TOPIC 8: SUPPORT AND LOCOMOTION

Introduction
Locomotion is the movement of a whole organism from one place to another.
Locomotion is a characteristic of only animals but not pants.
Movement is the displacement of part of an organism. Note that movement is characteristic of all
living things
The necessity of locomotion in animals;-
i) Animals locomote to obtain food
ii) In order to escape from predators
iii) To look for mates and friends/fellows
iv) To avoid danger e.g. Fires, flood
v) To avoid competition between themselves
Requirements for locomotion
 Locomotion needs energy from a process of respiration.
 Most animals depend on a skeleton which may be attached to antagonistic sets of muscles
which move parts of skeleton relative to others there by providing locomotion.
Skeletons can be divided into 3 categories.
Endoskeleton
Consists of skeletal elements (bone and cartilage) which are internal to the muscles which move
parts of the skeleton. This is common in vertebrates.
Exoskeleton
Consist of a hard cuticle which lies outside the muscles which move parts of the skeleton. This is
common in insects and other arthropods.
Hydrostatic skeleton
Consist of a fluid filled body cavity surrounded by antagonistic sets of muscles. Movement results
from the compressive action of the contraction of these muscles on this fluid.
This is common in invertebrates e.g. Annelids
Locomotion in animals
Insects
Insects show two types of locomotion by legs and wings.
Locomotion by legs (walking)
Insects have got jointed legs. The type of joint is called peg and socket joint which works like
hinge type of joint since it allows movement only in a single plane. Inside the leg at the joints are
two sets of muscles the flexor (depressor) and extensor (elevator)
These muscles work antagonistically to bring about movement and are coordinated by the central
nervous system.
When the flexor muscle contract, the leg bend and when the exterior muscle contract the leg
straighten pushing the insect forward. During movement 3 legs are moved at once (fore and hind
legs on one side) and (middle leg on other side) the other three legs are left on ground to provide
support. Due to an equal number of legs moving on each side, the insect moves in a zig-zag motion

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 Diagram showing attachment of muscles in insect limb

Adaptation of insects to move by legs

i) Insects’ legs possess claws at the end to drag themselves along rough surfaces.
ii) Legs have glandular pads at end which produce a sticky substance which help them to
move on wet or smooth surfaces and sometimes upside down e.g. on ceilings of houses.
iii) They have longer hind limbs to leap over great distances.
iv) The legs are jointed to allow great flexibility during locomotion.
v) They are many (six in number) to increase surface area for walking.

Flight in Insects
Insects move by wings. This is called flight. Flight is achieved by a few insects.
Flight is brought about by action of flight muscles attached on exoskeleton and wings. Muscles
are grouped into direct and indirect flight muscles. Direct flight muscles are those attached on the
wing base while indirect flight muscles are attached on the exoskeleton.

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 Mechanism of flight in insects
 When an insect flaps its wings up and down a stream of air is directed down wards and
backwards. This has the effect of lifting the insect and driving it forward through the air.
 During flight, nerve impulses are sent to the elevator and depressor muscles in turn which
keeps the wings beating up and down at the correct speed.
 To raise wings, the elevator muscles contract and pull against the roof of the thorax,
moving it downwards. This levers the wings upwards. To lower the wings the depressor
muscles contract and pull in a horizontal direction compressing the thorax length wise.
This raises pressure in the thorax to such an extent that its roof is thrust upwards, which
levers the wings downwards.
 The elevator and depressor muscles work antagonistically. All flying insects have direct
flight muscles which adjust the angle of the wing to provide forward movement.

Adaptations of insects to flight

i) Possession of wings which provide a large surface area for movement in air
ii) Presence of elevator and depressor muscles which move the wings
iii) They possess an exoskeleton without bones which can be easily moved in air.
iv) They have an efficient breathing system which improves supply of oxygen and removal
of carbon dioxide.
v) They have a streamlined body shape to reduce air resistance and provide smooth
movement in air.
vi) They have a high metabolic rate for providing the high amount of energy required.
vii) They have no pinna to obstruct the flow of air over the body.
viii) Have keen eye sight to see well and judge distances accurately.
ix) The head is small and neck is short this gives great freedom of movement of head during
flight.

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 Bony fish
Most fish move by swimming.

Fish are adapted to swimming in the following ways.

i) They have a streamlined shape which offers little resistance to their movement in water.
ii) They have got fins to provide movement and stability in water.
iii) They have swim bladders which help them to stay afloat or sink as desired.
iv) They have a lateral line for detecting stimuli like sound vibrations in water.
v) Their body is covered with scales which overlap backwards making skin slippery hence
reduces friction during swimming in water.
vi) They have gills which are used for breathing in water.
vii) The scales and color provide protection
viii) The fish has silver color below and dark color above so that it is not seen easily while
swimming in water.
ix) They have a keen eye sight which enables them to see clearly while swimming.
x) They have got a set of antagonistic muscles which bring about propulsion of body in water.

Locomotion in bony fish

Fish move by swimming. This is done by use of fins. The forward motion is brought about by side
to side movement of the tail. This in turn causes the contraction of muscles, the myotomes which
are arranged on both sides of the tail. These muscles are antagonistic in action
When the tail beats to the right the fish moves the head to the left and when the tail beats to the
left, the head is moved to the right. This keeps the fish to move in a straight path due to opposite
beating of tail and movement of head.
Fins
The paired fins (pelvic and pectoral fins) are used for steering, balancing and forward and
backward motion. Paired fins are not used by fish during fast movement and are used to prevent
pitching movement.
The unpaired fins (dorsal, ventral and anal fins) are used to prevent rolling and yawing instabilities
during swimming.

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Instabilities in fish during swimming
Pitching
This is tendency of the nose to plunge vertically downwards as the fish swims.
This is controlled by the paired fins

Rolling
This is the rotation of the body of the fish about its longitudinal axis.
Rolling is controlled by all fins.

Yawing
This is the lateral deflection of anterior (head) part of body due to the propulsive action at the tail.
It is controlled by Dorsal and ventral fins

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BIRDS
Most birds move by flying.
Flight is brought about by action of wings and feathers.

Adaptations of birds for flight

i) The fore limbs are modified into wings which provide a large surface area of movement
in air.
ii) Presence of large pectoral muscles which move the wings
iii) Birds have got a light skeleton made of hollow and very small bones which can be easily
moved in air.
iv) They have got a rigid skeleton made of fused bones with a deep keel like extension of
sternum for attachment of muscles.
v) They have got an efficient breathing system with air sacs attached to lungs which
improve supply of oxygen for respiration.
vi) They have a high metabolic rate for providing high amount energy required for flight.
vii) They have efficient circulatory system for transporting nutrients and oxygen as fast as
body needs require.
viii) They have got a high red blood cell count for efficient oxygen transport.
ix) Have keen eye sight to judge distances accurately especially quick landing.
x) Have a streamlined shape to reduce air resistance during flight.
xi) They have the ability to fold the legs away during flight so as not to cause unnecessary
friction with air.
xii) They have ear holes only. There is no pinna to obstruct the flow of air over the body.
xiii) The head is small and neck is long. This gives great freedom of movement of head during
flight.

Bird’s Feathers
Quill feather
Characteristics
i) It has got a flat and expanded vane
ii) It has a long strong hollow quill
iii) It has a small after shaft
iv) It has superior and inferior umbilicus
v) The vane is made of barbs with interlocking barbules.
vi) It is used for flight and protection. It is found on the wings and tail.

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 Structure of a quill feather

Covert feather/contour feather

These are found on the neck and upper side of the body. They are mainly used for insulation
against heat loss and also protection. They are smaller than the quill. They have a large after shaft
and short vane.

Structure of a covert feather

Down Feather
These are located on lower side of body (abdominal region). They are also very many and keep
the body of bird warm.
They are smaller than covert feather.
They have no vane but consist of barbs
They are soft and have short shaft which does not extend the whole length of the feather.
Illustration

Filoplume

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These are distributed uniformly throughout the body. They are sensory in function. They are
thread like in shape and have very few barbs at one end which is free. They have no quill.

Functions of feathers to a bird

 They are used in flight
 They insulate body against heat loss
 Protect body from mechanical injury and through camouflage.
 They are used to recognize members of their species and differentiate males from females
prior to reproduction (courtship).
Flight
During flight, wings are operated by powerful pectoral muscles attached to keel and sternum
(breast bone)
An illustration showing the attachment of flight muscles

The muscles which move the wings are pectoralis major and minor. The muscles work
antagonistically. When pectoralis major contracts, the wing is pulled down and backwards while
when pectoralis minor contracts, the wing is raised.

Types of flight
Flight in birds is divided in two
Flapping flight
This is also called active flight because it involves a great use of respiration energy during the
muscular contractions involved.
The muscles which move the wings are pectorals major and minor. These muscles work
antagonistically.

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During the down stroke, the pectoralis major contracts and pulls the wing down wards. Air
resistance provides a lift upwards. The action the wings near the tip push in backwards and so bird
moves forward.
During upstrokes, pectoralis minor contracts, raising the wing more rapidly than during down
stroke. Air resistance is reduced due to the concave shape of the wings; the bird bends the wing
at the wrist to further reduce air resistance.

Gliding flight
During gliding the wings are just spread out and the bird uses rising air currents to maintain its
position in the air.
The bird can lose height by sliding throughout the air at an angle to the ground.

Similarities between flight in insects and birds

 Both use wings for flight
 In both wings are moved by antagonistic muscles.
 Both insects and birds have streamlined body shape to reduce air resistance during flight.
 Both show active and gliding flights.
 In both muscle contraction is under control of the nervous system.

Differences between flight in insects and birds

Insects Birds
Muscles are attached to exoskeleton Muscles are attached on keel extension of
sternum
Wings are membranous wings are thick
Wings are supported by veins of wings are supported by bones and muscles
chitin
Wings are moved by only direct flight wings can be moved by both direct or indirect light
muscles muscles

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 Mammals
Structure of the human Skeleton

In mammals, the skeleton consists of bone and cartilage. Both tissues contain a high proposition
of ground substance which has been secreted by living cells of the tissues.
The ground substance of bone is hard and contains calcium salts and fibers of a protein called
collagen while that of cartilage is composed of protein called chondrin.

Differences between bone and cartilage

Bone Cartilage
Contain blood vessels Has no blood vessels
Has nerves Has no nerves
It is an active tissue since it can synthesize blood Has no synthetic activity
cells
Bone cells are arranged in concentric layers Cartilage cells are in single, pairs or fours
scattered in ground substance
Contain salts of calcium and phosphorus Has no salts

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 Contain hard solid ground substance Contain soft and flexible ground substance
Long bones have marrows Cartilages do not have marrows.
Functions of the mammalian skeleton
i) Provides shape, form and support to the body. It is a frame work from which all internal
organs of body are suspended.
ii) It provides protection to delicate soft internal organs of body e.g. skull protects brain, rib
protect the heart and lungs, the pelvic girdle protects the kidneys, the bladder and female
reproductive system.
iii) It provides levers at movable joints to which muscles can be attached to cause movement.
iv) It is essential in respiration i.e. the rib cage helps in breathing by adjusting volume of
thoracic cavity.
v) The transmission of sound in ear by ear ossicles.
vi) Some bones produce blood cells e.g. in long and short bones
vii) Some bones store calcium and phosphorus as parts of skeleton.
Mammalian skeleton consist of two parts the appendicular and axial skeleton.
There are about 200 bones in human skeleton

Appendicular skeleton
This is the skeleton of limbs.
Limb girdles
It is made of limb girdles and bones i.e. pectoral girdle (shoulder girdle) made of scapula and
clavicle.
The pelvic girdle (hip girdle) made of innominate (pubic) bone consisting of 3 fused bones illium,
ischium and pubis.
Generalized structure of Limb girdles

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The pectoral girdle.
The pectoral girdle is made up of two halves each of which consists of three bones.
These bones are;
(i) The scapula / shoulder blade).
(ii) The coracoid process.
(iii) The clavicle (collar bone).
The scapula.
The scapula is a flat, triangular-shaped bone with a narrow end which lies at the shoulder and a
broad base which lies parallel to the vertebral column. At its apex is a concave cavity or
depression called the glenoid cavity, which articulates with the head of the humerus to form the
ball and socket joint or shoulder joint. It also has a spine which runs along it’s outer surface and
at the free end of the spine close to the glenoid cavity are two projections called the a acromion
and the metacromion which are both for shoulder muscle attachment.
The coracoid is fused with the scapula as a small hook of bone.
The clavicle is a small rod-like bone, which joins the scapula to the sternum. The entire girdle
supports the arm.
Structure of the scapula bone

The functions of appendicular skeleton are;-

i) Provide stability to body
ii) Provide attachment of muscles that move limbs
iii) Provide rigid connection between axial and appendicular skeleton

Pentadactyl limb
This is a limb with five digits
It is a characteristic of all land vertebrates
A generalized structure of the pentadactyl limb

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The bones of the fore limb.
1. The humerus.
This bone is found in the upper arm. Its head articulates with the scapula at the glenoid cavity of
the pectoral girdle where it forms a ball and socket joint. Near the head, are two roughened
projections, the greater and lesser tuberosities.
These extend into a shaft which provides surface for muscle attachment. Between the tuber
osities, is a groove. At the lower end, there is a trochlea which articulate with the fore arm to
form a hinge joint at the elbow. There is also a supra trochlear foramen which also provides a
passage for blood vessels.
Structure of the humerus.

2. The ulna and radius.

There are bones of the lower / fore arm, the ulna being slightly longer than the radius. The radius
is found on the side of the thumb while the ulna stretches to the side of the small finger. The

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ulna has a projection called the Olecranon process. This has a sigmoid notch which articulates
with the humerus to form a hinge joint. The olecranon offers a large surface area for attachment
of tendons and over stretching of the fore arm at the joint. Their relative movements allow for
rotation at the wrist and they provide surfaces for attachment of the fore arm muscles.
The structure radius and the ulna.

3. Carpals, metacarpals and phalanges.

Carpals; are small bones found in the wrist and they are nine of them. They articulate with the
ulna and radius at the upper end and the metacarpals at the lower end. Carpals allow free
movement of the hand and support the wrist. They also provide surface for attachment of wrist
muscles.
Metacarpals are five slightly elongated bones found in the palm. Each of them articulates with
a phalange (finger bone). Metacarpals provide surface for attachment of the muscles of the palm
and also support and maintain the shape of the palm. The phalanges are digits made of three
bones each except the thumb which has two bones, with joints between them. Rabbits and rats,
each digit ends in sharp claw. The phalanges support the finger and joints between the bones
enable the fingers to hold and grasp objects. In humans and other primates there are opposable
thumbs to allow greater skillful use / movement.
Bones of the wrist and hand.

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The bones of the hind limb.
1. The femur;
The femur is a long bone situated in the thigh or upper leg region between the hip and the knee.
The head of the femur fits into an acetabulum of the pelvic girdle to form the hip joint. At the
tip of the shaft are, greater and lesser trochanters which are surfaces for the attachment of leg
muscles. The shaft of the femur leads to lower end with expanded and rounded knobs called
condyles. The condyles articulate with the patella (knee cap). They also articulate with tibia to
form knee cap prevents the leg from bending upwards at the knee.
Structure of the femur.

2. The tibia and fibula.

These are long bones of the lower leg between the femur and the tarsals. The fibula is smaller
and shorter than the tibia and lies on outside the tibia. They are only joined at the upper and the
lower ends. The tibia and fibula support the shin and provide surface for attachment of shin
muscles. They articulate with the femur to form the knee joint and with metatarsals to form the
ankle.
The structure of tibia and fibula.

The tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges.

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 3. The tarsals, are six small bones in the ankle. Two of them are elongated and one of these
two projects backwards to form the heel bone. The tarsals provide surface for attachment
of the ankle muscles. The heel bone prevents the foot from bending backwards.
The metatarsals, are elongated bones in the foot. There are five in human foot and each
metatarsal leads to a phalange. The metatarsals provide surface for the attachment of foot
muscles. They also support and maintain the shape of foot.
The phalanges, with exception of the big toe in humans which has two bone, each is made up of
three small bones, with small joints between them to allow bending movements. The phalanges
serve a variety of functions such as grasping climbing, digging and defence or offence.
Axial skeleton
This is skeleton of head and trunk.
I t is made up of bones of skull, Vertebral
column, ribs and sternum.
Skull consists of 22 flat bones connected by
immovable joints to form a case.
The vertebral column is made of 33 bones in
man. Each bone is called a vertebra
The neck has 7 cervical vertebra, 12 thoracic
vertebra in the thorax, 5 lumbar vertebra in
abdominal region. 5 sacral and 4 caudal vertebra
in lower abdomen.

Thoracic Vertebra
These are located in thoracic region
There are 12 thoracic vertebrae in man
They are characterized by
i) Along neural spine for attachment of
thoracic muscles
ii) A pair of facets for articulation with the vertebra and ribs
iii) A pair of short transverse process
iv) It has a large Centrum bearing 2 pairs of capitular demifacets for articulation with the ribs.
v) Has a pair of notches for passage of spinal nerves

Anterior view of the thoracic vertebra

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Cervical Vertebra
It is located in the neck region
There are 7 cervical vertebrae in man.
It is characterized by
i) A pair of canals in neural arch known as veterbraterial canals for passage of blood vessels
ii) A flattened and divided transverse process
iii) A small neutral spine
iv) A large neural canal
v) A small Centrum

Anterior view of the cervical vertebra

Lumbar Vertebra
These are located in abdominal region.
There are 5 lumbar vertebrae in man.

It is characterized by
 Long transverse processes for muscle attachment
 Has extra processes called metamorphyses for muscle attachment
 Has a very large Centrum
 Has a broad neural spine

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  Has a small neural canal

General functions of the parts

i) Neural spines: Provides attachment of muscles
ii) Transverse process: Provides attachment of muscles and articulation with ribs.
iii) Centrum: Provides articulation with other vertebra
iv) Neural canal: Protects spinal cord
v) Neural arch -protects spinal cord
vi) -It is a passage of spinal cord
vii) Vertebraterial canal: It is a passage of blood vessels to the neck
viii) Facets: For articulation with other vertebra and ribs in thoracic cavity
ix) Movement in man

JOINTS
The skeleton is made of joints.
A point where two or more bones meet is called joint. A joint is a place where two or more bones
meet and articulate.

Types of joints
Immovable joints
Are joints where no movement is possible e.g. skull bones. They are also called synovial joints
because they contain synovial fluid as a lubricating fluid.
Partly movable joints
Are joints which allow a little movement.
Movable joints
These allow great degree of movement between bones.

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 Joints of mammalian skeleton
Name of joint Type of joint Example
Suture Immovable Between skull , sacrum and
pubic bones
Gliding Partly movable Between adjacent vertebra
and bones of wrist and ankle
Pivot Partly movable Between axis and atlas
vertebra
Hinge Synovial Elbow, knee, in fingers
Ball and socket Synovial At shoulder and hip

Structure of a synovial joint

Knee joint

Movable joints have space called synovial cavity

which contains a lubricating fluid - synovial fluid. The surface of bones is covered with a layer
of cartilage.
It prevents damage to articulating surfaces of bones as a result of friction between them. The
cartilage also acts as a shock absorber. The joint is strengthened by ligaments which connect
bones together and attachment of muscles to bones is by tendons
Movement at elbow joint

Biceps and Triceps muscles work antagonistically. When the Biceps contracts it pulls on the radius
thus raising the fore arm. This is a flexor muscle since it results into bending of the arm. When

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Triceps contracts it pulls on ulna thus straightening the arm. This is an extensor muscle since it
extends the arm.
How muscles obtain energy for their function
Muscles need energy to contract.
They get some energy by oxidizing glycogen stored in them. The rest is got from the oxidation of
glucose transported to them by the plasma of the blood. Oxygen is also required to oxidize glucose.
It is carried to the muscles by the red blood cells as oxy-haemoglobin. Oxygen diffuses from red
cells into the plasma. It then diffuses into muscle cells. There, glucose is oxidized with the
production of carbon dioxide, water and energy to contract muscles.
Carbon dioxide produced is removed immediately and expelled through external respiration so
that the release of energy remains a continuous process.
In case of prolonged exercise, oxygen supply may not be enough in that case the muscle cells
respire an aerobically. Glucose is broken down to lactic acid and energy. The accumulation of
lactic acid causes muscle fatigue.
Locomotion in lower animals
Paramecium
A paramecium has cilia as its locomotory organs. The paramecium swims about fast by the beating
of its cilia. The cilia generally beat backwards due to which the body is propelled forward and
rotated at the same time a long its axis. In case the paramecium touches a hard object, it reverses
the direction of the beat of cilia and swims backwards. All cilia do not beat at the same time. They
beat in wave like motions which start from the front end and slowly move backwards. The cilia
of oral groove make paramecium to turn slightly on the left side.
Amoeba
Amoeba has no special locomotory organs. It moves by means of its pseudopodia. It pushes out
its pseudopodia on one side by the flowing action of its cytoplasm and pulls them from the
opposite side. Amoeba moves slowly as this process is repeated.

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 SUPPORT IN PLANTS
Necessity for support in pants
Support is necessary for plants to survive. Plants need water and mineral salts without which they
cannot survive. The land plants get those substances from soil and also anchor the plants in the
soil and hold them firmly in position against winds. If plants are not held in position, they will be
up rooted by winds and plants will then die.
The stem supports and holds the leaves in the best position to get enough light for photosynthesis.
The stem also supports and holds flowers in the best possible for pollination and for the dispersal
of fruits and seeds formed from the flowers.
Support in weak herbaceous plants
The stems of herbaceous plants are not woody but the mechanical tissue in the collenchyma cells
with their thickened corners, sclerenchyma cells with their lignified walls and the xylem play a
great role in supporting and keeping the plant firm and in an erect position.
The cells of the pith and cortex too give support. When these cells are fully turgid, they try to
become bigger but are checked by the strong tissues in the outer region of the stem. It creates a
tension between the outer parts and inner parts. This state keeps the stem stiff.
The outer part of the stem of many herbs has an entire ring of thick walled tissue. The larger and
older herbs often have a complete ring of wood which gives extra strength. Veins of leaves have
wood fibers. In the root there is a solid core of hard tissue which runs through the centre and is
mostly made of wood fibers and other fibers.
Due to lack of more complex system of support, herbaceous plants do not grow very high.

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 TOPIC 9: GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Growth is defined as an irreversible or permanent increase in the size and dry weight of an
organism. Growth in multicellular organisms is divided into 3 phases.
Cell division
This involves increase in the number of cells mainly as a result of mitosis.
Cell expansion
This is the permanent increase in the cell size as a result of uptake of water or synthesis of living
materials.
Cell differentiation
This involves specialization of cells to suit particular functions. Growth is usually accompanied
by an increase in the complexity of an organism which is also called development.
Development is the increase in complexity and change of form of an organism.

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH

A. External factors
Nutrients
Growth of an organism increases in the availability of nutrients and decreases when nutrients are
in short supply. This is because nutrients are used in the building up of new protoplasm and
organic matter. Also nutrients can be oxidized to provide energy required for growth. Therefore
lack of nutrients can lead to decrease in growth or even death.
Accumulation of the byproducts of metabolism (excretory substances): Growth may be
inhibited by metabolic waste products which are toxic to the body cells. Fortunately most plants
and animals are not affected much because they can convert these substances to less toxic
excretions.
Temperature:
Growth depends on bio-chemical reactions which are catalyzed by enzymes. Temperature affects
growth by affecting enzymes which catalyzes the chemical reactions in the body. Increase in
temperature to the optimum increases the rate of growth, beyond which retardation of growth
occurs.
Light:
In plants, light affects growth by affecting the rate of photosynthesis which adds more organic
matter to the plant. Therefore increase in light intensity in green plants increases the rate of growth
and decrease in light intensity decreases the rate of growth.
PH:
The PH affects the activity of enzymes which catalyzes reactions in the body. This can result into
decrease in growth of an organism.
Carbon dioxide:
In animals, carbon dioxide is a waste product of metabolism. If allowed to accumulate, it can lead
to a decrease in the rate of growth while in plants carbon dioxide is a raw material for
photosynthesis therefore increase in carbon dioxide concentration increases the rate of growth.

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