129 151 105 2 6 12 38 0
Pleasant = 14−18°C # 127 225 179 202 218 43 168 159 321 105
Warm = 18−24°C # 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 12
Hot > 24°C # 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 6. Number of days of temperature-based indices and thermal sensation categories based on hourly air temperature
observations (T7:00, T13:00 and T19:00) for the different meteorological stations (see Fig. 1 for locations) and their local climate
zones (LCZs, see Table 1 for definitions and Fig. 2 for further explanations). Tr: rural reference station; #*: total number of days
with recorded values; #: number of days featured in the index/category; (−) no data

Temperature-based Meteorological stations and their LCZs

indices/thermal Tr NGU AUD AD JB CSP IK BMP UC HD
sensation categories LCZD LCZ9 LCZ6B LCZ58 LCZ54 LCZ35 LCZ3

T7:00 #* 365 348 343 361 306 43 291 354 359 163
Heating days (HeD < 14°C) # 365 348 343 361 256 37 229 347 353 107
Cooling days (ColD > 18°C) # 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
T13:00 #* 365 347 347 364 331 35 300 360 362 145
HeD # 8 0 4 11 4 0 9 4 8 0
ColD # 227 237 198 196 209 30 157 209 175 110
T19:00 #* 365 296 342 362 266 − 283 354 361 150
HeD # 341 246 254 226 61 − 52 149 114 39
ColD # 0 0 0 0 1 − 11 2 0 1
T7:00 #* 365 348 343 361 306 43 291 354 359 163
Very cold < 10°C # 166 98 134 115 3 0 4 45 27 7
Cold = 10−14°C # 199 250 209 246 253 37 225 302 326 100
Pleasant = 14−18°C # 0 0 0 0 50 6 62 7 6 56
Warm = 18−24°C # 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hot > 24°C # 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
T13:00 #* 365 347 347 364 331 35 300 360 362 145
Very cold # 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cold # 8 0 4 11 4 0 9 4 8 0
Pleasant # 130 110 145 157 118 5 134 147 179 35
Warm # 226 233 198 196 209 30 157 209 175 109
Hot # 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
T19:00 #* 365 296 342 362 266 − 283 354 361 150
Very cold # 1 0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 0
Cold # 340 246 254 226 61 − 52 149 114 39
Pleasant # 24 50 88 136 204 − 220 203 247 110
Warm # 0 0 0 0 1 − 11 2 0 1
Hot # 0 0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 0
 Ramírez-Aguilar & Souza: Thermal properties in Bogotá, Colombia 23

their densely built-up surface (BSF > 45%) and low- more buildings than LCZ9 suggests. In JB (LCZ6B),
Author copy

rise buildings. To characterise some university (mid-
rise) buildings, UC was sub-classified as LCZ35.
In some cases, morphological and land cover para-
meter values do not correspond with the ranges pro-
posed by Stewart & Oke (2012) (Fig. 3). Similar clas-
sification difficulties were also found in other cities
(Leconte et al. 2015, Lehnert et al. 2015, 2018, Geletič
& Lehnert 2016, C. Wang et al. 2018). Specifically,
impervious surface fractions (ISF) and PSF values do
not match the ranges at stations classified as LCZ9
and LCZ5 (Fig. 3b,c). This occurs due to the largest
number of squares and sidewalks present in these
sectors; for example, the airport in AD includes large
paved areas. For the morphological parameters,
aspect ratio (H/W) and the sky view factor (SVF) val-
ues do not match the ranges for LCZ3, LCZ5 and
LCZ6B stations (Fig. 3e,f). These disagreements with
the proposed ranges can be explained by the specific
features of the urban elements. For instance, in AD,
the SVF is significantly low due to the presence of
large urban parks influence final SVF and H/W val-
ues by generating more open areas. These specific
configuration features are recognised by subclassifi-
cations. However, the LCZ subclassification does not
match in most ranges because this classification only
highlights the presence of key and obvious features
(e.g. tall buildings, large parks) that do not have
enough weight in the representative parameter val-
ues. Lastly, the necessity to separate and explain
urban and non-urban particularities at a local scale
during the LCZ classification process was noted by
Stewart (2018), who proposed combining LCZs with
the orographic classification of cities that categorizes
urban topography into mountain top, plateau, slope,
slope terrace, valley, basin and slope base within the
city area (Wanner & Ringer 1989). These concepts
allow us to describe in great detail the spatial fea-
tures and topographies, i.e. geographical features
that have implications in urban air temperature and
are very common in Andean cities (Hannell 1976,

Fig. 3. Local climate zone (LCZ) property values of the (a,b,c) urban land cover and (d,e,f) urban morphology of different
sectors of Bogotá (see Fig. 1 for locations and abbreviations), compared with the ranges suggested by Stewart & Oke (2012)
for each LCZ type (as defined in Table 1). Ranges are indicated by the grey boxes, and values of the individual sectors are
indicated by the red lines
 24 Clim Res 82: 15–31, 2020
Roncancio & Mejía 2015, Bustamante & Orellana
Author copy
2018). Moreover, adding another system and param-
eters into the LCZ scheme opens the possibility of
improving the accuracy of the classification process.
3.2. Daily and hourly thermal properties and
differences between LCZs in Bogotá
Equal LCZs are assumed to have similar thermal
properties (Stewart & Oke 2010, Middel et al. 2014,
Stewart et al. 2014). However, in the case of Tmax and
T13:00 (Fig. 4a,e), an increase or decrease in the val-
ues from open to compact LCZs is not evident be-
cause their data are mostly within the same range
(20−21 and 18−19°C). High temperatures (Tmax −
T13:00 > 19°C) are evident in NGU (LCZ9), HD (LCZ3)
and CSP (LCZ58). In the first sector, energy absorp-
tion is not apt to occur (PSF = 83.68 %). In the others,
more radiation reaches the surface due to the low BH
value (8.64 m) and the open urban canyons (H/W =
0.44). In contrast, the high ISF (40.47%) in AD (LCZ9)
and the BSF in UC (LCZ35) favour radiation absorp-
tion during daytime, which explains the lowest Tmax
and T13:00 values (19.70−18.03°C).
On the other hand, there is a clear pattern in tem-
perature variation between the stations and LCZs,
which is evident in the early morning (T7:00), evening
(T19:00) and especially, using Tmin data (Fig. 4d,f,b).
There is an increase from open LCZs to compact
LCZs. Additionally, the highest Tmin, T7:00 and T19:00
values are found in IK (LCZ54) and HD (LCZ3). In
both sectors, deep and narrow urban canyons (BH =
13.49 m, SVF = 0.32, H/W = 0.70) cause a consider-
able increase in night temperatures due to the long-
wave emission, which cannot be dispersed (Oke
1982). Additionally, the high ISF in IK (> 50%), high
BSF in HD (> 45%) and low PSF (< 28%) in both sec-
tors (Table 4) can be translated into high heat capac-
ity and conductivity that is complemented by the
energy generated by the intense anthropogenic ac-
tivities in these neighbourhoods. Subsequently, all
that energy is wasted as a turbulent flux of sensible
heat into the local air mass that cannot be regulated
due to the lack of moisture generated by vegetated
surfaces that would help to increase latent heat flux
(Arnfield 2003, Oke et al. 2017). This thermal bal-
ance process is also evidenced by the reduction in
thermal amplitude (Table 3) from the rural station
(LCZD) (12.8°C) to open (10.07°C) and compact LCZs
(6.85°C), which also could show the reduction in the
nocturnal cooling rate. Noteworthy is JB (LCZ6B),
which has one of the highest values at T7:00 and T19:00
(12.94−15.26°C). Explaining this is complicated, con-
sidering the presence of a large urban park which
should have cooling effects (Fig. 2) (Wong & Yu 2005).
Likewise, Tmean tends to increase from open to com-
pact LCZs (Fig. 4c), and differences between the
LCZs are still noticeable (0.30−1°C), but this trend is
not as clear as in the previous cases.
In general, daily and hourly temperature proper-
ties are influenced by surface parameters (e.g. ISF).
Open low-rise (LCZs 9, 6, B), open mid-rise, and
high-rise LCZs are influenced by the height of the
urban elements, while LCZ3 is influenced by the nar-
rowing of the urban canyons. However, BMP (LCZ54)
and UC (LCZ35) stations tend to have lower values in
relation to the other stations in the same LCZ. This is
due to their location (Fig. 1b) near the city limits (e.g.
BMP is within 1.5 km of the city limits). BMP can pro-
duce different thermal measurements due to the ad-
vection produced by exposure to cool air from the
rural area (Fenner et al. 2017, Skarbit et al. 2017).
Similarly, the topography effect in UC, which is loc-
ated less than 1 km away from the mountain range
(> 3152 m a.s.l.) surrounding the east of the city, ex-
poses this sector to the east−west winds that descend
from the mountains (Gaitan et al. 2007). The effect of
topography on urban air temperature and UHI de-
velopment has previously been reported for several
high-altitude Andean cities. Hannell (1976) observed
that the nocturnal UHI in Quito, Ecuador (2818 m
a.s.l.), is destroyed by the drainage of cooler air
that descends into the urban area from mountains
(> 4300 m a.s.l.) that enclose the city to the east and
west. Quito is located in a valley, which causes sepa-
rated UHIs during daytime due to the altitude varia-
tions of the urban sectors. Similar results were rep-
orted by Bustamante & Orellana (2018) for the city of
Cuenca, Ecuador (2560 m a.s.l.), and several years
earlier by Roncancio & Mejía (2015) for Manizales,
Colombia (2153 m a.s.l.). Both investigations consid-
ered topography as an important element in the gen-
eration and distribution of UHIs.
The urban effects on air temperature can be easily
identified by the difference in air temperature be-
tween 2 LCZs, expressing UHI intensity (ΔTLCZX-LCZD).
UHI intensity increased from LCZ9 to LCZ3 for Tmin,
Tmean, T7:00 and T19:00, when the differences between
LCZs are most evident as well. For Tmax and T13:00 ,
the intensities were negative for most stations, sug-
gesting the presence of an ‘urban cool island’ during
the daytime (Fig. 5). The low or negative UHI magni-
tudes in the daytime can be explained considering
that UHI is a phenomenon that depends on urban
cooling processes that mostly occur at night until
 Ramírez-Aguilar & Souza: Thermal properties in Bogotá, Colombia 25
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Fig. 4. Distribution of daily (a) maximum (Tmax), (b) mini-

mum (Tmin) and (c) mean (Tmean) and hourly air temperature
observations for (d) early morning (T7:00), (e) noon (T13:00)
and (f) early evening (T19 00) temperature values for the dif-
ferent sectors (see Fig. 1) and their local climate zone (LCZ,
as defined in Table 1). Tr corresponds to the rural reference
station (LCZD)

early morning. During the first hours of the day, the 2009, Oke et al. 2017). This situation has been
UHI starts to disappear as a result of faster rural heat- reported in Mexico City (Cui & De Foy 2012), Santi-
ing, which increases sensible heat fluxes and re- ago de Chile (Peña 2008) and Tokyo, Japan (Takane
duces latent heat (Oke 1982, Szymanowski & Kryza & Kusaka 2011). Additionally, daytime cool islands
 26 Clim Res 82: 15–31, 2020
Author copy

Fig. 5. Variations in urban heat island intensity (calculated as ΔTLCZX-LCZD) for the different sectors (see Fig. 1) and their local
climate zone (LCZ; defined in Table 1) according to daily (Tmin, Tmean and Tmax) and hourly (T7:00, T13:00 and T19:00) air temper-
ature observations for (a) LCZ9, (b) LCZ6B, (c) LCZ5 and (d) LCZ3. Negative values suggest the presence of an urban cool
island during daytime. The smaller font sizes in the LCZ type boxes indicates subclasses

are easily identifiable by using Tmax data (Kolokotroni
et al. 2006) and are also attributed to the shading
effect of buildings (Hinkel et al. 2003). Yang et al.
(2018) explained that the nature of cool islands could
vary depending on LCZ classes. For open LCZs, the
phenomenon could be attributed to the cooling effect
of trees. For compact LCZs, cool islands could be
attributed to a reduction in solar radiation gain. How-
ever, more exhaustive studies need to be conducted.
In contrast, Hannell (1976) and Bustamante & Orel-
lana (2018) reported considerable UHI intensities
during the daytime in the Ecuadorian cities of Quito
(> 4°C) and Cuenca (> 5°C), and the presence of an
urban cool island during nighttime, with negative
magnitudes of > −2°C and > −3.5°C. Although Bogotá
shares similar characteristics with those Andean
cities, specifically in altitude (> 2500 m a.s.l.) and
location (Andes Mountains), they have significant
differences in their topographic conditions. Bogotá is
situated on a plateau that provides a flat urban area
that is not strongly affected by the descending winds
from the mountains to the east. For Colombia’s capi-
tal city, this allows for high radiation absorption dur-
ing daytime and the development of a UHI at night.
On the other hand, Quito and Cuenca are highly
affected by their broken topography that generates
cooler winds at night, as explained above. As evi-
dence, LCZ5 and LCZ3 stations do not appear to
have uniform ΔTLCZX-LCZD values for daily and hourly
temperatures (Fig. 5c,d). The reduction in UHI inten-
 Ramírez-Aguilar & Souza: Thermal properties in Bogotá, Colombia 27

sity in BMP and UC confirms the influence of station

Author copy

location on temperature, and the importance of court-

yards, a clearly visible morphological characteristic
in BMP (Fig. 2). Lehnert et al. (2018) found that green
courtyards, which are a typical feature of central
European cities, decrease the temperature in LCZ5.
Equally important, the LCZ9 stations have uniform
intensity values in Tmean and T7:00, but they increase
from NGU to AD for Tmin and T19:00 and decrease for
Tmax and T13:00 (Fig. 5a). The slight differences between
LCZ6B (JB) and LCZ9 (ΔTLCZ6B-LCZ9) in Tmin (0.84°C),
Tmax (−0.20°C), T13:00 (−0.01°C) and Tmean (0.33°C) sug-
gest that the large urban park has some cooling effect,
but this disappears during the night, as this sector
presents high hourly temperatures in the early morning
and evening when JB has little differences with LCZ5
(ΔTLCZ5-LCZ6B < 0.40), thus having similar thermal
properties (Fig. 5b). However, ΔTLCZ5-LCZ6B increases
in Tmin (1.22°C) and Tmean (1.02°C). Likewise, the dif-
ferences between LCZ3 and LCZ9 are clearer (>1°C).
Compared to LCZ5, ΔTLCZ3-LCZ5 is not very strong for
Tmin (0.81°C), Tmax (0.08°C) and Tmean (0.32°C). Finally,
the UHI effect (ΔTLCZX-LCZD > 1°C) occurs only for Tmin
and T7:00 in LCZ9. For the other types, the UHI effect
is evident for Tmin and Tmean, T7:00 and T19:00.

3.3. Thermal variation in LCZs

measured by temperature-based indices
and thermal sensation categories
Fig. 6. Occurrence percentages for the temperature-based
indices according to (a) Tmean, (b) Tmax and (c) Tmin for the dif-
For daily variation (Tmax, Tmin and Tmean), tempera-
ferent sectors (see Fig. 1) and their local climate zone (LCZ,
ture-based indices may suggest that LCZs have dif- as defined in Table 1)
ferent changes and thermal conditions (Skarbit et al.
2017). HeD, CoN (Fig. 6a,c) and ‘cold’ (Fig. 7) per-
centages show a clear reduction from open to com-
pact LCZs. Specifically, open mid-rise and high-rise
LCZs (5 and 4) and the compact LCZ3 substantially
reduce their percentages by half (< 40%) when com-
pared to open low-rise LCZs (9, 6, B) (> 40%), which
also halve their percentages compared to the rural
station Tr (LCZD) (> 60%), except for CoN. LCZ9 and
LCZ6B do not decrease significantly when compared
to the rural reference (90.88%). This suggests that at
night, LCZ9 and 6 have a similar cooling process
compared to the rural station. In contrast, there is an
increase in the ‘pleasant’ category from open LCZs to
compact LCZs, where open mid-rise, high-rise LCZs
(5 and 4) and the compact LCZ (3) have a large per-
centage (> 90%). Moreover, higher percentages for Fig. 7. Occurrence percentages for thermal sensation cate-
gories (very cold < 10°C, cold = 10−14°C, pleasant =
all stations are shown for CoD (Fig. 6b), although a 14−18°C, warm = 18−24°C, hot > 24°C) considering Tmean
pattern between LCZs is difficult to discern since the data for the different sectors (see Fig. 1) and their local
percentages vary widely between stations. climate zone (LCZ, as defined in Table 1)
 28 Clim Res 82: 15–31, 2020

On the other hand, it is clear that the ‘very cold’

Author copy

category (Fig. 7), ColD, HoD and TeN (Fig. 6a−c) are
not common in all sectors. Some percentages slightly
increased for open mid-rise and high-rise LCZs (5
and 4) and the compact LCZ (3). Specifically, IK
(LCZ54) and HD (LCZ3) have a small proportion of
ColD (<10%), there are significant values of TeN
(19.92−53.55%) and small percentages in the ‘hot’
category (<10.5%), which may suggest the presence
of UHIs for most of the year.
Considering hourly variation (T7:00, T13:00 and T19:
00), large percentages of HeD and ColD indices do
not appear simultaneously at the same hour. Most of
the time, ‘very cold’, ‘cold’ (Fig. 8) and HeD are
present for T7:00 and T19:00 (Fig. 9a,c). This means
that there is a demand for early morning and
evening heating in most sectors of the city. How-
ever, a trend in HeD variation according to the
LCZs is not very clear at T7:00 but is clearer for the
‘very cold’ category, where the open low-rise, mid-
rise, high-rise LCZs (6, 4, 5) and the compact LCZ
(3) have half the percentage (<12%) of LCZ9 and
LCZD (Tr) (30−45%), a pattern that also occurred in
the ‘cold’ category at T19:00.
On the other hand, the ‘pleasant’ category appears
with significant percentages (13−35%) for LCZs 6, 5
and 3 at T7:00 and there is an increase from open to
compact LCZs at T19:00 (Fig. 9a−c) when LCZs 6, 5 Fig. 8. Occurrence percentages for the temperature-based
indices according to hourly air temperature data for (a) early
and 4 increase the ‘pleasant’ category by more than morning (T7:00), (b) noon (T13:00) and (c) early evening (T19:00)
half (57−77%) compared to LCZ9 (< 37%). However, for the different sectors (see Fig. 1) and their local climate
the percentage reduction of this category for BMP zone (LCZ, as defined in Table 1)

Fig. 9. Occurrence percentages for thermal sensation categories according to hourly air temperature data (very cold < 10°C,
cold = 10−14°C, pleasant = 14−18°C, warm = 18−24°C, and hot > 24°C) for (a) early morning (T7:00), (b) noon (T13:00) and (c)
early evening (T19:00) for the different sectors (see Fig. 1) and their local climate zone (LCZ, as defined in Table 1)
 Ramírez-Aguilar & Souza: Thermal properties in Bogotá, Colombia
and UC stations suggests that location is an impor-
Author copy
tant factor in reducing ‘very cold’ or ‘cold’ early
mornings and evenings. In contrast, HeD had in-
significant percentages at noon (T13:00) (<3%) (Fig. 8b).
In this case, ColD has the highest percentage at all
stations (48−26%). Simultaneously, ‘warm’ had a
high percentage (> 50%), suggesting cooling de-
mands at noon (Fig. 9b), although the ‘pleasant’ cat-
egory also has a significant proportion (15−50%) at
this specific hour. Regarding the variability between
LCZs, this is not evident for ColD, nor in any of the
thermal sensation categories during the day.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The thermal properties, variations and differences
between the 10 diverse urban sectors of Bogotá
classified into the LCZ scheme were explored using
distinctive daily air temperature data expressed
in maximum, minimum and mean values and air
temperature data that were taken at various times
throughout the day (07:00, 13:00 and 19:00 h). These
datasets were utilized to calculate 6 different temper-
ature-based indices and 5 thermal sensation cate-
gories to find patterns between the LCZs.
The conclusions regarding the thermal changes
between LCZs using different air temperature obser-
vations are as follows:
(1) These changes are more influenced by the
urban land cover properties for open low-rise LCZs
and by urban morphology properties for open mid-
rise, high-rise and compact LCZs.
(2) The air temperature variation between an LCZ
and its stations was much more evident in Tmin, which
is accompanied by a reduction in the thermal ampli-
tude, and to a lesser extent in Tmean, T19:00 and T7:00.
(3) The values of Tmin, Tmean, T19:00 and T7:00 are
more equal between stations in the same LCZ.
(4) The difficulty of finding a clearer pattern in the
air temperature variation between LCZs was high-
lighted in Tmax and T13:00.
When UHI intensity was analysed according to the
LCZs, our results indicated that ΔTLCZX-LCZD is clearer
using Tmin, Tmean, T19:00 and T7:00 data. This also shows
that LCZs can be grouped as follows:
(1) LCZ9 tends to have ΔTLCZX-LCZD < 1°C for Tmean ,
T7:00 and T19:00 and ΔTLCZX-LCZD < 2°C at Tmin.
(2) Open low-rise, mid-rise and high-rise LCZs (B,
8, 6, 5, 4) have ΔTLCZX-LCZD = 1−3°C for Tmean, T7:00 and
T19:00, and ΔTLCZX-LCZD > 3°C for Tmin.
(3) The compact LCZ (3) has ΔTLCZX-LCZD > 3°C for
Tmean, T7:00 and T19:00, with ΔTLCZX-LCZD > 5°C for Tmin.
29
(4) The above results suggest a ΔTLCZX-LCZD in-
crease at night until the early hours of the morning
(indicating the presence of a UHI).
Taking into consideration the above conclusions,
and acknowledging the temperature-based indices
and the thermal sensation category patterns between
LCZs, the following deductions can be made:
(1) The importance of LCZs in understanding dif-
ferences and temperature variations between diverse
urban sectors was shown when using the tempera-
ture-based indices and thermal sensation categories.
(2) Temperature warming generated by the urban-
isation process in Bogotá is evidenced by the rise in
temperature from the rural station to the compact LCZ.
(3) This thermal heating does not mean that Bogotá
neighbourhoods generate high temperatures due to
their specific topographic and geographic features.
(4) The urban area of Bogotá significantly reduces
the presence of low values in Tmin, Tmean, T19:00 and
T7:00. This can be observed in the progressive reduction
of HeD and CoN indices, and in the decrease in the
‘cold’ category and increase in the ‘pleasant’ category.
(5) Highly urbanised sectors that are located near
the city limits can reduce the urban form effects on
air temperature. This is demonstrated by the lower
T7:00, T19:00 and ΔTLCZX-LCZD values, the larger HeD
and CoN percentages and the small increase in the
‘pleasant’ category for T7:00 and T19:00 compared to
other sectors that are classified in the same LCZ, but
are located in the inner parts of the city.
We conclude that it is challenging to make the
urban form parameter values coincide with the ranges
proposed for the LCZ, classification, mainly because
different city sectors usually have unique character-
istics that are expressed in the variety of BHs, greater
vegetation coverage or larger open spaces. The LCZ
scheme overlooks these distinguishing factors, as it
integrates the neighbourhood composition, but does
not fully acknowledge the spatial configurations
which can be expressed in building typology and the
distribution of other urban elements.
Acknowledgements. This study was partially financed by
the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível
Superior – Brasil (CAPES) − Finance Code 001.
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Submitted: January 23, 2020; Accepted: August 19, 2020
Proofs received from author(s): October 26, 2020