Module 5 DC Machines

ESO203A: Introduction to Electrical Engineering
Module 5 Lecture 1
DC Machines
Copyright Clause
The instructor of this course (Dr. Abheejeet Mohapatra) owns the copyright of all the course materials (except
the images). The instructor acknowledges the various sources from which the images have been taken. This
lecture material was distributed only to the students attending the course ESO203A of IIT Kanpur, and should not
be distributed in print or through electronic media without the consent of the instructor. Students can make their
own copies of the course materials for their use.
ESO203A 1
Previous module/ lecture
➢ Introduction
➢ Single phase and three phase AC circuits
➢ Magnetic and mutually coupled circuits
➢ Transformers
ESO203A 2
Electromechanical energy conversion
➢ Rotating electric machines
• Motor – electrical energy to mechanical energy
• Generator – mechanical energy to electrical energy
➢ Ideally, one rotating electric machine can operate both as
generator and motor
• DC machines – the electrical system is a DC system
• AC (Induction, Synchronous) machines – the electrical
system is an AC system
➢ Generic working principle can be explained by
• EM1: Voltage induced in a conductor moving in a magnetic
field
• EM2: Mechanical force experienced by a current carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field
ESO203A 3
EM1
B
N c r v S
v b
d
a l
v=ωr
B
➢ Consider
• a single loop rectangular coil (abcd) of length l and width 2r
• rotating anti-clockwise at uniform peripheral speed v and
angular speed ω
• in a cylindrical space of close to similar dimension with
uniform flux density B created by two magnets with
opposite poles
ESO203A 4
EM1
B
N c r v S
v b
d
a l
v=ωr
B
a2
➢ Associated front cross-section v=ωr
• a1, a2, a3, a4 are specific c,d
positions of coil end a as the coil a3 v v a1
rotates θ a,b θ
r
• 𝛉 is angle between 𝐯 and 𝐁 N B S
a4
ESO203A 5
EM1
B
N c r v S
v b
d
a l
v=ωr c b
2r
B
l
➢ Associated top cross-section of the single
loop rectangular coil (abcd)
d a
ESO203A 6
EM1
➢ Voltage (𝑒) induced across a conductor of length l moving
with velocity 𝐯 in a magnetic field of flux density 𝐁 is
𝑒 = 𝐯 × 𝐁 . Ԧl
𝑒 = 𝐯𝐁 sin 𝛉 η. Ԧl
𝑒 = 𝐯𝐁l sin 𝛉 cos φ
➢ η is unit vector in direction of 𝐯 × 𝐁, given by Fleming’s
right hand rule
➢ Ԧl vector is in direction of current
➢ φ is angle between η and Ԧl
Fleming’s right hand rule

applicable for generator action
ESO203A 7
a2
EM1
v=ωr
➢ For the considered rectangular c,d
loop with coil end a taking a3 v v a1
positions as a4 – a1 – a2 θ a,b θ
r
• current flows from node a to
node b as per Fleming’s right
N B S
a4
hand rule if there is a closed path c b
• Similarly for segment cd, current
flows from node c to node d as
per Fleming’s right hand rule
current
l
• Since current flows in a closed
path, current has to flow from
node b to node c in segment bc
• Similar inference for segment da
d a
ESO203A 8
a2
EM1
v=ωr
➢ For the considered rectangular c,d
loop with coil end a taking a3 v o,o' v a1
positions as a4 – a1 – a2 θ a,b
• o and o' on the coil mark the
positions, where velocity is 0
N B S
a4
c o b
• φ is angle between η and Ԧl loc lbo
current
Segment cos φ X v
ab 1 lcd
bo 0 ηocdo' lab
oc 0 ηo'abo
cd 1 B
ldo' lo'a
do' 0 d o' a
o'a 0
ESO203A 9
a2
EM1
Segment cos φ v=ωr
c,d
ab,cd 1 a3 v o,o' v a1
bo,oc 0 θ a,b
do',o'a 0 N B S
➢ For constant v, B, and l, with coil a4
c o b
end a taking positions as a4 – a1 –
current
a2, induced voltages are
• 𝑒𝑏𝑎 = 𝐯𝐁l sin 𝛉 with node b at
X v
higher potential than node a
• 𝑒𝑐𝑏 = 𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 0
• 𝑒𝑑𝑐 = 𝐯𝐁l sin 𝛉 with node d at
higher potential than node c
d+ o' -a
ESO203A 10
a2
EM1
v=ωr
➢ The rectangular loop acts as an c,d
electrical source due to the a3 v v a1
voltage induction electromagnetic θ a,b
r
phenomena
N B S
➢ Inside a source, current flows from a4
negative voltage terminal to c b
positive voltage terminal
current
➢ Total induced voltage
𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑒𝑏𝑎 + 𝑒𝑑𝑐 = 2𝐯𝐁l sin 𝛉
➢ Let time period of rotation be
2𝜋
𝑇=
𝛚
d a
+ -
ESO203A
etot 11
a2
EM1
v=ωr
𝑡 a 𝛉 = 𝛚𝑡 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 c,d
0 a4 0 0 a3 v v a1
𝑇/4 a1 𝜋/2 2rl𝛚𝐁 θ a,b
r
𝑇/2 a2 𝜋 0 N B S
3𝑇/4 a3 3𝜋/2 −2rl𝛚𝐁 a4
c b
𝑇 a4 2𝜋 0 2r
➢ Thus, 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 is varying in time (AC)

➢ Overall 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2rl𝛚𝐁 sin 𝛚𝑡
l
current
➢ A = 2rl is cross-section area of
loop, 𝜓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = A𝐁 is the max. flux
through the cross-section
➢ Hence, 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝜓𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝛚 sin 𝛚𝑡 d a
+ -
ESO203A
etot 12
Next module/ lecture
➢ Force experienced by a current carrying conductor in a
magnetic field (EM2)
ESO203A 13
Module 5 Lecture 2
DC Machines
Copyright Clause
ESO203A 1
➢ Voltage induced in a conductor moving in a magnetic field
(EM1)
ESO203A 2
EM2
B
N c r S
b
d
i a l
- +
B
➢ Consider
• a single loop rectangular coil (abcd) of length l and width 2r
• carrying a constant current i
• in a cylindrical space of close to similar dimension with
uniform flux density B created by two magnets with
opposite poles
ESO203A 3
a2
EM2
➢ Associated front cross-section
c,d
• a1, a2, a3, a4 are specific positions a3 a1
of coil end a θ a,b
r
• 𝛉 is the angular position of coil i X
with respect to the axis N B S
a4
perpendicular to 𝐁 c b
2r
➢ Associated top cross-section of the
single loop rectangular coil (abcd)
carrying current i
current
l
d a
i
- +
ESO203A 4
EM2
➢ A conductor of length l carrying constant current 𝐢 when
placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux density 𝐁
experiences a mechanical force 𝐅Ԧ as
𝐅Ԧ = 𝐢Ԧl × 𝐁
𝐅Ԧ = 𝐢l𝐁 sin φ η
➢ Ԧl is vectorial length of conductor in direction of current 𝐢
➢ η is unit vector in direction of 𝐅Ԧ or Ԧl × 𝐁, given by
Fleming’s left hand rule
➢ φ is angle between 𝐢Ԧl and 𝐁
Fleming’s left hand rule

applicable for motor action
ESO203A 5
a2
EM2 F
➢ For the coil position shown aside
c,d
with current directions as marked a3 a1
• the directions of force 𝐅 θ a,bX
i
r
experienced by segments ab and
cd are shown, as per Fleming’s N B F S
a4
left hand rule
• Both segments experience the a2
same magnitude of force T
• Thus, respective torque directions c,d

are shown aside, where a3 a1
𝐓 = 𝐅r sin 𝛉 θ a,b X
i
r
• The torques are additive N B T S
• Hence, the loop tends to rotate in a4
clockwise direction
ESO203A 6
a2
EM2 T
➢ For the coil position shown aside
with current directions as marked c,d
a3 a1
• φ is angle between 𝐢Ԧl and 𝐁 θ a,b X
i
r
Segment sin φ
ab, cd 1
N B T S
a4
c b
bc, da 0 lbc
➢ For constant i, B, and l, Tcd Tab X
• 𝐅𝑎𝑏 = 𝐢𝐁l, 𝐓𝑎𝑏 = 𝐢𝐁lr sin 𝛉 with lcd
direction as shown aside lab
current
l
• 𝐅𝑏𝑐 = 𝐅𝑑𝑎 = 𝐓𝑏𝑐 = 𝐓𝑑𝑎 = 0
• 𝐅𝑐𝑑 = 𝐢𝐁l, 𝐓𝑐𝑑 = 𝐢𝐁lr sin 𝛉 with
direction as shown aside B
lda
• Hence, 𝐅𝑎𝑏 = 𝐅𝑐𝑑 = 𝐅 and 𝐓𝑎𝑏 = d a
i
𝐓𝑐𝑑 = 𝐓 - +
ESO203A 7
a2
EM2
➢ Net torque experienced by coil Ttot
c,d
(non-zero torques are additive) a3 a1
θ a,b X
𝐓𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐓𝑎𝑏 + 𝐓𝑐𝑑 = 2rl𝐁𝐢 sin 𝛉 i
➢ Thus, 𝐓𝑡𝑜𝑡 is varying in time N B S
➢ Overall 𝐓𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2rl𝐁𝐢 sin 𝛚𝑡 = a4
A𝐁𝐢 sin 𝛚𝑡 like 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 in 𝑡 a 𝛉 = 𝛚𝑡 𝐓𝑡𝑜𝑡
generator action, where A is 0 a4 0 0
cross-section area of single loop
𝑇/4 a1 𝜋/2 2rl𝐁𝐢
rectangular coil
𝑇/2 a2 𝜋 0
3𝑇/4 a3 3𝜋/2 −2rl𝐁𝐢
𝑇 a4 2𝜋 0
ESO203A 8
Parallel actions of EM2 and EM1
➢ In the motoring action, a force is
Ttot
experienced by a current carrying c,d
conductor as per EM2 im
a,b X
➢ Does it imply that the coil aside will
keep on accelerating, i.e., keep on N B S
gaining kinetic energy? Motoring action
➢ If the above is true, then it will

X
result in infinite source of energy, ig Ttot
c,d
which is practically impossible im
➢ EM1 (generating action) inhibits this a,b X
N B S
Motoring action together
with generating action
ESO203A 9
➢ EM2 – cause, EM1 – effect X
ig Ttot
• A back emf with polarities opposite c,d
to source emf of motor is induced im
a,b X
• responsible for flow of 𝐢g
• opposes 𝐢m that causes 𝐓𝑡𝑜𝑡 N B S
Motoring action together
• reason being Lenz’s law with generating action
• Alternatively, due to EM2, a counter torque opposite and
little less than 𝐓𝑡𝑜𝑡 is produced due to 𝐢g
➢ Induced back emf is less than source emf of motor due to
voltage drop across the impedance of conductor
➢ At equilibrium, effective torque is just sufficient to
overcome frictional torque in motor and motor rotates at
constant speed
ESO203A 10
➢ Motoring action ➢ Generating action
• Source emf ⟹ 𝐢m (KVL) • Applied torq. ⟹ emf (EM1)
• 𝐢m ⟹ 𝐓𝑡𝑜𝑡 (EM2) • emf ⟹ 𝐢g (KVL)
• 𝐓𝑡𝑜𝑡 ⟹ opposing back emf • 𝐢g ⟹ opposing counter torq.
(EM1) (EM2)
• back emf ⟹ 𝐢g (KVL) • Counter torq. ⟹ back emf
• 𝐢g opposes 𝐢m (EM1)
• 𝐢g ⟹ counter torque (EM2) • back emf ⟹ 𝐢m (KVL)
• Counter torque opposes 𝐓𝑡𝑜𝑡 • 𝐢m opposes 𝐢g

• …… • ……
• In steady-state, motor • In steady-state, generator
rotates at constant speed operates at constant speed
(AC electrical frequency)
ESO203A 11
➢ Construction and other aspects of DC machines
ESO203A 12
Module 5 Lecture 3
DC Machines
Copyright Clause
ESO203A 1
(EM1)
magnetic field (EM2)
ESO203A 2
DC Machines
➢ Operate with DC quantities
• DC Motor – DC electrical power to mechanical power
• DC Generator – mechanical power to DC electrical power
➢ The two principles of electromechanical energy conversion
EM1 and EM2, respectively, define the operating principles
of DC generator and DC motor
• EM1: Voltage induced in a conductor moving in a magnetic
field
• EM2: Mechanical force experienced by a current carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field
➢ Every rotating electric machine has
• stator (generally fixed outer frame)
• rotor (generally rotating inner frame)
ESO203A 3
Construction of DC Machines
➢ Stator and rotor frames made of laminated ferro-magnetic
cores to reduce core loss, with slots for conductors
➢ Stator has distributed field windings, which carry DC

current for creation of multiple pairs of stator magnetic
poles (actual magnetic poles rarely exist)
➢ Rotor has distributed armature windings, which inherently
carry time varying current (induced voltage is time varying
as per EM1)
ESO203A 4
Construction of DC Machines
➢ The air gap between stator and q-axis a2
rotor cores is very small Stator
pole v=ωr
➢ Stator pole shoes are designed shoe
c,d
d-axis
so that magnetic flux lines a3 v a1
Rotor a,b
enter or emanate the rotor X
r
core with 𝐯 ⊥ 𝐁, i.e., sin 𝛉 ≈ 1, N B S
except at few specific positions a4
➢ Air gap flux distribution is symmetric about the d-axis
➢ Voltage induced in armature winding (abcd), except at
positions a4, a2, is approximately 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2rl𝛚𝐁, which is
time varying
ESO203A 5
Commutation
etot
➢ How DC machine operates with DC
quantities if armature current is 2Blv
a3 a4
inherently time varying? a4 a1 a2 ωt
➢ Commutation is the process of -2Blv
Induced armature voltage for
switching the coil connection just 2 pole DC generator without
as the induced voltage switches commutation
polarity to maintain or obtain uni- q-axis a2

polar output or terminal voltage Stator B
c,d Rotor
➢ Commutation arrangement is a d-axis
mechanical rectifier and has a3 a1
• Copper commutator split rings a,b
X
• Graphite brushes N S
+ etot - a4
Commutation arrangement
ESO203A (split rings and brushes) 6
Commutation
➢ Brushes are placed along d-axis so q-axis a2
that when coil end a is at a4, a2, Stator B
c,d Rotor
the two split rings ideally contact
d-axis
brushes at 0V a3 a1
➢ Voltage changes polarity when a,b
conductors come under different N X
S
pole face + etot - a4
➢ Major issues in commutation Commutation arrangement
(split rings and brushes)
• Armature reaction etot
• Voltage drop across coil 2Blv 2Blv
a4
inductance (𝐿𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡) a4 a2
a1 a3 ωt
➢ Armature winding experiences
Induced armature voltage for
torque (motor) or has voltage 2 pole DC generator with
commutation
induction (generator) ESO203A 7
Armature reaction
➢ Armature current varies with the load of DC machine
➢ Time varying armature current also has a magnetic field of
its own by right hand grip rule, which partially opposes the
main stator magnetic field
➢ This distorts the uniform flux density in air gap and cores
➢ Effective magnetic neutral plane (which in earlier slide is
along q-axis) is shifted
ESO203A 8
Armature reaction
➢ Thus, split rings contact the
brushes during voltage
rectification at non-zero voltage
leading to sparks, mechanical
damage, and risk of fire
➢ Under one half of stator pole, flux density increases while
on other half, flux density decreases
➢ This leads to magnetic saturation and overall reduction in
induced voltage or back emf due to demagnetizing effect
➢ To avoid this,
• compensating windings are placed in stator pole
• connected in anti-series to armature windings
• Flux of compensating and armature windings cancel out
ESO203A 9
𝐿𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡 drop across coil
➢ Voltage polarity changes when conductor comes under a
different pole shoe
➢ Consequently, armature current also changes its direction
• Practical 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡 is several hundred thousands amp (A)/ sec
➢ A tiny coil inductance 𝐿 results in substantial 𝐿𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡
voltage drop and shift of magnetic neutral plane
ESO203A 10
𝐿𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡 drop across coil
➢ To avoid this,
• Pairs of small interpoles or commutator poles are placed
• connected in series with armature windings and of reverse
magnetic polarity
• That cancels effective flux along the q-axis
➢ Both compensating windings and interpoles aid in proper
commutation
ESO203A 11
Electrical and mechanical quantities in DC
machine
➢ For a 2 (stator) pole, single turn (2 conductors) DC
machine, induced armature voltage changes polarity 2
times for one complete mech. rotation of armature
➢ For a 4 (stator) pole, single turn DC machine, induced
armature voltage changes polarity 4 times for one
complete mech. rotation of armature, i.e.,
• For 2𝜋 rad. mech. rotation, induced voltage rotates by 4𝜋
rad. or 2 elec. rotations
➢ Thus (∗𝑒 − electrical, ∗𝑚 − mechanical)
𝛚𝑒 = 𝛚𝑚 𝑝/2, 𝛉𝑒 = 𝛉𝑚 𝑝/2
where 𝑝 (even no.) is the no. of stator poles
ESO203A 12
➢ Separately excited DC generator
ESO203A 13
Module 5 Lecture 4
DC Machines
Copyright Clause
ESO203A 1
magnetic field
ESO203A 2
Voltage induced in a DC machine
➢ A DC machine generally has more than 2 stator poles so
that armature conductors can be in region of high air gap
flux density
➢ Armature conductors are also lap or wave wound with
several conductors (Z)
➢ For lap winding, no. of parallel paths for current to flow is
same as no. of stator poles (p) a = p
➢ For wave winding, no. of parallel paths is a = 2
➢ These parallel paths generally refer to the number of coils
in a winding
ESO203A 3
Voltage induced in a DC machine contd.
➢ Average voltage induced in a single turn DC machine
Eturn = 2 Blv = 2 Blrwm
➢ For Z conductors, there are Z/2 turns
➢ Voltage induced in each coil path is same by KVL
➢ For a coils, turns per parallel path or coil is Z/(2a)
➢ Net average induced voltage per parallel path
Z Z Zp 2rl
Ea = Eturn =  2 Blrwm =  B  wm
2a 2a 2a p
➢ 2πrl is the curved surface area of rotor
➢ 2πrl/p is area of rotor under each pole for p pole machine
➢ B is the flux density of each pole
ESO203A 4
Voltage induced in a DC machine contd.
➢ Flux per stator pole
2rl
p = B
p
➢ Net average induced voltage
Zp
E a = K a p wm , K a =
2 a
➢ Ka is the armature constant, which depends on design of
machine (unit is V-s/Wb-rad)
➢ This is true for both DC generator and motor
➢ DC generator – E (induced voltage) > Vt (terminal voltage)
➢ DC motor – E (counter/ back emf) < Vt (terminal voltage)
ESO203A 5
Torque experienced in a DC machine
➢ Average torque experienced in a single turn DC machine
Tturn = 2 BlrI a ( I a is the armature current)
➢ Net average torque experienced
Z Zp 2rl
T= Tturn =  B  I a = K a p I a
2a 2a p
➢ Same armature constant links E and T
➢ Alternatively, power developed in armature is
P = Ea I a = Twm
Ea I a
T = = K a p I a
wm
ESO203A 6
Open Circuit Characteristics (OCC)
➢ Also known as the magnetization characteristics
➢ Flux in a DC machine due to stator poles is DC in nature
➢ This passes through the air gap, stator and rotor cores
➢ Since reluctance of air is much high than cores, the entire
mmf drop is across the air gap (approximately)
NfIf
=
 gap
➢ Nf is number of turns in field or stator winding

➢ If is field or stator DC current
ESO203A 7
OCC contd.
➢ Also known as the magnetization characteristics
➢ Linear characteristics between ‘a’
and ‘b’ φ Saturation
➢ Beyond ‘a’, residual magnetism b
by magnetic domain theory

➢ Beyond ‘b’, saturation by
magnetic domain theory a
Residual flux
➢ The average induced voltage in a
If
DC machine is directly
Flux vs field current
proportional to the net flux due
to stator poles
ESO203A 8
OCC contd.
➢ OCC of a DC machine is the variation in the open circuited
terminal voltage with respect to variation in field current
when the machine rotates at a constant speed
Ea wm1 > wm2 > wm3 wm1
wm2
wm3 OCC of a DC machine
Residual emf
If
➢ A DC machine generally operates at knee point of OCC at
a given speed
ESO203A 9
Types of DC machines
➢ Depends on connection of field and armature windings
➢ Performance of machine depends on the above
➢ Separately excited: field & armature have separate sources
➢ Shunt: field parallel to armature with one source
➢ Series: field in series to armature with one source
➢ Compound: consist of two field windings – series and shunt
• Short shunt – shunt field is across armature
• Long shunt – shunt field is across armature and series field
• Cumulative – shunt and series field mmfs are additive
• Differential – shunt and series field mmfs are subtractive
➢ Differential/ cumulative machine may be short or long shunt
ESO203A 10
DC Generator
➢ A DC generator converts the input mechanical power to
output electrical power
➢ The power rating of a DC generator is the output
electrical power
➢ The DC generator operates at DC voltages
➢ A prime mover or turbine rotates the generator
➢ The prime mover is the source of mechanical power
➢ Electrical load is connected to armature terminals via
commutator split rings and brushes
➢ Armature or rotor current directly serves the load
➢ Field/ stator current is responsible for electromagnetic
behavior of stator poles
ESO203A 11
Separately Excited DC Generator
➢ Rfc – variable field resistance
➢ Rfw – fixed field resistance
➢ RL – variable load resistance
➢ Ra – armature resistance
➢ There is a voltage drop
across brushes, Vb = 1V
Steady state model of separately
➢ The steady state equations are excited DC Generator
V f = I f R f where R f = R fc + R fw
Vt = I tRL = Ea − I a Ra (or Ea − I a Ra -2Vb )
I a = It
Ea = K a p wm
ESO203A 12
Separately Excited Generator: OCC
➢ OCC is variation in open circuited terminal voltage with
respect to variation in field current when the machine
rotates at a constant speed
➢ Open circuit condition V f = I f R f , Vt = Ea = K a p wm , I a = I t = 0
Ea wm1 > wm2 > wm3 wm1
wm2
wm3
OCC of a separately excited DC
generator
Residual emf
If
ESO203A 13
Separately Excited Gen.: Load characteristics
➢ Load or terminal characteristics is Vt versus It (or Ia) curve
when the machine rotates at rated speed and rated field
current
Vt = Ea − I a Ra = I t RL
Load curve is I t RL
curve
Load characteristics of a
separately excited DC
generator
ESO203A 14
➢ DC shunt generator
ESO203A 15
Module 5 Lecture 5
DC Machines
Copyright Clause
ESO203A 1
magnetic field
➢ Voltage induced in DC machine
ESO203A 2
DC Shunt Generator
Steady state model of self

excited DC Generator
➢ The steady state equations are

Vt = I tRL = I f R f
Vt = Ea − I a Ra (or Ea − I a Ra -2Vb )
I a = It + I f
Ea = K a p wm
ESO203A 3
DC Shunt Generator: OCC
➢ Shunt DC Generator is run at a constant speed
OCC of a shunt DC generator (Ra << Rf)

ESO203A 4
DC Shunt Generator: Voltage build up
➢ There should be some residual magnetism in stator poles
➢ Machine rotates at constant speed in open circuit mode
➢ Residual emf Ear is induced
➢ Switch SW is closed
➢ Current If1( = Ia = Ea/Rf) flows in field winding
➢ If field mmf aids residual magnetism, voltage rises to Ea1
➢ This goes on till point P is reached till there is no voltage
difference between Ea and Vt
➢ Under open circuit conditions
Vt = I f R f  Ea (Neglecting I a Ra drop)
I a = I f , Ea = K a p wm
ESO203A 5
DC Shunt Generator: Critical field resistance
➢ Field resistance beyond which voltage build up in shunt
generator is insignificant or leads to unstable voltage
operation is critical field resistance
➢ It is slope of linear region of OCC
Rf1 > Rfcr > Rf3> Rf4> Rf5
Rf1 Rfcr Rf3 Rf4 Rf5
Ea wm,rated
Insignificant voltage build up
ESO203A
If 6
DC Shunt Generator: Critical speed
➢ Normally, critical field resistance is fixed and generator is
initially rotated to develop induced voltage
➢ Critical speed is speed below which voltage build up is
insignificant w >w >w >w
m1 m2 cr m3
wm1
Ea wm2
wcr
wm3
Critical field resistance

line IfRfcr vs If
ESO203A
If 7
Conditions for Volt build up in Shunt Gen.
➢ The following four conditions need to be satisfied for
significant voltage build up in DC shunt generator
• There should be residual magnetism in stator/ field
winding
• The field mmf should aid residual magnetism
• The total field resistance should be less than the critical
field resistance
• The machine speed should be more than the critical speed
ESO203A 8
DC Shunt Generator: Load characteristics
➢ The terminal/ load characteristics (neglecting effect of
armature reaction) can be obtained from OCC and field
resistance line Vt = I tRL = I f R f = Ea − I a Ra
IfRf line
Ea wm,rated
IaRa
Vt = IfRf
ESO203A
If 9
DC Shunt Gen.: Load characteristics contd.
➢ Generally, Ra is known and hence Ia can be known from
IaRa drop
IfRf line Load characteristics of DC
Ea wm,rated Vt shunt generator (Ra << Rf)
If Iasc Ia
Voltage regulation of DC shunt generator is poor than the
seperately excited DC generator
ESO203A 10
➢ DC series generator
ESO203A 11
Module 5 Lecture 6
DC Machines
Copyright Clause
ESO203A 1
magnetic field
➢ DC shunt generator
ESO203A 2
DC Series Generator
Steady state model of

DC series Generator
➢ The steady state equations are

Vt = Ea − I a Ra − I f R f = I tRL
I a = It = I f
Ea = K a p wm
ESO203A 3
DC Series Generator: Voltage build up
➢ Under no-load or open circuit conditions,
I a = I f = 0, Vt = Ea = K a p wm
➢ Machine rotates at constant speed in open circuit mode
➢ Residual magnetism in stator poles a must for voltage
build up
➢ Voltage build up conditions in DC series generator are
similar to the same in DC shunt generator
➢ Hence, this is also a type of self excited generator
ESO203A 4
DC Series Generator: OCC
➢ OCC at constant speed can only be obtained by opening
field winding from series connection and supplying it by
an external supply
• In open circuit mode, field winding is unexcited and hence
OCC of DC series generator cannot be obtained
conventionally
OCC of DC
series generator
ESO203A 5
DC Series Generator: Load characteristics
➢ The terminal/ load characteristics can be obtained from
OCC and Ia(Ra+Rf) line Vt = I a RL = Ea − I a Ra − I aRsr
➢ Unlike shunt and separately excited generator, Vt and
Ia(Ra+Rf) have reverse roles in OCC
➢ If RL is too high, voltage build up is insignificant
Load characteristics of
DC series generator
ESO203A 6
DC Long Shunt Generator
Steady state model of DC

Long Shunt Generator
➢ Field winding has two halves, Vt = Ea − I a ( Ra + Rsr )

fixed shunt resistance Rfw and Vt = I f R f = I tRL
fixed series resistance Rsr
➢ Rfc – variable field resistance I a = It + I f
➢ Rf = Rfc + Rfw Ea = K a p wm
ESO203A 7
DC Short Shunt Generator
Steady state model of DC

Short Shunt Generator
➢ Field winding has two halves, Vt = I t RL

fixed shunt resistance Rfw and
V  = Vt + I t Rsr = I f R f
fixed series resistance Rsr
➢ Rfc – variable field resistance V  = Ea − I a Ra
➢ Rf = Rfc + Rfw I a = I t + I f , Ea = K a p wm
ESO203A 8
Voltage Regulation
➢ Similar to transformers, voltage regulation for generators
is a measure of variation of terminal voltage from no load
to full load
➢ Voltage Regulation (VR)
V NL − V load
VR = load
100%
V
V NL is no load voltage
V load is voltage at full load
➢ For separately excited and DC shunt generators, VR is
positive
➢ For DC series generator, VR is negative
ESO203A 9
Losses in a DC Generator
➢ While supplying the (nameplate rated) electrical power
output from the mechanical power input, losses are
• Rotational losses
2
• Field winding loss I f R f
• Armature winding loss I a2 Ra
➢ Rotational losses include frictional and windage loss, core
loss and any other loss (brush loss 2VbIa if explicitly
stated)
➢ Some losses are fixed while some are variable
• Field loss in separately excited generator is a fixed loss
• Armature loss is a variable loss
ESO203A 10
Efficiency
➢ Efficiency is a measure of performance of generators
Pout Vt I t
= 100% = 100%
Pout + Ploss Vt I t + Wl + I f R f + I a Ra
2 2
Wl is fixed loss
➢ Similar maximum efficiency concept as discussed in

transformers is applicable for generators also
➢ The load at which a DC generator operates at maximum
efficiency depends on the type of generator
➢ Separately excited, DC shunt and DC series generators
have different loadings at which maximum efficiency
occur
ESO203A 11
➢ DC motor
ESO203A 12
Module 5 Lecture 7
DC Machines
Copyright Clause
ESO203A 1
magnetic field
➢ DC shunt and series generators
ESO203A 2
DC Motor
➢ Basic difference between generator and motor operations
of a DC machine
• motor converts rated (name plate specification) electrical
power input to mechanical power output
• induced voltage (𝐸𝑎 ) in armature winding of motor is called
counter or back emf with polarity that opposes the flow of
normal armature current
• terminal voltage (𝑉𝑡 ) > 𝐸𝑎 for motor operation while 𝑉𝑡 <
𝐸𝑎 for generator operation
➢ DC machines are often used as DC motors rather than DC
generators due to wide range of speed and torque control
ESO203A 3
DC Shunt Motor
➢ A single electrical supply parallelly
feeds the field and armature
windings
➢ External field rheostat 𝑅𝑓𝑐 controls
the field current to regulate the
motor’s speed DC Shunt Motor
➢ Behavior of field circuit is independent of armature circuit

➢ Governing steady-state equations
𝑉𝑡 = 𝑅𝑓𝑐 + 𝑅𝑓𝑤 𝐼𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 𝐼𝑓 = 𝐸𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎
𝐸𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 𝜔𝑚 , 𝑇 = 𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 𝐼𝑎
𝑍𝑝
𝐾𝑎 = Vs/Wb−rad
2𝜋𝑎
ESO203A 4
DC Shunt Motor
➢ Armature current 𝐼𝑎 and speed 𝜔𝑚 depend on mechanical
load connected to shaft
➢ Since motors drive mechanical loads, the torque-speed
characteristics of motor is very important
➢ Hence, for DC shunt motor
2
𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 (𝑉𝑡 − 𝐸𝑎 ) 𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝
𝑇 = 𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 𝐼𝑎 = = 𝑉𝑡 − 𝜔𝑚
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝑉𝑡 𝑅𝑎 𝑇 𝑉𝑡 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 𝐸𝑎
⇒ 𝜔𝑚 = − 2
= − =
𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 (𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 ) 𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝
ESO203A 5
DC Shunt Motor
➢ For fixed 𝑉𝑡 and machine flux per pole 𝜙𝑝 , the speed-
torque characteristics is (𝜔0 = 𝑉𝑡 /𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 ) ωm
ω0
➢ Slope of red line −𝑅𝑎 /(𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 )2
➢ Slope of blue line −𝑅𝑎 /𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝
Ia
➢ Load torque 𝑇𝐿 is equal to motor torque 𝑇 TL T
➢ 𝜙𝑝 reduces due to armature reaction
➢ Hence, as 𝑇 or 𝐼𝑎 increases, 𝜙𝑝 reduces further due to
armature reaction
• Consequently, speed-torque characteristics is slightly
nonlinear with a little upwards shift compared to red line
➢ Thus, armature reaction aids in improving the speed and
good speed regulation
ESO203A 6
Speed control of DC Shunt Motor
𝑉𝑡 𝑅𝑎 𝑇
𝜔𝑚 = −
𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 (𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 )2
➢ For fixed desired torque 𝑇 and armature constant 𝐾𝑎 , 𝜔𝑚
increases when
• 𝑉𝑡 increases for fixed 𝜙𝑝 and 𝑅𝑎 (armature voltage control)
• 𝜙𝑝 decreases for fixed 𝑉𝑡 and 𝑅𝑎 (field control)
• 𝑅𝑎 decreases for fixed 𝑉𝑡 and 𝜙𝑝 (armature resistance
control)
ESO203A 7
Armature voltage control of DC Shunt Motor
➢ For 𝜙𝑝 and 𝑅𝑎 fixed at rated values, 𝑉𝑡 is varied, hence
1 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑚 = 𝐾1 𝑉𝑡 − 𝐾2 𝑇, 𝐾1 = , 𝐾2 = 2
𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝
➢ For constant load torque (elevator load), 𝜔𝑚 ∝ 𝑉𝑡
➢ When 𝜔𝑚 is varied by changing 𝑉𝑡 , 𝐼𝑎 is kept constant as

𝐼𝑎 should not increase beyond rated value
ESO203A 8
Armature voltage control of DC Shunt Motor
➢ Thus, 𝑉𝑡 ↑⇒ 𝐸𝑎 ↑⇒ 𝜔𝑚 ↑
➢ Consequently,
𝜔𝑚 ∝ 𝑉𝑡
⇒ 𝜔𝑚 ∝ 𝑉𝑡 (𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑓 )
⇒ 𝜔𝑚 ∝ 𝑃𝑖𝑛 {𝑃𝑖𝑛 − input electrical power}
➢ This method provides a smooth variation of speed control
from 0 to base speed
• Base speed is speed of motor at rated 𝑉𝑡
➢ Overall, the method is costly due to the requirement of a
variable DC supply
ESO203A 9
Field control of DC Shunt Motor
➢ For 𝑉𝑡 and 𝑅𝑎 fixed at rated
values, 𝜙𝑝 is varied by varying the
field current 𝐼𝑓
• Possible through varying field
rheostat 𝑅𝑓𝑐
➢ Assuming magnetic linearity (𝜙 = 𝑁𝐼/ℛ)
𝑉𝑡 𝑅𝑎 𝑇
𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 = 𝐾𝑓 𝐼𝑓 , 𝜔𝑚 = −
𝐾𝑓 𝐼𝑓 (𝐾𝑓 𝐼𝑓 )2
𝑉𝑡
➢ At no load, 𝑇 = 0, 𝜔𝑚 =
𝐾𝑓 𝐼𝑓
➢ If 𝑅𝑓𝑐 is very high, i.e., 𝐼𝑓 → 0, then 𝜔𝑚 → ∞; motor may

attain detrimental speed
➢ 𝑅𝑓𝑐 = 0, 𝐼𝑓 is max., 𝜔𝑚 is min.
ESO203A 10
Field control of DC Shunt Motor
➢ 𝑅𝑓𝑐 = 𝑅𝑓𝑐,𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝐼𝑓 is min., 𝜔𝑚 is max.
➢ Hence, 𝜔𝑚 ∝ 𝑅𝑓𝑐 ∝ 1/𝐼𝑓
➢ For fixed 𝜙𝑝 , 𝐼𝑓 , 𝑅𝑓𝑐 , 𝜔𝑚 = 𝐾3 −
𝑉𝑡 𝑅𝑎
𝐾4 𝑇, 𝐾3 = and 𝐾4 =
𝐾𝑓 𝐼𝑓 (𝐾𝑓 𝐼𝑓 )2
➢ 𝜔𝑚 and 𝑇 have linear relationship
➢ At rated values, 𝑅𝑓𝑐 = 0 and
associated 𝜔𝑚 is the rated speed
➢ Thus, speed control enables speed
to be more than base speed
➢ Simple and cheap to implement
ESO203A 11
Armature resistance control
➢ Generally, 𝑉𝑡 control is used to
regulate speed from 0 to base
speed, and then 𝐼𝑓 control regulates
speed beyond base speed (classical
Ward – Leonard speed control)
➢ In armature resistance control, 𝑉𝑡
and 𝐼𝑓 are fixed at rated values
➢ Speed is regulated via variations in
the armature resistance through
rheostat 𝑅𝑎𝑒
𝑉𝑡 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎𝑒 )𝑇
𝜔𝑚 = −
ESO203A 12
Armature resistance control
𝑉𝑡 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎𝑒 )𝑇
𝜔𝑚 = −
➢ For 𝑇 = 0, 𝜔𝑚 = 𝑉𝑡 /𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 (no load
speed)
➢ As 𝑅𝑎𝑒 ↑, 𝜔𝑚 proportionally decreases
➢ For varying 𝑅𝑎𝑒 , 𝜔𝑚 varies which varies 𝐸𝑎 , while keeping
𝐼𝑎 constant (constant 𝑇)
➢ Simple implementation, but costly as loss in general is
very high as compared to real power loss in field circuit
➢ Also, armature rheostat should have high current carrying
capacity as compared to field rheostat
➢ Concept and operation of DC separately excited motor are
approximately like DC shunt motor (diff. in sources)
ESO203A 13
DC Series Motor
➢ Governing steady-state equations
𝑉𝑡 = 𝐸𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎𝑒 + 𝑅𝑠𝑟 𝐼𝑎 , 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑓
𝐸𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 𝜔𝑚 , 𝑇 = 𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 𝐼𝑎
𝑉𝑡 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎𝑒 + 𝑅𝑠𝑟 )𝑇
𝜔𝑚 = −
DC Series Motor
➢ 𝑉𝑡 control is same as in DC shunt motor
➢ 𝑅𝑎𝑒 and 𝐼𝑓 controls are similar to each other in this case
➢ Assuming magnetic linearity in the operation
𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 = 𝐾𝑓 𝐼𝑓 = 𝐾𝑓 𝐼𝑎
⇒ 𝐸𝑎 = 𝐾𝑓 𝐼𝑎 𝜔𝑚 , 𝑇 = 𝐾𝑓 𝐼𝑎2
⇒ 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑇/𝐾𝑓
ESO203A 14
DC Series Motor
➢ Thus
𝑉𝑡 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎𝑒 + 𝑅𝑠𝑟 𝐾𝑓 𝐼𝑎2 𝑉𝑡 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎𝑒 + 𝑅𝑠𝑟
𝜔𝑚 = − 2 = −
𝐾𝑓 𝐼𝑎 𝐾𝑓 𝐼𝑎 𝐾𝑓 𝑇 𝐾𝑓
➢ High torque at low speed
➢ High speed at low torque
➢ Mostly used in traction system for initial
acceleration
➢ Modern traction systems use similar
characteristics (but not the motor)
➢ Evaluation of efficiency and regulation (speed) in DC
motors is same as in DC generators, with the difference
being that the source of loss is different (electrical source)
ESO203A 15
DC Motor Starters
➢ A DC motor, at standstill, when connected to a DC supply,
i.e., switched on, armature current 𝐼𝑎 = (𝑉𝑡 − 𝐸𝑎 )/𝑅𝑎 is
very high
• As 𝜔𝑚 ≈ 0 at standstill, 𝐸𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝜙𝑝 𝜔𝑚 ≈ 0 (low)
• Effective 𝑅𝑎 is low to minimize active loss in steady-state
➢ 𝐼𝑎 at starting is 7 − 10 times of full load 𝐼𝑎
➢ Such high current may be detrimental for the armature
winding, fuse in large DC motors
➢ Possible resolution
• Use a low DC 𝑉𝑡 at start, which requires a costly DC variac
• Use a high external resistance 𝑅𝑎𝑒 at start (relatively
cheaper)
ESO203A 16
DC Motor Starters
𝑉𝑡 − 𝐸𝑎
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎𝑒
DC Shunt Motor Starter

➢ At starting, 𝑅𝑎𝑒 + 𝑅𝑎 is high, 𝐼𝑎 is low, 𝑅𝑓 is very low, 𝐼𝑓 is
very high, initial accelerating torque 𝑇 is high
➢ At close to rated speed, 𝑅𝑎 is low, 𝐼𝑎 is still limited as 𝐸𝑎 is
high, 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑎𝑒 is high, 𝐼𝑓 is low
➢ Electromagnet holds the handle at position 5 via 𝐼𝑓
ESO203A 17
➢ Three phase AC induction machines
ESO203A 18

Module 5 DC Machines

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Module 5 DC Machines

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ESO203A: Introduction to Electrical Engineering

Fleming’s right hand rule

➢ Thus, 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 is varying in time (AC)

Fleming’s left hand rule

• Thus, respective torque directions c,d

➢ If the above is true, then it will

• Counter torque opposes 𝐓𝑡𝑜𝑡 • 𝐢m opposes 𝐢g

➢ Stator has distributed field windings, which carry DC

polarity to maintain or obtain uni- q-axis a2

➢ Nf is number of turns in field or stator winding

➢ Beyond ‘a’, residual magnetism b

by magnetic domain theory

wm3 OCC of a DC machine

Steady state model of self

➢ The steady state equations are

OCC of a shunt DC generator (Ra << Rf)

Insignificant voltage build up

Critical field resistance

Steady state model of

➢ The steady state equations are

Steady state model of DC

➢ Field winding has two halves, Vt = Ea − I a ( Ra + Rsr )

Steady state model of DC

➢ Field winding has two halves, Vt = I t RL

➢ Similar maximum efficiency concept as discussed in

➢ Behavior of field circuit is independent of armature circuit

➢ When 𝜔𝑚 is varied by changing 𝑉𝑡 , 𝐼𝑎 is kept constant as

➢ If 𝑅𝑓𝑐 is very high, i.e., 𝐼𝑓 → 0, then 𝜔𝑚 → ∞; motor may

DC Shunt Motor Starter

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