Mathematics

Module 1: Mathematics in Our World

What is Mathematics?
o It is a set of problem-solving tools.
o It is a LANGUAGE.
o It is a process of thinking.
o It is a study of PATTERNS.
o It is an art.

What is a pattern?
o It is an arrangement which helps observers anticipate what they might see
or what happens next.
o It shows what may have come before.
o It organizes information so that it becomes more useful.

Examples of patterns in nature:

1. Weather seasons
2. Water cycle
3. Typhoons
4. Constellations
5. Snowflakes
6. Patterns in fish and animals

Studying patterns allows one to observe, hypothesize, discover, and create.

Mathematics has become a diverse discipline that deals with data, measurements,
and observations from science and works with models of natural phenomena,
human behavior, and social systems. It reveals patterns that help individuals better
understand the world and predict what comes next, imagine what came before,
and estimate if the same pattern will occur when variables are changed.

Fibonacci Sequence
o It was founded by Leonardo of Pisa, also known as Fibonacci.
o It is the sequence f 1 , f 2 , f 3 , f 4 , … which has its first two terms f 1∧f 2 both
equal to 1 and satisfies the recursion formula f n=f n−1+ f n−2 .

Recursive Fibonacci Formula:

f n=f n−1+ f n−2

Binet Fibonacci Formula:

( ) ( )
n n
1+ √ 5 1−√ 5
−
2 2
f n=
√5

Example:
Let us find again f 12 by using the Binet formula:

( ) ( )
n n
1+ √ 5 1−√ 5
−
2 2
f n=
√5

( ) ( )
12 12
1+ √ 5 1−√ 5
−
2 2
f 12=
√5

321.9968944−0.0031056
¿
2.236067978
 321.9937888
¿ =144
2.236067978

The Golden Ratio

o In mathematics, two quantities are in the Golden ratio if their ratio is the
same of their sum to the larger of the two quantities. The Golden ratio is the
relationship between numbers on the Fibonacci sequence where plotting the
relationships on scales results in a spiral shape.
o In simple terms, Golden ratio is expressed as an equation, where a > b:

Patterns and Regularities

 - There are different types of patterns such as SYMMETRY, FRACTALS,
and SPIRALS.

o Symmetry
Two Main Types of Symmetry
1. Bilateral symmetry
It is a symmetry in which the left and the right sides of the organism can
be divided into approximately mirror image of each other along the
midline.

2. Radial Symmetry (rotational symmetry)

It is a type of symmetry around a fixed point known as the center and it can
be classified as either cyclic or dihedral.

Examples:

o Fractals
 It is a curve or geometric figure, each part of which has the same statistical
character as the whole.

Example:

o Spirals
A logarithmic spiral (or growth spiral) is a self-similar spiral curve.

Example:

Module 2: Mathematical Language and Symbols

Characteristics of Mathematical Language
o the system used to communicate mathematical ideas
o consists of some natural language using technical terms (mathematical
terms) and grammatical conventions (words)

Characteristics of Mathematical Language

Precise
o being correct all the time
Concise
o simple and easy to understand
Powerful
o expressing complex thoughts with ease

Expression vs. Sentences

Expression
o a finite combination of symbols that is well-defined according to rules that
depend on the context
o Not complete thought and cannot be determined whether it is true or false
Example: 4 + 7

Sentences
o makes a statement about two expressions, either using numbers, variables, or
a combination of both
o Complete thought and can be determined whether it is true or false
Example: 4 + 7 = 11
Mathematical Convention
o is a fact, name, notation, or usage agreed upon by mathematicians
Example: In PEMDAS, parenthesis comes first

Sets
o is a well-defined collection of objects; the objects are called the elements
or members of the set.
o symbol ∈ is used to denote that an object is an element of a set
o symbol ∉ denotes that an object is not an element of a set
Example:
Read: Set A is the set of all x such that x is
A = {x│x is a positive integer less than 10}
Answer: Numbers 1-9
B = {x │ x is the 1st 5 letter in the English Alphabet}
Answer: a, b, c, d, e

Two Ways in Representing Sets

Roster method
o when the elements of the set are enumerated and separated by a comma,
it is also called tabulation method.
Example: A = {a, e, i, o, u}

Rule method
o involves specifying a rule or condition which can be used to decide
whether an object can belong to the set.
Example: A = {x│x is a vowel in the English alphabet}
Kinds of Sets
1. Finite set
o ending sets
Example:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
 
2. Infinite set
o not ending sets
Example:
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
 
3. Unit set (or singleton set)
o one element only
Example:
C = {2}

4.Empty set (or null set)

o it is denoted by the symbol ∅ 𝑜𝑟 { }
Example:
D={}

5. Joint Sets
o Two sets A and B are said to be joint sets if there at least one element
common to both sets.
Example:
 A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {1, 3, 5} 
Sets A and B are joint sets because {1} ∈ A and B

6. Disjoint Sets
o Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if there is no common element to
both sets.
Example:
A = {1, 3, 5}
B = {2, 4, 6} 
 
7. Universal set denoted by capital U.
o a set which contains all objects, including itself
Example:
The set of all counting numbers. In symbol, U = {1, 2, 3, …}

8. Cardinal number denoted by n(A).

o the number of elements in a set
Example:
A = {1, 2, 3} Set A has 3 elements. Hence, n(A) = 3

9. Equivalent Sets
o When two sets have the same number of elements
Example:
A= {1, 2, 3} Hence, n(A) = 3
B= {a, b, c} Hence, n(B) = 3
Therefore, A ↔ B
10. Equal sets
o When two sets have the same and equal elements
Example:
A= {t, e, a, m} Hence, n(A) = 4
B= {m, a, t, e} Hence, n(B) = 4

11. Subsets
o A is a proper subset of B, written 𝑨⊂𝑩 if every element of A is in B but
there is at least one element of B that is not in A.
o If A and B are sets, A is called improper subset of B, written 𝑨⊆𝑩 if every
element of A is also an element of B.
Example of proper subset:
A = {c, d, e}
B = {a, b, c, d, e}
𝑨⊂𝑩 since every element of A is in B but there at least one element of B that is
not in A.
Example of improper subset:
A = {c, d, a, e, b}
B = {a, b, c, d, e}
𝑨⊆𝑩 because every element of A is in B.

12. Power Set

o S denoted by P(S) is the set of all the subsets of a set.
o Formula: 𝑷(𝑺)=𝟐𝒏 (n= number of elements)
Example:
A = {a, b, c}
 𝑷(𝑨)=𝟐𝒏
=𝟐𝟑
=𝟖 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒔

All of the subsets are:

Subset with no element: ∅ or { }
Subset with 1 element: {a}, {b} and {c}
Subset with 2 elements: {a, b}, {a, c} and {b, c}
Subset with 3 elements: {a, b, c}
And altogether we get the Power Set of {a, b, c}:
Therefore,
P(S) = { { }, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c} }
This is also known as the family of sets.

Operation on Sets
1. Union of Sets
o The union (addition of elements) of A and B, denoted by 𝑨∪𝑩, is the set of
all elements x in U such that x is in A or x is in B. Same elements do not
repeat. Symbolically: 𝑨∪𝑩={𝒙/𝒙∈𝑨 ⋁ 𝒙∈𝑩}

Example: if A = { a, b, c} and B = {a, e, i}, then   𝑨∪𝑩 ={a, b, c, e, i}

2. Intersection of Sets
o Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U. The intersection of A and B,
denoted by 𝑨∩𝑩, is the set of all elements x in U such that x is in A and x is
in B. Symbolically: 𝑨∩𝑩={𝒙/𝒙∈𝑨 ⋀ 𝒙 ∈𝑩}.
o The common element of two subsets.
 Example: if A = { a, b, c} and B = {a, e, i}, then   𝑨∩𝑩 ={a}
3. Complement of a Set
o The complement of A (absolute complement of A), denoted by A’, is the set
of all elements x in U such that x is not in A. Symbolically: 𝑨^
′={𝒙∈𝑼/𝒙∉𝑨}.
o The elements in U that are not present in its subset.
Example:
If U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, and A = { 0, 2, 4}, then A’ = {1, 3, 5, 6}

4. Difference of Two Sets

o The difference of A and B (or relative complement of B with respect to A),
denoted by 𝑨−𝑩, is the set of all elements x in U such that x is in A and x is
not in B. Symbolically: 𝑨−𝑩= {𝒙/𝒙∈𝑨 ⋀ 𝒙∉𝑩} =𝑨∩𝑩′.
o Subtraction of elements of two sets.
Example: If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, and B = {1, 2, 7}
Then A − B = {3, 4, 5, 6} and B − A = {7}

5. The Cartesian Product

o The product of sets A and B, written A x B is,
A x B ={(𝒂,𝒃)/𝒂∈𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃∈𝑩}

Example:
A = {2, 3, 5} and B = {7, 8}

To get 𝐴 𝑥 𝐵, we pair each element of A with each element of B. The results as

ordered pairs, with each element of A written first and the element of B written
second such as
𝑨×𝑩= {(𝟐,𝟕), (𝟐,𝟖), (𝟑, 𝟕), (𝟑, 𝟖), (𝟓, 𝟕), (𝟓, 𝟖)}
𝑩×𝑨= {(𝟕, 2), (𝟕, 3), (𝟕, 5 ), (𝟖, 2), (𝟖, 3), (𝟖, 8 )}
However, this is not a family of sets because they are not joined in one set.