Chapter 2

Mathematical Language and

Symbols

LESSON 1
Fundamental Elements of the
Language Mathematics

Language of Mathematics
- Body of words or symbols and the systems for their common use to people who are of
the same community or nation, the same geographical area, or the same cultural
tradition
- Systematic means of communicating by the use of sounds or conventional symbols
- Composed of vocabularies consisting of symbols and words and grammar which
comprise a set of rules on how to use these symbols
- Mathematical symbols combined with words can convey complex, powerful ideas more
efficiently than any other languages.

A. NUMBERS
A number is a symbol, either a figure or word, that expresses a certain value or a
specified quantity that is determined by count.
Numbers are basic ideas in Mathematics. They may be used in several ways like
counting and measurement and may refer to different things such as negative numbers,
imaginary numbers, and other more abstract concepts used in higher mathematics.

The Set of Real numbers

The set of real numbers consists of numbers that make up the entire number system in
college algebra. It includes the rational and irrational numbers. Each number in the set can be
represented as a decimal number. The diagram below gives an overview of the set.

We shall consider the set of real numbers (R) as the universal set of numbers. Then, all
other sets in the diagram are the subsets of R.
Properties of the Equality of real Numbers
1. Reflexive Property of Equality. If a ϵ R, then a = a
Example: 3 = 3
2. Symmetric Property of Equality. Let a, b ϵ R. If a = b then b = a Example:
8 =x, then x = 8
3. Transitive Property of Equality. Let a, b, c ϵ R. If a = b, b = c then b = c
Example: 8 = x and x = y, then 8 = y
4. Addition Property of Equality. Let a, b, c ϵ R. If a = b, then a + c = b + c
Example: if x=23, then x+2= 23+2
5. Multiplication Property of Equality. Let a, b, c ϵ R. If a = b, then a . c = b = c
Example: 2x=18, 2(1/2) =18(1/2)

The structure of the set of real numbers is called field, that is, under the operations addition
(+) and multiplication (.), real numbers have the following properties.

1. Closure Property
Addition: if a and b are real numbers, then a + b is also a real number.
Multiplication: If a and b are real numbers, then a.b is also a real number
2. Associative property (Grouping Property)
Addition: If a, b, c ϵ R, then (a + b) +c = a + (b + c)
Multiplication: If a, b, c ϵ R, then (a.b).c = a.(b.c)
(1 + 2) + 3 = 1 + (2 + 3) (2 . 3) . 5 = 2 .(3 . 5)
3. Commutative Property (order property)
Addition: If a, b ϵ R, then a + b = b + a
Multiplication: If a, b ϵ R, then a . b = b . a
 4+5=5+4 6.3=3.6

4. Identity Property
Addition: If a ϵ R, then a + 0 = 0 + a = a
Multiplication : If a ϵ R, then a . 1 = 1 . a = a
8+0=8 Identity element for addition – 0
5.1=5 Identity element for multiplication – 1
5. Inverse Property
Additive Inverse : a + (-a) = (-a) + a = 0
1
Multiplicative Inverse : a-1 = 𝑎
5 + (-5) = 0

1
9 -1= 9

B. SETS
Set theory was developed by George Cantor toward the end of the
19th century. Today, the idea of set is used extensively in
mathematics. One of its important contributions is in the simplification of
teaching modern mathematics. As necessary foundation for the
different topics in algebra, it is necessary that we understand first
thoroughly the notations, operations, and language of set theory.

Set Notations and Definitions

A set is an unordered and well-defined collection of zero or more distinct objects. The
objects that make up a set are called the elements or the members of the set. The following are
sets:
a. A vase of flowers(the elements are the flowers in the vase)
b. Even counting numbers (the elements are 2, 4, 6, …)
c. State universities and colleges in region 1 (Mariano Marcos State University, University
of Northern Philippines, Ilocos Sur Polytechnic State College, North Luzon Philippines
State College, Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, Pangasinan State
University)
We use the following notations in dealing with sets:
{...} - braces, used with words or symbols to specify a set
A, B, … Z – capital letters, used for naming sets
∈ - epsilon, means “is an element of”
∉- epsilon with slash, means “is not an element of”

For the set b = {𝑖, 𝑙, 𝑜, 𝑣, 𝑒, 𝑚, 𝑎, 𝑡, ℎ}, we observe that a ∈ B and m ∈ B but u ∉ B and 3 ∉ B

The number of elements in a set is called its cardinality. Thus, the cardinality of set B.
Since set B has 9 elements in the previous example, n(B) = 9.

Example 1:
Determine the cardinalities of the following sets:
a) C ={𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧};
 b) A = {𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒, 𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑆𝑢𝑟, 𝐿𝑎 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛}; c) L = {2, 4, 6, …, 20}

Answer:
a) n(C) = 3
b) n(C) = 4
c) n(C) = 10, ellipsis means that we may continue writing the elements up to 20

Description of Sets
There are three methods to describe a set: roster, rule, and set builder.
1. Roster Method or Tabulation method describes a set by listing its elements, enclosing
them by braces, and separating each of them by a comma. Here, each element of the
set should only be written once and the order of the elements does not matter.
Examples: D = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
O = {𝑟𝑒𝑑, 𝑦𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒}
2. Rule Method describes a set by writing its elements’ property.
Examples: D = {𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠}
O = {𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑠}
3. Set-Builder Method describes a set by introducing a variable to represent arbitrary
elements of the set and describing the variable such that the description fits to all
elements of the set.
Examples: D = {𝑚∣𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑥}
‘ O = {𝑟∣𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑟}

Kinds of Sets
1. Finite Set is a set with limited number of elements. It has a fixed cardinality which can
be easily determined through counting.
Examples: S = {𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑦, 𝑇𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑑𝑎𝑦, 𝑊𝑒𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑑𝑎𝑦}
P = {3, 6, 9, 12, …, 30}
2. Infinite Set is a set with an unlimited number of elements. However, there might be a
first or a last element though not necessarily.
Examples: Z = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …}
R = {…, − 5, − 3, − 1, 1, 3, 5, …}
3. Unit Set is a finite set with only one element.
Examples: F = {𝑛∣𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 30 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠}
M = {𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}
4. Null or Empty Set is asset that contains no elements and denoted by the symbol {} or
the Danish letter ∅. If no element can satisfy a given condition, then the set is null.
Examples: C = {𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 5 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠}
G = {𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 4}
5. Universal Set is a set that contains all the elements in the discussion or investigation
and denoted by U. when determining all the elements that can satisfy a given condition,
we are dealing with a universal set.
Examples: H = {𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑}
T = {𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚}

Set Relations
1. Subset: A ⊆ B
 Set A is a subset of A are in B, denoted by A ⊆ B or B ⊇ A, if and only if all the
elements of A are in B. Set A is not a subset of set B if there is one or more elements of
A not found in set B
Example:
Given set A = {𝑙𝑜𝑣𝑒, 𝑗𝑜𝑦, 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑒}, which of the following sets is a subset of A?
H = {𝑙𝑜𝑣𝑒, 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑒}, O = {𝑗𝑜𝑦, 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠}, P = {𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠}, or E = {𝑗𝑜𝑦, 𝑙𝑜𝑣𝑒, 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑒}

2. Proper Subset: A ⊂ B
Set A is a proper subset of b, denoted by A ⊂ B or B ⊃ A, if A does not contain all
the elements in B and A ⊆ B. in the previous example, H ⊂ A.
a. A null set is a subset of every set
b. A set is a subset of itself
c. A set is not a proper subset of itself

3. Equal Sets: A = B
Two sets A and B are equal if and only if A and B have identical elements
although the arrangement may not be the same. Equivalently, two sets A and b are
equal if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.
Example:
Which of these sets are equal?
L = {𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑 "𝑤𝑜𝑙𝑓" },
O = {𝑥∣𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑 "𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤"},
V = {𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑓, 𝑙, 𝑜, 𝑤}, or
E = {𝑥∣𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑 "𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤"}
Answer: They are all equal
4. Equivalent Sets: A ~ B
Two sets A and B are equivalent if they both have the same number of elements
and their elements can be put into one-to-one correspondence.
Example:
Given: B = {𝑦, 𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑟, 2, 𝑡, ℎ, 𝑜, 𝑢}, O = {𝑙, 𝑢, 𝑐, 𝑘, 𝑦, 𝑓, 𝑖, 𝑣, 𝑒},
L = {𝑥∣𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘},
D = {𝑥∣𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 19}.
Which are the following are true:
a) B ~ O; b) L ~ B; or c) D ~ L?
5. Disjoint Sets
Sets A and b are disjoint if they have no common elements. For instance, if A is
the set of positive integers and b is the set of negative integers, then A and B are disjoint
sets.

Set Operations
1. Union of Sets: A ∪ B
The union of sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set containing all elements that
are either in A or in B or in Both A and B; that is,
A ∪ B = {𝑥 ∈𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈𝐵}
The cardinalities of union of sets may be computed as follows:
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B), for disjoint sets A and b
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – (A ∩ B), for any sets A and B
n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A ∩ B) – n(A ∩ C) – n(B ∩ C) +
 n(A ∩ B ∩ C), for any sets A, B, and C
2. Intersection of Sets: A ∩ B
The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set containing all elements
that are in both A and B; that is’
A ∩ B = {𝑥 ∈𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈𝐵}

Examples:
Let O = {0, 2, 4} Q = {0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7} S = {1, 2, 5} P = {2, 0, 4}
R = {0, 3, 4, 7} T = {1, 4}

List the elements of the following union or intersection of sets

Answers:
a. O ∪ Q = {0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
b. O ∪ P = {0, 2, 4}
c. Q ∪ S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7}
d. R ∪ T = {0, 1, 3, 4, 7}
e. P ∪ R ∪ T = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7}
f. O ∩ Q = {0, 2}
g. P ∩ R ∩ T = {4}

3. Difference of Sets: A – B
The difference of two sets A and b, denoted by A – B or A⟍B, is the set of elements
which belong to A but which do not belong to b; that is,
A – B = {𝑥 ∣𝑥 ∈𝐴 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑥 ∉𝐵}

4. Complement of a set: A c or A’
The complement of a set A, denoted by Ac or A’, is the set of elements which
belong to the universal set U but which do not belong to A; that is,
Ac = {𝑥∣𝑥 𝑈 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑥 ∉𝐴} = 𝑈 − 𝐴
In other words, to find Ac, remove all elements of A in U.
Examples:
Let O = {0, 2, 4} Q = {0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7} S = {1, 2, 5} P = {2, 0, 4}
R = {0, 3, 4, 7} T = {1, 4}

Determine the following:

a. O – Q
b. Q –S
c. R –T
d. P –S
e. Pc
f. R

VENN-DIAGRAM
Venn-Euler diagram is a convenient way of representing set relations and set operations.
The sets are represented by plane geometric figures such as ovals or circles, the universal set
by a rectangle. This diagram was invented by john Venn and Leonhard Euler. It may also be
called Euler circles or simply, Venn Diagram.
Examples

1. Represent the following using a Venn diagram: a) A ⊆ B, and b) M and N are disjoint
sets

M and N are disjoint

2. Sixty Filipino teenagers went on a summer vacation last summer. Of this number, 23
went to Palawan, 20 went to Tagaytay City, 16 went to Batanes, 9 went to Palawan and
Tagaytay City, 7 went to Tagaytay City and Batanes, 5 went to Palawan and Batanes,
and 3 went to these three places.
a. How many of them visited Palawan only?
b. How many of them visited Tagaytay City and Batanes but not Palawan?
c. How many of them visited Batanes but not Tagaytay City?
d. How many of them did not go to any of these places?

C. RELATIONS
A relation is any set of ordered pairs (correspondence between two things). The set of all first
components of the ordered pairs is called the domain of the relation, and the set of all second
components is called the range.

R = {(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6), (7, 8), (9, 10)}

Domain: {1, 3, 5, 7} Range: {2, 4, 6, 8}

Types of Relations

1. One-to-one relation
2. One-to-many relation
3. Many-to-one relation
D. FUNCTIONS

A function is a correspondence between a first set, called domain, and a second set, called the
range, such that each element in the domain corresponds to exactly one element in the range.
(one-to-one correspondence)

Domain Range
Beth Hubert

Jovie Richard
Mariz Banjo
The relation is a function

{(− 2, 16), (− 4, 4), (− 3, 3), (4, 12), (− 4, 0)}

Find the domain and range of each function.

1. f(x) = 3x + 4
2. f(x) = 5x2 + 2
3. f(x) = 1 − 𝑥
𝑥
4. f(x) = 𝑥+3
5. f(x) = |𝑥 + 2| + 1

Solutions:
1. Domain: {𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟} Range: {𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}
2. Domain: {𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟} Range: {𝑦 ≥2}
3. Domain: {𝑥 ≤1} Range: {𝑦 ≥0}
4. Domain: {𝑥 ≠1} Range: {𝑦 ≠1}
5. Domain: {𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟} Range: {𝑦 ≥1}

FUNCTION NOTATION is the way a function is written. It is meant to be a precise way of giving
information about the function without a rather lengthy written explanation.

A function is a special relationship where each input has a single output

It is often written as "f(x)" where x is the input value.

Example: f(x) = x/2 ("f of x is x divided by 2") is a function, because each input "x" has a single
output "x/2":
• f(2) = 1
• f(16) = 8
• f(−10) = −5
 We say "f of x equals x squared"

COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS
Another way of combining functions is the composite function.  The composite function is
denoted by:
fog

and is = f(g(x)).  x must be in the domain of g(x) and g(x) must be in the domain of f(x).
 
Example 1
 
Find f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) for the functions f(x) = x + 2 and g(x) = x2 
  
             f(g(x)) = f(x2) = x2 + 2.  The function g(x) squares any number.  The function f(x) simply
adds two to any number.  G(x) is applied first (it squares x) and then f(x) is applied (it adds two). 
The domain is all real numbers. 
  
             g(f(x)) = g(x + 2) = (x + 2)2   This time, f(x) is applied first and then g(x).  Take any
number and add two first then square the result.  The domain is all real numbers.  Notice that
the answers are not the same illustrating that the composite function is not commutative.  This
means the order in which the problem is written is important. 

Example 2
 
Find f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) for the functions f(x) = 1/x and g(x) = 2x. 
  
             f(g(x)) = f(2x) = 1/(2x).  The domain is all real numbers but zero. 
  
             g(f(x)) = g(1/x) = 2/x.  The domain is again all real numbers but zero.

Example 3
 
Find f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) for the functions f(x) = x + 3 and g(x) = 2/x 
  
             f(g(x)) = f(2/x) = 2/x + 3.  The domain is all real numbers but 0. 
  
             g(f(x)) = g(x + 3) = 2/(x + 3).  The domain is all real numbers but -3.

Sample Problems
1)  On the same axes graph f(x) = x2, g(x) = x2 + 3, and h(x) = x2 - 2
  

The effect of adding three, simply moved the graph up 3 units while the effect of subtracting two
simply moved the graph down two units.
  
2)  Let f(x) = 4x, g(x) = 3x + 2 and h(x) = x2 
  
         Find f(g(h(3))) 
                                 = f(g(9)) = f(29) = 116 

  Find h(g(f(-1))) 
                                     = h(g(-4)) = h(-10) = 100 
  
         Find h(h(h(2))) 
                                  = h(h(4)) = h(16) = 256 
  
         Find h(g(f(x))) 
                                 = h(g(4x)) = h(12x + 2) = (12x + 2)2 

INVERSE FUNCTION

The f-1(y)

inverse is usually shown by putting a little "-1" after the function name, like this:

We say "f inverse of y"

So, the inverse off(x) = 2x + 3 is written: f-1(y) = (x-3)/2

Examples

f(x) = 3x – 2 f(y) = 𝑥 − 3

y = 3x – 2 y= 𝑥 − 3
x = 3y – 2 x= 𝑦 − 3
x + 2 = 3y x2 = ( 𝑦 − 3)2
 𝑥+2
y= 3
x2 = y - 3
𝑥+2
f-1(x) = 3
y = x2 + 3
f-1(y) = x2 + 3
 LESSON 2
Mathematics as a Language

Mathematics students build a foundation of basic understandings in number, operation,

and quantitative reasoning; patterns, relationships, and algebraic thinking; geometry and spatial
reasoning; measurement; and probability and statistics. They use numbers in ordering, labelling,
and expressing quantities and relationships to solve problems and translate informal language
into mathematical language and symbols.

Definition of Mathematics
- it is concise because it plainly contains the basic properties of an object or concept
which unambiguously identify that object or concept.
● A definition must describe exactly the thing being defined; noting more, and nothing less

Example:

GOOD DEFINITION:
A rectangle is a quadrilateral all four of whose angles are right angles

POOR DEFINITION:
A rectangle is a parallelogram in which the diagonals have the same length and all the angles
are right angles. It can be inscribed in a circle and its area is given by the product of two
adjacent sides.
This is not concise. It contains too much information, all of which is correct but most of which is
unnecessary.

POOR DEFINITION
A rectangle is a parallelogram whose diagonals have equal lengths.
This statement is true and concise, but the defining property is not basic. This would work better
as a theorem to be proved than as a definition. In mathematics, assertions of this kind are
regarded as characterizations rather than as definitions.

BAD DEFINITION
A rectangle is a quadrilateral with right angles.
This is ambiguous. With some right angles? With all right angles? There are lots of
quadrilaterals that have some right angles but are not rectangles.

UNACCEPTABLE DEFINITION:
A rectangle has right angles
This is unacceptable because mathematics is written as English is written, in complete,
grammatical sentences such as abbreviations frequently hide major misunderstandings as will
be pointed out below.
 Though mathematics uses a lot of symbols and terminologies, it is not plainly putting
them together just like in English language. There may be sentences that are correct in in
English language but make no sense in mathematics.

Proper writing of mathematical sentences aids to the proper solving of problems and proofs of
theorems or conjectures.

Expression Mathematical Expression

A number increased by 9 x+9
Thrice a number added to 11 3x + 11
One number is four times the other 4x
Sum of three consecutive integers x + (x + 1) + (x + 2)
Three less than four times a certain number 3x - 10