CHAPTER 2 ECOSYSTEM 生态

Energy Flow 能量流 in an Ecosystem

1. An ecosystem 生态系统 is a system formed by the interaction 相互关系 of living organisms 生物
with one another and with their environment.环境
2. Examples of ecosystem are forest 森林, grassland 草原, pond 池塘, field 草场, river, lake 湖 and sea.海
3. An ecosystem consists of 2 components:
(a) abiotic components 非生物组成部分(physical factors )
(b) biotic components 生物组成部分(biological factors)
4. Biotic components are the living components in the ecosystem such as plants, animals and
microorganisms. For example, the biotic components of a jungle 树林 comprise snakes, birds, insects,
worms, bacteria, ferns 蕨类 and trees.
5 The biotic components are classified 分类 into 3 groups:组
(a) Producers 生产者
(b) Consumers 消费者
(c) Decomposers 分解者

Producers 生产者
1. Organisms that can make 制造 their own 自己的 food are called producers.
2. Green plants are producers because they carry out 进行 photosynthesis 光合作用 with the presence 有 of
carbon dioxide, chlorophyll 叶绿素, water and sunlight.

Consumers 取食者
1. Consumers are organisms that cannot produce their own food. They depend on 依赖 other organisms for
food.
2. There are three types of consumers:
(a) Primary consumers 初级取食者
Primary consumers are herbivorous animals 草食动物 that feed 吃 only on plants, such as grasshoppers,
caterpillars 毛虫 and snails.蜗牛
(b) Secondary consumers 次级取食者
Primary consumers are eaten by secondary consumers, that may be carnivorous 肉食动物 or omnivorous
animals 杂食动物 such as frogs and birds.
(c) Tertiary 三级 consumers
Tertiary consumers feed on 吃 the secondary consumers. Tertiary consumers are carnivorous or omnivorous
animals such as lions, eagles, bears 熊 and snakes.

Decomposers 分解者
1. Organisms that breakdown 分 解 dead 死 亡 的 plants and animals into simpler 比 较 简 单 的
substances are known as decomposers.
2. Some examples of decomposers are bacteria 细菌 and fungi.真菌

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3. The relationship 关 系 between living producers, consumers and decomposers can be shown in the
diagram below

Food Chain 食物链

1. A food chain shows the relationship 关 系

between organisms in an ecosystem 生态.
2. Energy is transferred 转移 from one organism to
another in a food chain.
3. A food chain starts 开始 with the producers that
obtain 获取 energy 能量 from the sunlight.阳光

Food Web 食物网

1. In a balanced ecosystem, several food chains are

interrelated 相互关联 to form a network 网. This
network of food chains is known as the food web.

2. Diagram beside shows an example of a food

web:

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Pyramid of Numbers 数量椎体
A pyramid of numbers is a diagram that shows the relative 比较 number of organisms in a food chain.

Energy Flow 能流 in a Food Web

1 Sunlight 阳光 is the main source 主要来源 of energy in a food chain or in a food web.
2 (a) Green plants (producer) trap 捕捉 and change 转换 solar energy 太阳能 into chemical energy 化能
(food) through photosynthesis.
(b) When a primary consumer eats the producer, some of the chemical energy stored 储藏 in the plants is
transferred to the primary consumed 被吃：
(c) Some of the energy stored in the primary consumer will flow in the secondary consumers when
secondary consumers feed on the primary consumers and then to tertiary consumers if tertiary consumers
feed on the secondary consumers.
(d) This way, energy flows through a food chain or a food web.
3 Not all energy stored in each level of the food chain or food web will be transferred to the following level
because some energy is lose 消失 as heat energy through respiration 呼吸作用, excretion 排泄 and
defecation.排便
4 The amount of energy that is transferred from one consumer to another decreases 减少 along the food
chain.
5 The longer 越长 the food chain, the lesser 越少 the energy transferred to the carnivore at the end of the
food chain.
6 This means by the time the energy stored in the producer reaches 到达 the tertiary consumers, very little
很少 energy is left 留下来 for the tertiary consumers. Only 10% of the energy in an organism is passed on to
the organism at the next trophic level 食物层.

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 Nutrient 营养 Cycle 循环 in an Ecosystem
1 Energy and nutrient transfers occur 发生 continuously 持续 in a cycle.
2 This cycle is known as nutrient cycle.

Water Cycle 水循环

1. Plants absorb 吸收 water for photosynthesis.
2. Excessive 过剩的 water loss 消失 through transpiration.蒸腾作用
3. Animals and plants release 释放 carbon dioxide and water vapour 水蒸气 as by-products of respiration
呼吸作用
4. Water vapour evaporates 蒸发 and becomes a part of the water cycle.
5. Animals also contribute 贡献 to the water cycle through sweating 流汗, urination 小便 and defecation.大
便

Carbon Cycle 碳循环

1. Photosynthesis: Carbon dioxide from the air is converted 转换 into glucose 葡萄糖 by plants through
photosynthesis.

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2. Decomposition 分解: Decomposers 分解者 release carbon dioxide when they break down dead animals
and plants.
3. Carbon compounds from decayed 腐烂的 organisms are preserved as fossil fuels 化石燃料 such as
petroleum 汽油, natural gas 天然气 and coal.煤炭
4. Combustion 燃烧: Combustion of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.大气
5. Respiration 呼吸作用
During respiration, animals and plants use oxygen and release carbon dioxide which is returned 回去 to the
atmosphere.
respiration
Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy

OXYGEN CYCLE
1. Plants take in 用 oxygen and release carbon dioxide when carrying out 进行 respiration at night.
2. Plants take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen during photosynthesis during the day.
3. Combustion 燃烧 and corrosion 腐蚀 use oxygen.
4. Animals and plants use oxygen during respiration at all times.每个时候
5. Animals breathe in 吸进 oxygen and release carbon dioxide.

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Ways 方法 to Solve Problems 解决问题 Associated 关于 with Disturbance 干扰 of Nutrient Cycle

Human activities that disrupt Effects 影响 Ways to solve problems

破坏 nutrient cycle
Combustion of fossil fuels
• Motor vehicles 交通工
具 in the atmosphere
• Factories 工厂 and
industries 工业
• Power stations 发电厂
Uncontrolled 没有控制 forest
logging 砍伐森林
• Land clearing 清除 for
industrial
Activities 工业活动
• Land clearing for farming 畜
牧业 and agriculture 农业
• Land clearing for housing 建
屋 increases
• Concentration 浓度 of • Reduce 减少 open burning 露天焚烧 and
carbon dioxide 二氧化碳 combustion of fossil fuels
• Limit 限制 the number of vehicles on the
increases 增加 road by car- pooling 共车 or taking public
• Concentration of oxygen Transportation 公共交通
decreases • Use alternative energies 替代能源 such as
solar energy 太阳能
• Use hybrid 混合 cars or electric cars 电车
• Replace 替代 the use of coal 煤炭 with
natural gas in power stations
• Use catalytic 催化 converters 净化器 in
the exhaust pipe 烟管 of motor vehicles to
convert carbon monoxide 一氧化碳 into
harmless 无害的 products
• Photosynthesis rate • Stop uncontrolled forest logging
decreases • Replant 再种植 trees
• Transpiration rate • Use modern 新的 and intensive 彻底，加
decreases 强，精深的 agricultural and farming system
• Concentration of
oxygen decreases
• Concentration of
carbon dioxide

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Excessive usage 过度使用 of
water resources 资源
• Wastage 浪费 of water
• Water pollution 污染
• Agriculture and domestic 家
庭式 wastes 废料
• The amount of rainwater
雨水 decreases
• Water catchment 集水
areas 地方 decreases
• Lack of 缺少 clean water
supply 水供
• Affect 影响 the water
cycle
• Stop polluting 污染 water resources with
rubbish and domestic wastes
• Impose 强加 severe 严厉的 penalties 处罚
against 对付 those who pollute the water
resources
• Stop wastage and excessive usage of water
• Store rainwater 雨水 for daily use 日常之
用

2.3 Interdependence 互相依赖 and Interaction 相互关系 among Organisms and

between Organisms and the Environment

1. The environment consists of living organisms 生物 and non-living 非生物 components.

2. Non-living components are physical factors such as temperature 温度, light intensity, pH and humidity 潮
湿度 that affect organisms.
3. A habitat 栖息地 provides animals and plants with food, protection 保护, shelter 遮蔽, breeding 繁殖
place and mates.伴侣
Species 物种
• A group of similar 相同的 organisms chat have common 相同的 characteristics.特点
• Can interbreed 交配 to produce fertile 可以生育的 offspring.后代
Population 族群
• A group of organisms of the same species living in the same habitat.
• For example, a population of zebra.斑马
Community 社群
• Different populations of organisms living together in the same habitat.
• For example, a community in the savannah consists of populations of zebras, giraffes and elephants.
Ecosystem 生态
The various 各种不同 communities interact with each other and also with the non-living environment.
4 In an ecosystem, different organisms live together and are interdependent on one another for their survival.
存活
5 Living organisms are interdependent 互相依赖 on the environment to form balanced 平衡的 ecosystem.
6 A balanced ecosystem is an ecosystem
(a) that is stable 稳定 and ensures the survival of different species
(b) that does not change 没有变化 over a period of time 一段时期
(c) that has a continuous supply of basic needs 基本需求 such as oxygen, food, shelter and mates

Effects of environmental factors such as temperature, light and humidity on the distribution 散布，分

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布 of plants like Pleurococcus
1 The distribution of Pleurococcus is highest at the side of the stem 枝干 that receives moderate 温和
的 light intensity 光强度 which does not dry up 变干 the Pleurococcus but is sufficient 足够 for
photosynthesis.
2 The lowest distribution is found at the side of the stem that receives high light intensity which dries
up the Pleurococcus.
3 The moderate light intensity encourages 鼓励 the growth of green algae 绿藻 because usually the
temperature is low and the humidity is higher this side of the stem.

Effects of environmental factors such as temperature, light intensity and humidity on the distribution
of organisms like woodlice 木虱
1 The distribution of woodlice is highest in areas that
(a) have moderate temperature
(b) have low light intensity
(c) have moist 潮湿 soil 泥土
2 High light intensity, hot and dry conditions will dry out 变干 the woodlice, causing dehydration.脱水

Adaptation 适应 of Animals and Plants Living in the Desert, Tundra and Tropical Habitats
Habitats Conditions 情况 Adaptations

Desert 沙漠 • Extremely 极端 hot and dry • Camels 骆驼 store fat in their humps 驼峰 as energy
干 climate 气候 supply
• Cacti 仙人掌 have succulent 多汁的 stems 茎 to
store 储藏 water

Tropical 热带 • High distribution of rainfall
• Intensity 强度 of sunlight 阳
光 is high throughout the year
常年
• High light intensity and humidity 潮湿度
encourages 鼓励 the growth of various types of plants
• Mammals 哺乳动物 have short fur 毛 to store less
heat 热量
• Reptiles 爬行动物 become inactive 不活跃 on a
very hot day

Tundra 冻土 • Long winter season 冬季
• Short summer season 夏季
• Arctic 北极 foxes 狐 have small ears and thick fur 厚
毛 to reduce the loss of hear
• Plants that grow in this habitat are mosses 苔藓 and
grasses because of prolonged 长期的 cold climate and
little distribution of rain 少雨量

Interaction between Organisms

Organisms interact in different ways in an ecosystem to obtain foods and protections.
Competition 竞争
1 Organisms compete 竞争 with each other for basic needs 基本需求 such as food, water, shelter 遮蔽处
and mates. 伴侣 Competition becomes intense when basic needs are limited.有限
2. There are two types of competition:
(a) Intra-specific competition 种内竞争
This is the competition among the organisms from the same species.相同物种
(b) Inter-specific 种类间的 competition

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 This is the competition among the organisms from different species.

Symbiosis 共生
1. Symbiosis is a kind 一种 of interaction 互相影响 between two or more different species which is living
together 一起生活 and interacting 互动 with each other.
2. There are three types of symbiosis:
(a) Commensalism 共居
(b) Mutualism 互利共生
(c) Parasitism 寄生状态
3. Commensalism is the relationship between two different species of organisms in which the commensal
is the organism that benefits 受 益 from the relationship while the host 主 人 is the organism that is not
affected 不受影响.
4. The shark (host) neither benefits nor suffers 受损害 from this relationship.

5. Commensalism may also occur between two plants.

6. Mutualism is a kind of interaction between two different species of organisms in which both organisms
benefit.双方得益
7. Examples of mutualism:

(a) Lichen 地衣 consists of fungi 真菌 and algae 藻

类 that live together.
(b) The sea anemone 海葵 attaches itself to the shell
of a hermit crab 寄居蟹.

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(c) Rhizobium bacteria live inside the root nodules
of leguminous 豆科 plants.

(d) Bacteria that live in the intestines 肠 of herbivores 草 食 动 物 can produce enzymes 酶 to digest
cellulose

8. Parasitism is an interaction between two organisms, involving one parasite 寄 生 物 and one host. The
parasite benefits while the host is harmed 受害.
9. A parasite that lives outside the body of the host is called an ectoparasite 皮外寄生物 and a parasite that
lives inside the body of the host is called an endoparasite 体内寄生虫.
10. A parasite depends on 依赖 the host for food. Most hosts will eventually 最终 die if they are inhibited 居
住 by endoparasites.
11. The following diagram summarizes the different types of interaction between living organisms.

HOT TIPS
• Mistletoe lives on the branches of various trees.
• It gets water and minerals from the tree to survive.

Biological Control 利用生物控制

1. Biological control is a method of controlling a certain population of pest 害虫 using its natural predator.
自然天敌
2. Biological control are divided based on these interactions:
(a) Prey-predator
(b) Competition
(c) Parasitism

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3. Examples of biological control:
(a) Keeping owls 猫头鹰 in palm oil 油棕园 plantations and paddy fields 稻田 to reduce the population of
rats 老鼠 that feed on 食 palm oil fruits and paddy grains 谷类.
(b) Ichneumon fly， is used to control the larvae of a stem borer.蛀茎虫
(c) Fish are reared 养 in ponds to feed on mosquito 蚊子 larvae.幼虫

Advantages 好处 of using biological control: Disadvantages 坏处 of using biological control:

a) Does not pollute 不会造成污染 the environment.
(b) The predator only eats a specific 特定的 prey
(pest) and other animals are not eaten.
(c) Cheaper 比较便宜 than the usage of pesticides.
农药
(a) Its effects 效果 are slower 比较慢 compared to
chemical control.
(b) May cause imbalance 不平衡 in the food chain
of the ecosystem if the predators do not only feed on
the targeted 关注的 pest but also on other animals in
die ecosystem.

Chemical control methods use use pesticides, herbicides and insecticides to control the population of pests,

Changesb 变化 in the Ecosystem

1 The change in population size of an organism affects 影响 the food chain and the balance of nature.
Insufficient 不足够 water supplies due to 由于 lack of 缺少 rainwater 雨水
• The population of paddy 稻米 decreases because of the limited 有限的 water supplies.水供
• The population of grasshoppers decreases because there is less paddy to be eaten.
• The population of snakes decreases because there are less frogs to be eaten.
• The population of eagles decreases because there are less snakes to be eaten.

For the food chain in the figure above,

• Climate change can cause many eagles to migrate 移居 to that ecosystem.
• When this happens, the population of snakes decreases because predation by eagles increases.
• The population of frogs increases because predation by snakes decreases.
• The population of grasshoppers decreases because predation by frogs increases.
• The popopulation of paddy increases because less paddy is eaten by the decreased population of
grasshoppers.

2.4 Role 任务 of Humans in Maintaining 保持 a Balanced 平衡 Nature 大自然

1 Humans are part of 一部分 an ecosystem.
2 Human activities can threaten 威胁 the balance of nature.
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 Excessive 过度 exploitation
Unplanned 没有计划 剥削 of natural resources
development 发展, for Irregular 不合规 disposal 丢弃 of such as deforestation 砍伐
example, housing wastes 森林 without replanting 再
Projects 建屋计划 种植

Examples human activities that

threaten the environment

Excessive usage 使用 of Industrialisation 工业化

chemicals such as Widespread 广泛 use 使用 of releases pollutants 污染物
pesticides, inorganic motor vehicles that pollute the
chemicals and environment
chemical fertilisers 肥料

3 Effects of human activities on the balance of nature:

Activity Effects 影响
Deforestation 砍伐森林 • Extinction 绝种 of species
• Loss 失去 of habitat 栖息地
• Disrupts 破坏 food chains
• Greenhouse effect 温室效应
• Soil erosion 土壤侵蚀 and landslide 土崩
Industrialisation 工业化 • Water, air and soil pollutions 污染
• Acid rain 酸雨
Agriculture 农业 • The excessive usage of fertilisers and pesticides cause water pollution
Disposal of wastes • Water and soil pollutions
丢弃废料 • Clogged 阻塞 drains 沟渠 and water streams 水流 cause flash
floods 闪电水灾

4 An ecosystem that is balance, stable 稳定 and productive is important to ensure 确保 continuity 延续 of

life.生命
5 It is important to ensure
(a) a stable ecosystem where the damage of natural habitats does not occur
(b) a productive ecosystem for never ending 没有介素 used of natural resources
(c) a balanced ecosystem where different populations of species in food chains are not affected 影响

Steps 措施 to Preserve 维护 and Conserve 保护 the Environment

Practice selective logging by
Preserve , reserve 保留 Reduce 减少, reuse 再使用 ensuring only matured trees are
forests 森林 and recycle 再循环 wastes cut down and followed by
replanting

Establish 成立 rehabilitation 复
Take legal action 法律行动 Steps to preserve 原 centres such as the Sepilok
against those who pollute Orangutan Rehabilitation

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and destroy 破坏 the and conserve the Centre in Sabah
ecosystem environment

Educate 教育 the public 公 Support 支持 activities and

众 by creating 制造 efforts 努力 by
awareness 醒觉 about the organisations 组织 such as Build a marine park 海洋公园
importance of preservation the World Wide Fund for
and conservation of the Nature (WWF) and the
environment Malaysian Nature
Society (MNS)

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