Caberio Ecolog Modules 1-5

Republic of the Philippines
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

LEYTE NORMAL UNIVERSITY
Paterno St., Tacloban City
Name: Ariane Mae D. Caberio Course: General Ecology
Prorgam/Yr/Section: BSBIO AB – 21 Instructor: Mr. Bryan Joseph Matillano
MODULE 1 & 2
Population and Community Ecology

Pre-Assessment in Module 1 & 2
1. Some said that ignorance of the people about the concept of ecosystem is the
root cause of many environmental problems. How would our understanding of
ecosystem contribute to the improvement of environment?
 "If education is expensive then try the cost of ignorance", Neil de
Grasse-Tyson. Knowledge on everything drives the world. On the special
case of the nature it is indeed a need to know on how to put efforts to it since
it is our planet we are free to live in. People now a day are lucky enough to
be provided by the environment they are living, yet some still don't see the
significance of everything what their eyes can see as well as their comfort
they experience.
Everything under the sun that is seen by your eyes is the ecosystem
your life depends on. Be mindful of all of these. Ignorance of the people in the
concept of the ecosystem is really the cause of many environmental problems,
for the reason that people don't think of the future, they are living just for
today. The concept of the ecosystem on how living and nonliving matter
interact with each other and to its environment is need to be understood for it
will lead to awareness and good deeds. Knowing such things contributes a lot
for the improvement of environment since you have the idea on what to do, on
how these things work, and on how all of these impacts to you personally.
Basic point to remember that the improvement of the environment depends on
you, but without you it can be alive anyway, while you yourself can't live
without it, make it sense. The reactions and cycles of the nature are working
with your body which gives reason of your existence. If you know all of these
then perhaps you will care and give importance to the environment. By simply
throwing garbage properly, by planting more trees and by doing little things
impacts a lot for the future.
2. What are invasive alien species? Why they are tagged as threats to
biodiversity? Do you think that total removal of IAS from the surface of the
planet would be beneficial? Why? Why not?
 Invasive alien species are those species that are accidentally or
unintentionally introduce to an environment. They are tagged as threat to
biodiversity for it causes the extinction of the original or native species in a
specific environment that affects the biodiversity. They increase rapidly and
so competition for habitat, food and other resources are putting pressure to
the native species. Mentioned above about the IAS I think that it would be
beneficial for the total removal of it in the surface of the planet for the
reason of its threat to the biodiversity. The various species are the main
component of biodiversity and if these all become extinct and replaced by
the alien species by the competition it had put on. The native species on an
environment needs to be protected for many purposes and maybe that is one
of the sources of income in by people and so it affects the whole system. It
may give rise to species variation in an area but as it gives threat to the
native inhabitants, equality is not met. On the other hand, if there is a
competition happening and so the fittest will survive. In that matter the area
will have the strongest set of species that can fight at any external factor that
may come.
3. On the origin of life on earth, several explanations/ theories were circulating

since the beginning of civilization. What theories/explanations do you
subscribe in the evolution and development of the species? In relation to this,
is there such a thing as primitive and advanced species? If applied to humans,
is there such a thing as primitive and advance human race?
 The theory of evolution I do subscribe is the theory of natural selection
proposed by Charles Darwin. This is such a great idea to explain evolution
for it offers ideas that can be observed by everyone and even up to current is
observable. This theory drives evolution wherein the fittest survive and
continues its generation for the reason of adaptation of the living organisms
to the change of the nature. From the variations of different species there are
these traits that are passed on and continue for it is favorable to the situation.
Maybe there is no primitive and advance species because everyone has the
equal fight for survival from the nature’s pressure. The traits that remain are
those that fit for survival. They don’t just appear; surely they evolve from
their ancestors.
Humans after a thousand of years evolves base on the need for

survival, and so natural selection still play its part. From Homo habilis, the
“handy man” into Homo erectus (upright man), to Neanderthals, then Homo
floresiensis (the hobbit) follows, and to the rise of Homo naledi before the
modern humans came known as the Homo sapiens. Basically everything
evolves because of the need for survival and reproduction.
4. The formation and development of terrestrial ecosystems took hundreds or

thousands of years to become what it is today however it would only take a
few days for a terrestrial ecosystem to be destroyed by humans. What do you
think is the reason behind that drive humans to destroy a terrestrial ecosystem,
e.g. forest ecosystem? Can we [humans] justify our actions?
 Terrestrial ecosystem is our life support. The land forms a type
ecosystem wherein we live and have comfort as a human. This type is
formed and developed for a long period of time such as forest that took
hundreds of years to be successfully called as one. They all started from a
simple plant which will eventually bloom by time and care. Through time it
spread in many ways, and it got a lot of factors to continue growing into the
size of a forest or any land form. From the food we eat to the oxygen we
breathe primarily the environment are the providers.
Humans are blinded by money and other factors that can satisfy their
wants over needs, by these they convert the terrestrial ecosystem to industrial
lands here they use for commercial establishments, public utilities, business
activities and any other which only can be beneficial to small number of
individuals. These actions are very unfair to the upcoming generations because
we are taking away the planet they must live for their coming time.
5. Maybe some of you have drunk water directly from a river in the past. Can we
still drink water directly from these rivers today without getting into some
troubles like amoebiasis, diarrhea, or cholera, among others? Why? Why not?
 Water saves lives and so it must be protected for consumption. In the
past rivers can be used as drinking water and any means of life needs.
Currently pollution is covering our planet, rivers can’t be drink anymore
because its source is dirty and polluted. Some throw their wastes in the river
which makes it poisonous and also leads to the death of marine species.
There is already a threat in drinking water anywhere. The need for

sterilization and filtration is a must before it can be available for drinking.
Surely if you drink directly from the river it will cause diseases such as
amoebiasis, diarrhea, or cholera and any other. Human actions are all to be
blame, from the wastes garbage thrown to the river, oil leakages from oil
factories as well as chemicals dump to the river. In fact, these actions by the
irresponsible people and administrations affect everyone especially the poor
who depends on nature.
MODULE 1: LESSON 1
Guide Question
1. What is an ecosystem? Why is it considered a system? Name the

characteristics which define system?
 An ecosystem is a community of plants and animals in an area interacting

with each other with their non-living environment. Weather, earth, sun, soil,
climate, and atmosphere are the considered non-living environments. These
different types of species are somehow dependent with each other. An
ecosystem is considered a system because it interacts as a system in
connection with the cycles happening. Characteristics of a system: first is
interaction, then organization, also interdependence of organisms.
2. What are the components of the ecosystem? What are the specific roles of
each component in the ecosystem?
 The components of an ecosystem are producers, consumers, and

decomposers. Producers generally are the plants as primary producers which
have the ability to capture energy from the sun in a process known as
photosynthesis, and this energy is passing onto food chains. Then the
consumers, these are the beneficiaries of the captured energy. There are four
types in this component, the primary consumers or the herbivores which are
dependent on the green plants, second are the carnivores and omnivores,
then the third order or tertiary consumers who preys upon the carnivores,
omnivores, and herbivores. Lastly are the parasites, scavengers, and
saprobes who consume living tissues or dead animals. The third component
of an ecosystem is the decomposers who are at the bottom of the food chain.
These processes break organic matter back into its organic constituents.
3. How the interaction of these components does was demonstrated in the levels
of biological organizations? Give examples
 The interaction in these components is represented by a food chain, wherein

from the top producers to the last consumers are demonstrated. Example is
the chain starting from a carrot then the carrot was eaten by a rabbit then the
rabbit was eaten by a fox then the fox was eaten by a lion. Another example:
From sun and water to plant - grasshopper - frog - snake - hawk - fungi
(decomposer)
4. What is hierarchy in ecology? How do lower hierarchical levels behave

compared to the higher hierarchical levels?
 Hierarchy in ecology states the arrangement of biological organisms

interdependent to one another. From organisms as the lower hierarchical
level to population which is the organisms of same species, then next is the
community (group of populations of different species) then ecosystem
(communities and biotic factors) and in the highest hierarchy level is the
biosphere is the part of earth (surface, atmosphere, and hydrosphere) life
exist -- all ecosystem.
5. What is meant by an emergent property of an ecosystem? Give example of

emergent property of the ecosystem.
 "The whole is greater than sum of its parts". Emergent property of an

ecosystem is referring to unexpected properties like it just occur emergent
phenomena in a material and behavior sudden behavior of a living matter. It
arises from the conjoined function of a system but does not occur or belong
to any part of a system. Example of emergent property of the ecosystem is
the formation of population, if it is only a single cow it can’t be called the
population of cow but just a single species of cow.
6. Most ecosystems are involved in the flow energy. What are the different ways
to show how energy flows in the ecosystem?
 Flow of energy in an ecosystem can be shown by the food chain and food
web wherein from the primary producers which are the plants who get
energy from the sun in making their own food by the photosynthesis process,
then when these producers are being eaten by the primary consumers the
energy is passed on, until to the decomposers which by chemical process
break down the organic matter back to its constituents.
7. What is a biogeochemical cycle?
 Biogeochemical cycles are about how nutrients go around the living (biotic)
and nonliving (abiotic) matters. These are the biological, geological and
chemical processes by which nutrients move around. These include the
water cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle, and sulfur
cycle. These cycles drives our life like what was stated in the video watched
that our body is filled with water and we use the oxygen to release and
transfer energy, then carbon is the building block of life. The nitrogen and
sulfur are big components that make us alive then the phosphorus is found in
the DNA which is the basic genetic material we are made of. Generally the
biogeochemical cycles are the processes lives undergo.
8. What happen to the whole biogeochemical cycle process if one components
cycle be removed? What does this tell you about the ecosystem?
 If one component in a cycle is removed the whole biogeochemical cycles

will be affected. Each cycle has an important role in the existence of the
organisms and so its removal would greatly affect the life of it. For example
water which have the component of oxygen that plays a very significant part
of human life. This is telling us that the ecosystem is part of everything, the
ecosystem is the reason of life from tiny details to huge one which take
portion in the living and nonliving matter.
9. Define these properties of an ecosystem?
a. Productivity
 In the concept of ecosystem productivity means the rate or percentage of an

energy entering the ecosystem associated with the biomass in a specific
trophic level, the biomass is the amount of living matter in an area. Here
includes the community interactions, carbon dioxide level, solar energy
input and etc.
b. Stability
 The capacity of an ecosystem to remain in a steady state even with outside

pressure or disturbance is how stability is defined. The number of species in
an area affects a greater stability of the place for the reason that more
diversity can fight disturbance.
c. Diversity
 Diversity is talking about the variations in an ecosystem and each of their

impact to life existence. The different habitats, communities, and ecological
processes are under this. These variation implied the greater capacity of
ecosystem stability.
d. Sustainability
 Sustainable ecosystem is the capability of an area to support itself without

the alliance of the outside ecosystem for survival. Everything is provided
within the circle of boundary.
e. Equitability
 In an ecosystem equitability is tackling about the equal and fair numbers of

individuals of the different species.
SPECIAL TOPIC IN GENERAL ECOLOGY
MICROPLASTIC POLLUTION
Natural phenomena are those that reasonable happenings without human input
it is part of the process and complexity of the world, on the other hand there is this
man-made disasters that obviously with human touch an element of human intent,
negligence or error while enjoying life. There are lots of man-made disasters reported
however in this paper we are to tackle microplastic pollution. This phenomenon from
the name itself with the involvements of micro plastics, tiny pieces of plastics around
or less than 5 mm (0.2 inch) in length, an occurrence in the environment as the result
of plastic pollution. There are a lot under this microplastic category includes
cosmetics, synthetic clothing, plastic bags and bottles as a form of wastes. These
plastics contains carbon and hydrogen atom that are bound together in polymer
chains, as well as other chemicals present in this microplastics. Those mentioned
chemical additives leak out of the plastic after it had entered the environment. There
are two types under this phenomenon, the primary and secondary microplastics, under
primary consist of micro beads that are found in individual’s care product, plastic
pellets, plastic fibers. These enter the environment directly for example unintentional
spills, laundering the cloth and washed products. Whereas secondary are those that
had undergo processes such as weathering or breaking of plastics from larger to
smaller pieces as and also ultraviolet radiation from sunlight.
People across the world unknowingly consume roughly 5 grams of plastic

each week that is about 250 grams per year which means more than half pound of
plastic every 12 months according to the Australian researchers. The 50% of these
plastics is for single day use only but on the planet Earth it last several hundred years
before it decomposes. By this, the oceans are becomes the end point of this plastics
that creates pollution in the environment. It does not only pollute the water and air but
as well the marine animals that eats the tiny plastics and moreover when human eats
the fishes the poison is transferred that forms a huge destruction to the ecosystem. The
huge of this mentioned phenomenon is due to the vehicle tyres and synthetic clothes
that has estimate of 9,000 and 32,000 tons of microplastics dumped into the
waterways every year. From large debris that just scattered anywhere through
weathering and other factors it breakdown to tiny pieces that leads to this micro
pollutants in the ecosystem. This happens for the particular reason of misleading care
to the ecosystem. We thought that a single tiny plastic will not build its huge empire
of pollution, imagine if each of us throws a single piece then the world will be
wrapped by these microplastics.
As mentioned earlier there are two categories of microplastics the primary and
secondary, each of this has different way in impacting the world with pollution. First
is the primary microplastics that enter directly to the environment through various
channels. For instance a circumstance where this primary plastics gets into the ocean
are as follows, the unintentional loss from spills during manufacturing or transport, or
during washing of clothes the abrasion that we don’t see and also those personal
product wrappers that are thrown into the wastewater systems. On the other hand
secondary microplastics get into the environment not directly but through natural
processes such as weathering, the breaking of larger to tiny and as well the impact of
the radiation that breaches the plastics.
Every action has its consequences ahead, every single erroneous action affect
the whole interrelated beings, from human, to animals, to plants and the ecosystem as
a whole. Microplastic pollution do not only pollutes the water sources like oceans but
it as well affects the habitats of the marine species in it. There are these animals that
ingest microplastics floating on the water such as fish and birds. The said ingestion
would bring toxicity to their body for they had consumed less food which means less
energy and eventually will lead to its death. Habitats of those marine species will be
destroyed by these rutted tiny plastics that had scattered in the ocean; those little
offspring will die due to less proper care that might lead to extinction of specific
species. Tryouts and researchers show that microplastics damage the aquatic creatures
including turtles and birds. Digestive tracts are blocked that weaken the will to eat and
with alter eating behavior reduce growth, reproduction and increase in species number
then eventually die. In human cases it was demonstrated the inflammatory lesions,
and increased translocation due to the exposure of microplastics. The ecosystem as a
whole will collapse if this phenomenon will continue to exist in the environment and
species society.
MODULE 1: LESSON 2
Guide Questions
1. What is population?
 Group of interacting similar species that inhabit an area is called the

population. These are characterized as group of local populations that are
linked of scattered members of small group of individuals. In local species
consist of various distinct gene collections and so they are genetically
different from one another.
2. How population is distributed? What are the factors that influence population
pattern of distribution?
 In a population the number of individuals occupying a specific area is the

density of the place. A population is distributed by three basic patterns
which includes uniform (more or less equally spaced apart), random
(dispersed with no prediction of pattern), and clamped (clustered groups).
There are a lot of factors affecting the distribution of pattern of population
namely: the competition for food and survival. The environment also affect
the distribution in a way that the interaction the environment puts on
example the weather, the chemicals put to wind and any other outside
pressure in the environment. The density of the area is another thing to
consider in distribution for the reason that lower density place will encounter
difficulty in finding mate and so the number of population is affected.
3. What is meant by k-strategist population? And r-strategies?
 K-strategist population also known and k-selected species are those species
that produces few yet "expensive" offsprings which live in a stable
environment, so these population cannot recover easily from an disturbance
due to fewer number of individuals. On the other hand, r-selected species are
those species produced many in number yet “cheap" individual offspring
who live in unstable environment, in this strategy the fittest have many
offsprings and reproduce early.
4. How do you classify human population in terms of these two types?
 Human belongs to k- strategist population for they produce an expensive

offsprings in a stable environment, since K's have a longer time of
multiplying since it took 9 months to carry a baby inside then the offspring
is grow very slow unlike other species.
5. What factors determine the population size?
 Population size (N) refers to the number of individuals in an area. Upon

reading I had concluded that the factors affecting the population size are the
following: the type of population strategy it belongs either k or r, the pattern
of distribution, the birth and death rate, as well as the population growth.
The type of environment, type of species, and immigration are also factors,
as well as diversity (dependent) and diversity (independent).
6. How a population growth is illustrated?
 Population growth is illustrated by the models of population growth. J-shape

curve is used it is a type of graph the show the situation of new environment,
density of population and some other factor that relate to ecological system.
This curve can illustrate population grow, in food resources fall off and
predator increases. It can rate the population births and death.
7. What are the models of population growth? What type of population growth
model human population demonstrates?
 The types of population growth are exponential growth (J-curve) an

unlimited environment and logistic growth (S-curve) slow rate of growth of
environment. The type of population growth model that can human
demonstrate is the potential growth pattern (J-curve), because human can
migrate, do agriculture, medical advances and communicateThe population
growth model is exponential model, growth rate, and logistic model. Human
population belongs to exponential growth model.
8. What is the population doubling time? What is the Philippine’s population

doubling time, given an annual growth rate of 1.35 and a total population of
109,581,078 as of August 12, 2020?
 Doubling time is stated as the amount of time it given for a quantity to

double in size at a constant growth rate. Rule of 70 is used here by dividing
70 by the growth rate given. In this case, the annual growth rate is 1.35.
o 70/1.35 = 51.85
o 109,581,078 x 51.85 = 5,681,778,894.30
 Therefore the Philippines population doubling time is 5,681,778,894.30
9. Describe the concept of carrying capacity, what happens to a population if its

size is approaching the carrying capacity?
 The concept of carrying capacity tells species average population in a

specific area. This is often an indicator that an area is is achieving a
sustainable environment for the species trying to attempt balance from the
resources available. As the population size is approaching the carrying
capacity the density dependent factor increases, such as the competition of
survival for food, habitat, the diseases that may occur and other outside
factors.
10. What is a limiting factor?
 Limiting factors are the hindrances that cause the slow increase of number of
species or the population size. Under these types are the density dependent
factors (e.g birth and death rates) and density independent factors (weather,
tragedies, etc.)
11. What is a community? What are the ways to describe community structure?
 Community is simply the summing-up many population. These are two or

more different species in a similar area that shares common characteristics
and aspects. A community can be described by its species richness; these are
the species variations in an area, the number of species and diversity in an
area.
12. Define species richness and species diversity. How do we measure richness
and diversity?
 Species richness is simply defined as the number of different species in a

given area or a specific place, used to tell how rich of different species a
place is. On the other hand, species diversity is about how diverse a specific
area of various species, which includes measure of number of species, and
the quantity of each species. Species richness is under species diversity as
well as species evenness which talks about the representation and
distribution of each species in a community. Measuring the species richness
is directly proportional to the richness of the species. By simply counting the
number of different species in an area the species richness would be entailed,
when number of species present in an area is high, the species richness is
high, as to low number of species is indicating low species richness. Note
that the number of individuals is not considered here. Species diversity is
measured by two factors which are species richness and species evenness,
per individual is considered here.
13. What is the keystone species? What is their major role in the community?
 Keystone species are those species that impact a lot relative to the biomass;
these are considered vital parts of an ecosystem. These are species that have
effect on the other species surrounding them, these keystones help other to
thrive and survive. Their major role in a community is that they serve as
home to other species that depend on them, without them an ecosystem will
be different and will loss different species.
14. What are the types of interactions in the community? How these interactions
influenced the community structure?
 There are a lot of interactions in a community and these keeps the

community alive. The three major types of interactions in the community are
as follows: competition wherein species thrive for resources to survive like
habitat, food, and other matter like plants compete for light, water and
nutrients. Competition occurs in an ecosystem of various species
overlapping their role. Second is the predation simply the concept of food
chain and food web, other organisms is consumed by other, predators are the
threat to other smaller organisms which are the prey. Predations have an
advantage in a community for controlling the size of the population. Last
type of interaction is the symbiosis; species have a great interaction with
each other in this type. Two species live closely to each other and both
benefit with each one (mutualism), then (commensalism) where only one
species benefit then the other either help or harmed, and the other type of
symbiosis is the a relationship where one species benefit and the other is
harmed (parasitism). These interactions influenced the community structure
since this dictates how a community works and what are the relationships of
each species suggest. The structure of a community is directly related to the
interaction for the reason that it suggests on what the species that are over
others are and how organisms grow and succeed in an area.
15. What is ecological succession? Differentiate the type of succession?
 Ecological succession is simply how life comes back; these are the processes
of changes in a community over a period of time. There are two main types
of succession the primary and secondary, primary succession is talking about
a new habitat wherein it occurs in an environment of new substrate of bare
vegetation that are usually lacks soil like lava flow is deposited. On the other
hand, the secondary is a process that had started from an event in which it
reduces already established ecosystem to a smaller population and so this
secondary succession occurs in a place that lacks soil.

Laboratory activity 1
SPECIES RICHNESS AND DIVERSITY
I. INTRODUCTION
Community is composed of interacting individuals inhibiting in a

particular location. Ecologist study the number of species in a particular
place and the reason behind the changes of species over time. Species
richness stating as the number of species within a community, on the other
hand the species diversity is talking more on number of species in a
community and measure on the abundance of a specific species and so it is
more complex. Larger number of species and more abundance of species
lead to higher diversity.
Population size estimation and measuring richness and diversity are

necessary skills that ecologists must be familiar with. The said skills are a
must for it is related by the ability of ecologist to conduct field sampling.
II. OBJECTIVES
The aim of this activity is to able to determine the richness and

diversity of four given communities. Also this aims to compute which
community has the highest and lowest richness, as well as the highest and
lowest diversity.
III. PROCEDURE
The steps below were the steps in accomplishing the activity.

1. In 2018, the insect population and composition of four forested
communities in Eastern Visayas were estimated and measured using
standard sampling protocols.
2. To see the data, please access the next page.
3. Using the collected data, determine the richness and diversity of each
community.
4. Based on the computed values, which community has highest and

lowest richness? Which community has highest and lowest diversity?
5. Explain the difference in the species richness and species diversity
of four communities, if there’s any
IV. RESULT
Section A Data
RESULT: 10.481
Species Species Proportion Negative Product P

Area of Cover Natural Log *- In (P)
of P
(SA) (P=SA/A)
P-In (P)
Brachinus leytensis 96 0.057 -2.865 0.163
Trigonotoma goelten bothi 0 0 0 0
Prothyma heteromallicollis 0 0 0 0
Pheropsophus uliweberi 65 0.038 -1.420 0.053
Pheropsophus sp. 0 0 0 0
Pheropsophus hassenteufeli 268 0.159 -0.774 0.127
Pheropsophus nigerrimus 1 5.938 0.774 4.596
Pheropsophus azouleyi 188 0.111 -0.955 0.106
Pheropsophus fumigatus 1 0.111 -0.955 0.106
Pheropsophus lumawigi 133 0.078 -1.108 0.086
Neocollyris filicornis 0 0 0 0
Therates fasciatus 67 0.039 -1.40- 0.059
quadrimaculatus
Lesticus samarensis 0 0 0 0
Pseudozaena orientalis opaca 0 0 0 0
Orthogonius luzonicus 0 0 0 0
Chlaenius sp.1 44 0.026 -1.585 0.041
Chlaenius sp.2 56 0.033 -1.481 0.048
Chlaenius sp.3 0 0 0 0
Gnathaphanus impressipennis 53 0.031 -1.509 0.113
Tricondylaaptera punctipennis 213 0.126 -0.900 0.113
Tricondyla ovicollis 87 0.051 -1.292 0.065
Tricondyla conicicollis 74 0.043 -1.367 0.059
Haplochlaenius femoratus 55 0.033 -1.481 0.049

philippinus
Oodes sp. 0 0 0 0
Trichotichnis sp 0 0 0 0
Lebia Poecilothais sp 0 0 0 0
Pentagonica ruficollis 32 0.019 -1.721 0.033
Catascopus elegans 16 0.009 -2.046 0.019
Catascopus aequatus 0 0 0 0
Therates fasciatus 54 0.032 -1.495 0.049

pseudolatreillei
Pentagonica sp 54 0.032 -1.495 0.049
Drypta lineola philippinensis 0 0 0 0
Dicranoncus philippinensis 0 0 0 0
Dolichoctis gilvipes 0 0 0 0
Paratachys leytensis 0 0 0 0
Tachys sp 1 36 0.021 -1.678 0.035
Tachys sp 2 0 0 0 0
Thopeutica sp. 32 0.019 -1.721 0.033
Prothyma sp. 29 0.017 -1.770 0.030
Cicindela sp 30 0.018 -1.745 0.031
Cicindela sp 0 0 0 0
SECTION B
RESULT: 78.846

of P
(SA) (P=SA/A)
P-In (P)
Pheropsophus uliweberi 93 0.040 -1.398 0.056
Pheropsophus sp. 1 4.332 0.064 0.277
Pheropsophus nigerrimus 1 4.332 0.064 67.68
Pheropsophus fumigatus 2 9.814 0.992 9.735

quadrimaculatus
Pseudozaena orientalis opaca 32 0.014 -1.854 0.026
Chlaenius sp.1 71 0.030 -1.523 0.046
Chlaenius sp.3 61 0.026 -1.585 0.041
Gnathaphanus impressipennis 0 0 0 0
Tricondyla aptera punctipennis 402 0.174 -0.759 0.132

philippinus
Oodes sp. 0 0 0 0
Lebia Poecilothais sp 42 0.018 -1.745 0.031
Pentagonica ruficollis 32 0.013 -1.886 0.025
Catascopus elegans 21 0.009 -2.046 0.018
Catascopus aequatus 19 0.008 -2.097 0.017

pseudolatreillei
Pentagonica sp 0 0 0 0
Dicranoncus philippinensis 21 0.009 -2.046 0.018
Dolichoctis gilvipes 31 0.013 -1.886 0.025
Tachys sp 1 0 0 0 0
Tachys sp 2 0 0 0 0
Thopeutica sp. 33 0.014 -1.854 0.026

Prothyma sp. 32 0.013 -1.886 0.025
Cicindela sp 41 0.017 -1.769 0.030
Cicindela sp 4 0.001 -3 0.003
SECTION C
RESULT: 1.237

of P
(SA) (P=SA/A)
P-In (P)
Trigonotoma goelten bothi 1 0.001 -3 0.003
Pheropsophus uliweberi 0 0 0 0
Pheropsophus nigerrimus 0 0 0 0
Pheropsophus fumigatus 0 0 0 0
Therates fasciatus 0 0 0 0
quadrimaculatus


philippinus
Oodes sp. 15 0.017 -1.769 0.030
Trichotichnis sp 14 0.016 -1.796 0.029
Pentagonica ruficollis 0 0 0 0
Catascopus elegans 0 0 0 0
pseudolatreillei
Drypta lineola philippinensis 28 0.031 -1.509 0.047
Dolichoctis gilvipes 26 0.029 -1.538 0.045
Paratachys leytensis 27 0.030 -1.523 0.046
Tachys sp 1 31 0.035 -1.456 0.050
Tachys sp 2 4 0.004 -2.398 0.009
Thopeutica sp. 6 0.007 -2.155 0.015
Prothyma sp. 0 0 0 0
SECTION D
RESULT: 1.039

of P
(SA) (P=SA/A)
P-In (P)
Brachinus leytensis 12 0 0 0
Prothyma heteromallicollis 39 0.050 -1.301 0.065
Pheropsophus uliweberi 0 0 0 0
Pheropsophus nigerrimus 0 0 0 0
Pheropsophus fumigatus 0 0 0 0
quadrimaculatus
Tricondyla conicicollis 138 0.179 0.747 0.134
Haplochlaenius femoratus
philippinus
46 0.059 -1.229 0.072
Oodes sp. 0 0 0 0
Pentagonica ruficollis 0 0 0 0
Catascopus elegans 0 0 0 0
pseudolatreillei
Dolichoctis gilvipes 0 0 0 0
Tachys sp 1 0 0 0 0
Tachys sp 2 0 0 0 0
Thopeutica sp. 0 0 0 0
Prothyma sp. 1 0.001 -3 0.003

V. DISCUSSION
This activity focuses on the determination of community richness and

diversity of insects population and composition in Eastern Visayas.
Species richness is simply the number of species in a community, wherein
it was found out here that community B was rich in species in terms of
number compared to the other communities. Species diversity on the
other hand is more complex to determine this includes the number of
species as well as measure of each species in a community.
VI. CONCLUSION
From this activity, I had concluded that species richness and diversity
are not directly proportional from each other. It doesn’t mean that more
number of species a community is it can already be considered as rich
and diverse. It can be diverse if species present are equally abundant in
an area.

MODULE 2
Guide Questions
1. How do life on earth evolved?
 From a single cell of life all life forms from plants to animals and even us
humans. As evolution is a continuous process life evolves from being born,
hatched and other means of birth giving.
2. What is evolution? What is coevolution?
 Evolution is in line with the process of natural selection for it is the change
in characteristics of species over many times. Evolution is causing variations
in species both genotype and phenotype aspects. On the other hand,
coevolution is the evolution which occurs when two or more species are
affecting each ones changes reciprocally as they interact with each one.
3. What is the dominant theory about evolution?
 Natural selection is the dominant theory about evolution as formulated by

Charles Darwin, and is the driving force of evolution in his book “On the
Origin of Species”, and it is stating that organisms change over time that
resulted to changes in heritable physical or behavioral traits.
4. What is natural selection?
 Natural selection these are random evolutionary changes in species selected

by nature in many ways. It is also an adaptation technique wherein species
try to adapt in the environment it is in in order to survive and reproduce to
continue the generation. Natural selection is the driving force of evolution.
5. How natural selection works?

 Natural selection works by genetic mutation or the permanent change in
hereditary material such as chromosome structure that have impacts and
benefits to an individual survival that are passed on through reproduction.
The new structure or feature of the new organism is favorable to the
environment it is living, through the descent of modification into which new
trait to keep and continue.
6. What are the types of selection?
 The types of selection are the directional selection, stabilizing and disruptive
selection. Directional selection is about a characteristic of an organism, the
phenotypes are favorable over other phenotypes which cause allele
frequency, or simpler term a favorable trait is expressed beneficially in a
population. Stabilizing selection or known as the "middle-of-the-road"
selection, which means there are no extreme traits, example in three heights
of plants, short won't survive for the sunlight can't reach it, the tall ones can
be damaged by winds and so the mediums or the middle sizes are the ones to
reproduce over time. Lastly the disruptive selection or the diversifying
selection in which variance of a traits increases and so the population is
divided into two.
7. What mechanism is involved in the evolution of ecosystem?
 Mechanisms involved in the evolution of ecosystem are mutation, non-

random mating, gene flow, finite population size (genetic drift), and natural
selection.
8. What is the most widely accepted theory of the evolution of ecosystem?
 The theory of natural selection is the most widely accepted theory of the
evolution of ecosystem; it is a powerful idea to explain evolution of life and
ecosystem.
9. What is succession? What are the types of succession?
 Ecological succession is the process in which there is a change in species

structure of an ecological community over time. There are two types under
succession, the primary and secondary succession. Primary succession
occurs in an environment in which new substrate are of such as vegetation
and other organisms that lacks soil, these includes lava flow. On the other
hand the secondary succession occur when plants and animals recolonize
after a disaster such as devastating flood, wildfire, landslide, lava flow
and/or any human activities.
10. What is succession? What are the types of succession?
 Ecosystem services are way of nature is very beneficial to human; these

services are what ecosystem provide to people it may be direct or indirect
and may it small or big. There are services that were discussed in the video
basis and these are provisioning, regulating and cultural services.
Provisioning services talks about the raw materials such as water or food.
Fruits, vegetables, trees, and livestock which are available direct products of
the ecosystem. Regulating services are the maintenance of the forest and
purify air. Plants clean air, and filter water, bacteria decompose wastes, bees
pollinate flowers, and trees roots hold soil in place to prevent erosion. Lastly
the cultural services which are the landscapes that inspires artists to relax or
practice sports in natural areas, this type of service is non-material benefits
that contributes to the development of cultural advancement of people and
how ecosystems play a role in local, national and global cultures.
MODULE 2: LESSON 2
Guide Questions
1. What are the factors that define a type of terrestrial ecosystem?
 Factors that define a terrestrial ecosystem include range of temperature it

has, the average amount of precipitation received, the soil type, and the
amount of light it receive.
2. Compare the characteristics flora and fauna found in each type of terrestrial
ecosystem?
 Terrestrial fauna are those animals that belongs in geographic area that are
mostly found in the given ecosystem, these are dependent on abiotic and
biotic factors, competition and predation species. On the other hand floras
are of those groups of vegetal species that are found in a determined place,
these can both be abundant and poor so it is variable. Factors such as climate
and temperature factors that both tell the type of fauna and flora a place has.
In terms of major differences of its structure, floras as plants do have cell
wall and chloroplast that are both absent in fauna groups.
3. Why mangrove ecosystem is considered as an edged ecosystem?
 Mangrove ecosystem is considered an edge ecosystem for a particular reason

that it is at the niche between fresh water and marine environment and it has
a noticeable benefits. These provides natural infrastructure and protection to
nearby areas as these prevents erosion and absorbs storm surge impact.
These are known as carbon sinks for it neutralize sediment runoff from both
natural and human activities.
4. What makes an agro forest ecosystem unique from other terrestrial ecosystem?
 Agroforestry is derived from agriculture and forestry; this is unique over

other terrestrials for the reason that it puts emphasis on the on integration of
and interactions among combination of elements rather than just having
focus on each element individually. This has higher surface soil that
maintains plant diversity.
5. Why is it always raining in tropical rainforest?
 Tropical rainforests are inhibited by so many plants, and so transpiration is a

lot. When there is a lot of transpiration it causes much water vapor that
causes to always rain in those places. Fact is that tropical rainforest only
exists in areas with a lot of rainfall.
6. What ecological event maintains a grassland ecosystem?

 Grassland ecosystem is maintained by protecting and restoring wetlands.
Agricultural crops rotation prevents the sapping of nutrients. An ecological
event that as well maintains the grassland is fire as it is a natural part that
ecosystem that helps maintain its health and vigor. This warms up the soil
and reduces the leaf litter that accumulates each year and allows penetration
of sunlight. After a fire, blackened fields revive with new, green grasses and
abundant, showy wildflowers.
7. Why the soil on tropical rainforest is nutrient poor as compared to dessert

ecosystem?
 Tropical rainforest’s soil is nutrient-poor for a particular reason that with

high temperature and moisture causes dead organic matter in the soil that
decompose more over other climates that releases and loses nutrient in
combination of high volume rain it washes nutrients in soil more quickly
compared to other climates. In contrast even if desert is as well with high
temperature it does not rain more often and so the nutrient in soil is not
washed away.
8. What adaptation is exhibited by vegetation thriving in tundra?
 Since tundra has patchy, low-to-ground vegetation it consists of small

shrubs, grasses, mosses and etc. These plants that grow in tundra adapt by
developing ability to grow under a layer of snow to carry out photosynthesis
in such extreme temperature. Tundra plants are hairy stem and have small
leaves that help to trap heat near the plant and as well protect the plants from
wind.
9. Why forests are considered as the most important terrestrial ecosystem?
 Forests are considered as the most important terrestrial ecosystem for it is

the most productive of all ecosystems. Naming some of its benefits includes
source of fishing, hunting animals, fruits to provide people. It is also a place
of different species inhibiting, and many more. Humans do depends on
forests for survival, from air we breathe, to the woods we use and foods we
eat. Watershed protection, prevention of soil erosion and mitigation of
climate change are as well what the forest can offer.
10. What makes boreal forest differ from deciduous forest?
 Boreal forest has harsher climate than the temperate deciduous forest. In
terms of temperature boreal has a very low temperature over the other forest
that has extended periods of warm weather. If leaves of the trees are the
topic boreal trees have non-needle shaped leaves that fall off during fall
season while the deciduous or temperate have a waxy coating that stay on
the branches for year long.

Disturbances and Ecosystem Stability
Critique Paper
Typhoon Disturbance and Forest Dynamics: Lessons from a Northwest

Pacific Subtropical Forest is a collaborative article of the following authors: T.C
Lin, Hamburg, K.C Lin, Wang, Chang, Hsia, Vadeboncoeu, McMullen, and Liu that
was published in the year 2010. The main issue in the article revolves around the
effect of disturbance and dynamics based on the resiliency of forest in the other
regions mostly likely in Northwest. The most important effect of this typhoon in
this ecosystem was said to be defoliation, in which it maintains high understory
level that enhances heterogeneity sustaining diversity without large canopy
gaps. The resiliency of these forests is test based on the rapid recovery of leaf
after a typhoon. High resiliency and high resistance to the typhoon the forest is
responsible for heavy defoliation and slow decomposition. The already existing
climate is altered by this ever changing phenomenon that builds uncertainties in
the effect of typhoon disturbance.
The article tackles sub topics such as global perspective, the relationship
among hurricane disturbance and forest dynamics has been comprehensively
inspected in Central and North America. There were a lot of in text citations that
gives the steadfastness of the idea. It was reported from 1970-2007 although this
article is not up to date yet it gives numerous facts. Figure 1 clearly shows the
movement of the alterations of the typhoons. “Physical Effect: Gaps Versus
Defoliation” is another sub topic that talks about the gaps that canopy gaps
caused by bole snapping and uprooting in which it runs microhabitats that
elevate temperature and enhanced light. There were contrary ideas that orbits in
this topic for there were authors who believed that it is the most important effect
of cyclones on biogeochemical processes. Biogeochemical cycles are the
influence if tropical cyclones on forest ecosystem that extends the structure and
light but to the all-inclusive cycle, yet according to Larsen and Webb an average
of 300 mm of rain across the island that was linked with nutrient release of
nitrogen.
Over the entire article it gives enough information to comprehend well

the idea that it is being conveyed. It does not lack citations that make it strong for
there are a lot of ideas summed up together. It also has graphs and pictures that
make it supplementary to understand data by just looking at it and not reading
the whole article already. The article itself it complicated and long but little by
little the article is becoming interesting upon reading. To sum up our global
thought of the effects of tropical cyclones on forest dynamics is tilted en route for
forests where tropical cyclones happen reasonably to small frequency.
MODULE 2: LESSON 3
ACTIVITY
STRUCTURE, FUNCTION AND DYNAMICS OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
1. Answer the following questions by listing the components of each aquatic

ecosystem.
a. What dynamics are common in these ecosystems?
 Dynamics of the ecosystem are those essential ecological functions where an

ecosystem regulates itself, sustain itself and is capable of recapture from
those outside pressure. Some of the common dynamics includes temperature,
light, and location of those habitats an organism to grow and evolve where it
fits the environment.
b. How do these different aquatic ecosystems compare with one another?
 Ecosystems are both wide range of biodiversity with different levels of

trophic. In aquatic ecosystems the water is already there and available while
in terrestrial ecosystem depends on the presence and amount of rainfall and
groundwater. Marine ecosystems are those under the category of oceans, and
seas, this type provide shelter for a wide range of various species from
plankton to mammal. On the other hand coastal ecosystem exists where land
and sea meet that provides shelter and some human resources. 1 % is the
well-known fresh water ecosystem such as rivers, and lakes.
c. How are these different aquatic ecosystems different?
 Marine ecosystems are the largest ecosystems in which planktons, fishes,

crabs and other sea dwellers live. They can be found in variety of bodies of
water, for the reason that the ocean is salty, this can extend to the deepest
sections of their habitats where light cannot penetrate. The middle of the
land and the ocean is what we know as coastal ecosystem, they can change
during storms that are strong enough to bulge the shore, altering the surface
and influencing the entire coast. This is a friendly shelter for both land and
marine organisms. This non-saline type is the freshwater ecosystem in which
numerous species of organisms grow that cannot survive in saline water.
ECOSYSTEMS Similar components and Different components and
dynamics dynamics
 These ecosystems  Marine and

are composed of freshwater cannot
biotic communities develop habitats in
Marine coastal ecosystems
 Factors of aquatic unlike land and water
ecosystems includes dwellers.
substrate type, water
depth, nutrient  Marine waters has
levels, temperature, large volume of
Coastal
salinity, and flow suspended compound
 They all provide  Bigger collection of

living space for chemicals in the
many underwater marine environment
Freshwater species as it increase the
amount of salt in the
 The limiting factors water compared to
of these ecosystems freshwater.
is the availability of
sunlight and the  Freshwater
concentration of ecosystems have
dissolved oxygen more flourishing
and nutrients in the microorganisms than
water aquatic and coastal
ones
Pre-lab Questions
1. Define the following terms:
a. Predator – these are the superior organisms that outnumbered the

preys because they are the killers that eats they prey in order to live
b. Prey – the food of the predators
c. Population – number of species in a certain place

2. Give an example of a predator prey relationship from your own experience. Be
sure to identify which organism is the prey species and which one is the predator
species.
 My mom loves cats at home for the particular reason on this predator – prey
relationship, the predator is our cat and the preys are the mice. The more cats
we have the less mice we have at home. There was one time when our cats
was bring to our ancestral house and we stayed there for a week, when we
got home there were more mice already in our house. Out cat killing mice is
an example of this relationship
3. List at least 3 abiotic factors AND explain how they can each impact the
populations of different species in an ecosystem.
 Temperature – this factor affects species because there are certain

organisms that do not carry a certain point of temperature in their body, and
is not
 favorable to the circumstance
 Nutrients – if species lacks nutrients they will eventually die and will
reduce number of organisms in the ecosystem
 Water – this abiotic factor is essential to every species for this neutralize the
chemical processes in our body.
4. List at least 3 biotic factors AND explain how they can impact the populations of
different species in the same ecosystem as question 3.
 Producers (Autotrophs) – these are the food makers that sustain life in
the ecosystem
 Consumers (Heterotrophs) – these are the food eaters multiply to

develop and grow the ecosystem
 Decomposers (detritivores) – this are the organisms that break down

decaying organisms
Program/Yr/Section: BSBIO AB – 21 Instructor: Mr. Bryan Joseph Matillano
Laboratory Activity No. 2
PREDATOR PREY POPULATION OSCILLATION LAB
I. Introduction
Predator – prey is the feeding relationship of two dissimilar species, they are
inversely proportional if the prey species rapidly multiplies, the number of predators
increases and so there will be a quick population falls again. If there will be no prey
then it will lead to starvation of the predators that will eventually decrease as well. In
the ecosystem there are lot of relationship that exists yet this type is uneven for only
one benefits then the other is harmed. Predator – prey relationship impact to the
ecosystem’s species richness and diversity.
We can classify these relationships based on the impact of the relationship on

the organism. One type of relationship that exists between certain organisms is a
predator prey relationship. This lab looks at how that type of relationship impacts the
populations of both species.
II. Objectives
The students were expected to know the impact of the predator-prey

relationship and how it affects the ecosystem.
III. Materials
Prey species Plastic cup orange
Predator species blue colored pencils
Pen or pencil plastic bag
Paper box 2 inch radius transparency circle
Lid plastic spoon calculator
IV. Procedure
1. Start by adding 4 predators to your plastic cup. Next add 40 prey to the cup.
2. If using edible species, DO NOT EAT ANY OF YOUR CRITTERS UNTIL YOU
ARE DONE WITH THE LAB.
3. One member of the team will shake the cup and then gently shake the contents into
the paper box lid. Use a side- to- side motion when shaking the organisms out of the
cup.
4. The second team member will evaluate which of the organisms “survived” the
round. In order for a predator to survive they must “eat” 6 prey. Lay the transparency
circle on one of the predators, placing the dot of the circle on the center of the
predator. Any of the prey that are either completely or partially under the circle are
close enough that the predator can capture and eat them. If they are eaten they must be
removed from the box for the next round. If the predator does not have at least 6 prey
close enough to capture, it too will die and need to be removed from the box lid. If
two predators are close enough that they both fit under the circle then 12 prey must be
close enough for them to capture or they will both starve to death.
5. Once you have determined which ones need to be removed from the box, count the
number of each species eaten and those that survived and record this information in
the data table.
6. Each remaining predator produces one offspring and each remaining prey produces
two offspring. Calculate the population changes for the next round and enter that data
into the table. If all of your predators starve to death you must run through the next
round without predators unless you have 40 preys remaining. Once the prey
population is back up to at least 40 then reintroduce 4 predators for the following
round.
7. Put the correct number of prey and predator species in the cup and repeat steps 3-6
for a total of 20 rounds.
8. If the number of predators becomes large enough that placing them in the cup is not
practical, place them in the box and shake it 4-5 times before adding the prey using
the same technique that you used before.
9. When you have completed all trials, check with your teacher to make sure that you
have all of the data you need before becoming the ultimate predator and consuming
all of the organisms involved (if you used the edible species).
10. Once the class is finished, the data will be compiled into a class data sheet using
Excel. A series of graphs will be made to show the relationship between the predators
and prey over time. When plotting the individual team graphs, use orange for the
predator data and blue for the prey data.
V. Result
1 4 40 0 31 4 9 2 25 6 34
2 9 34 6 25 3 9 3 13 6 21
3 3 20 1 10 2 10 1 12 3 22
4 4 30 0 30 4 0 4 0 8 0
5 3 27 1 20 2 7 1 22 3 29
6 5 40 2 30 2 10 2 15 4 25
7 7 60 2 40 5 20 4 40 9 44
8 4 40 1 35 3 5 4 10 7 15
9 9 78 3 68 6 10 4 13 10 23
10 5 40 2 30 2 10 2 15 4 25
11 8 15 3 11 5 4 5 10 10 14
12 9 34 6 25 3 9 3 13 6 21
13 4 10 1 4 1 6 1 10 2 16
14 8 79 0 70 8 9 6 12 14 18
20
19
18
17
16
15
Round
4
4
9
4
8
0
N0. Of Predator start
40
25
34
40
48
10
No. of prey start
0
2
6
1
3
0
No. of predators died

0
No. of prey died

36
21
25
29
29
4
2
3
3
5
0
No. of predator lived

4
9
24
11
19
10
No. of preys lived

5
1
3
3
3
0
No. of predator born
No. of preys born

5
34
13
22
40
28
9
3
6
6
8
0
Total Predators
9
Total Preys
58
21
33
59
38
POPULATION OF THE PREY SPECIES FOR ALL
TRIALS
POPULATION OF THE PREDATOR SPECIES
90
80
FOR ALL TRIALS
78 79
70
60 60
12
50 48
10
40 40 40 40 40 40 40
9
34 9 9 34 9 34
308 30 27 8 8 8 25
20 20 7
6 15
10 10 10
5 5
04 4 4 4 44 4
1 2 33 4 53 6 7 9 108 1 1 12 14 15 16 17 13 18 19 20
u
2 nd und und und und und und und und nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
Ro Ro Ro Ro Ro Ro Ro Ro Ro Rou Rou Rou Rou Rou Rou Rou Rou Rou Rou Rou
0 0
1 2 f3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
d d n und und und und nd und nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
un oun ou1.1.
Ro Figure R Ro Graph
Ro Rshowing oU population
o Ro rthe u of uthe prey
Ro Rou Title u uspecies
u in
u allu trials
u u u
R Chart Ro R o Ro R o R o Ro R o R o Ro Ro
90
80 Figure 1.2. Graph showing the population of the predator species in all trials
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
und und und und und und und und und nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
R o R o R o R o R o R o R o R o R o R ou R ou R ou R ou R ou R ou R ou R ou R ou R ou R ou
Predator Prey
Figure 1.3. Graph showing the population of predator and prey in all trials
Chart Title
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
und und und und und und und und und nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
Ro Ro Ro Ro Ro Ro Ro Ro Ro Rou Rou Rou Rou Rou Rou Rou Rou Rou Rou Rou
Figure 1.4. Graph showing the number of death in predator and prey in all trials
Post Lab Conclusions
1. What type of relationship is presented by the graphed data, both yours and the
class’s?
 The relationship presented in the graphed data is how predator – prey evolve
and die with each other’s company, the predators death, predators that were
born and the masses of the organisms.
2. What happens to the prey species when the predator species population increases?
Why?
 The prey species rapidly decrease as the predator increases. This happens
because they are over power by the superiority of the predators that eats the
prey.
3. What happens to the predator species when the prey species population increases?
Why?
 When the prey species increases the predator correspondingly rise for the
reason that the nutritional needs are met and there are a lot of foods to eat that
lessen the competition between prey to prey in terms of feeding.
4. Describe at least three other limiting factors (other than the number of predators
or prey) that can affect population sizes. What effect does each of these limiting
factors have on the populations?
 Shelter – lacking of shelter means no permanent biotic and abiotic factors,

this limits the numbers of species in an area.
 Lack of food – means that organism cannot supply their needs and by not
eating it reduce the energy develop and reproduce.
 Natural phenomena – these abrasively reduced the number of species in an

ecosystem such as storms, floods, weathering and other.
5. Describe at least three behaviors that either predators or prey use to increase their
chances of survival. Explain how these behaviors help the organism to survive.
 Camouflage – cryptic coloration as a defense or tactic that organisms use in

order to disguise their physical appearance, this limiting factor affects the
population for this allows prey to avoid predators that results to nutrition
deficiency to predators
 Mimicry – this is a superficial resemblance of two or more organisms that are

closely related taxonomically, this limiting factor is also a protection from
predation that animals deceive the agent
 Prey easy to hunt – these lessen the competition and rapidly reduces richness
and diversity in an ecosystem
6. What was the purpose of graphing the data individually for the predator and the
prey and then again with both species on the same graph?
 It allows us to know how many had died and was added in the population
as the number of predator or prey was added or reduced.
7. What was the purpose of graphing the class data?
 This data shows the number of prey and predators each trial and how it
affects the survivability of organisms.
8. Describe what would happen if either your predator or prey species died out
before the end of the 20 trials.
 There will be a mass extinction that might happen in a population
a. Construct a hypothesis of what would happen in a real ecosystem if this

were to occur.
 The more predators there will be the lesser the species richness and
diversity
b. What is an example from our area that correlates to this situation?
 The pests in the farms that kills the food supply of the human
c. What steps could be taken to correct this situation?
 There would be lot of predators in the farm to lessen pests.

MODULE 3
GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Pre-Assessment
Directions: In this test, you are to name at least three (3) geological processes
that you know of. Discuss every processes and how these processes affect the
environment.
Erosion is a geological process wherein materials of Earth erodes and

transported by natural forces including, wind or water. This breakdown the
larger composition of Earth such as mountain and rocks and then worn away,
the materials are soften by water and then with rain or any natural processes
turns down. Fluid flow is what erosion is known in other term, due to the
fluids such as rain it soften the Earth’s crust. The materials material is being
transformed from a place to other due to force or gravity. Examples of this
process are the Grand Canyon that is wear away by the Colorado River. Four
agents of erosion are water, ice, wind, and gravity. The disturbance in the soil
that causes the erosion is disturbed by mining, construction, converting
agricultural lands into commercial and industrial lands. There is also water
erosion not only lands, for example is that a waterfall may form that eats up
the slope of the land.
Weathering is simply the breakdown of rocks and minerals on
Earth’s surface. This is interrelated to erosion because as the materials broke
down it erodes, the agents under this geological process are water, ice, acids,
salts, plants, animals, and temperature changes. There are three types of
weathering, physical, chemical and biological. Although this leads to
catastrophe it has as well its benefits, because of the breakdown it produces
unconsolidated material from its parent rock or soil that results to formation
of secondary minerals. The causes of weathering are physical weathering,
chemical weathering, water erosion, wind erosion, and gravity. An example
of this is the breakdown of rocks in the mountain due to water and wind that
forms secondary minerals. There are factors that affect weathering including
the strength of the rock, mineral and chemical composition, color, rock
texture and rock structure that determines also the time and it requires for the
rock to collapse.
Tectonics is the deformation of the Erath’s crust and surfaces.

This is a theory that explicates global distribution of geological
phenomena to name some are as follows: seismicity, volcanism,
continental drift, and mountain formation and destruction. This is the
force that produces deformation and as well creates another surface.
Earthquake and volcanic eruption are the primary cause of tectonics this
allows the crust to move in many ways. The lithosphere is broken into
large plates. These moves due to the radioactive processes within the
interior of the planets, the movements sometimes are toward, away or it
just split. This movement is known to us as tectonic shift. By this
tectonics we can depict where the earthquakes occur, and as well
predictions. The formation of new mountains, valleys and another surface
is due to this.
POST ASSESSMENT
1. List down and describe the four spheres of the planet Earth
The planet Earth we are in is composed of different spheres that basically

complete the system we called as life. There are these four interconnected spheres
near the surface of the Earth. A complex yet beautiful place we live is unique in
size, various composition, properties and above all the characteristic that it can
hold life. Lithosphere also known as geosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and
hydrosphere are the interconnected spheres of Earth.
Earth is a big rock and this is the lithosphere, here includes the crust and
mantle as the outer most layer of the planet. Its thickness range from 40 km to 280
km, but this sphere ends as the minerals in the earth's crust begin to demonstrate
viscous and fluid behaviors that form mountain, valleys, plateaus, desert, and
plains. The 12 main tectonic plates that the lithosphere is divided into includes
Eurasian, Indo-Australian, Philippine, Antarctic, Pacific, Cocos, Juan de Fuca,
North American, Caribbean, South American, Scotia, and African plates.
This planet is surrounded by blanket of gasses that is composed of 78%

nitrogen, 21% oxygen and a percent of other gasses. With the help of atmosphere
the climate on Earth is moderate over other planets, and without this life on Earth
would not be possible. Atmosphere has four zones known as troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere that play a role individually.
Biosphere is the global ecosystem where both living and non-living

factors from which energy and nutrient derived, and known as the environmental
sphere. This is where all life exists, all ecosystems. Biosphere is so important for
it the home biodiversity that provides food for the living. Endangered species are
protected in a biosphere.
The total amount of water on Earth is under hydrosphere, including

waters on the surface, underground and even on air.97 % of water on Earth can be
found on oceans, and the other remaining are the freshwater. Hydrosphere can be
liquid, vapor or ice. This sphere helps to regulate the atmosphere. The Earths
hydrosphere contains around 366.3 sextilliion gallons of water.
Each sphere has unique properties and features that sustain life on Earth.
Humans’ actions do have an impact on spheres such as burning fossil fuels that
pollute the atmosphere, throwing wastes in landfills affects the geosphere and in
hydrosphere is throwing trashes to the oceans. In general sphere supports our lives
and so we must be responsible in our actions for it may destroy the only planet
that as of now can hold life.
2. What makes the planet dynamic?
Formation of new land masses reflects the movement of Earth’s major and
minor tectonic plates and by these we can say that the earth is dynamic. It was
before a large joined continent that through time continuous and productive
activity changes due to physical forces of different causes.
Earth is a system composed of interrelated, interdependent or interacting

parts that forms collective whole entity. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are
those that display powerful forces of nature that are extremely destructive. An
average of 60 eruptions is recorded among the 550 active volcanoes each year.
Most new crusts are formed at ocean ridges. Yet Earth is said to be in “state of
dynamic equilibrium”. Another thing as Earth to be dynamic is due to the
constantly changing atmosphere that causes a change in weather. Erosion
gradually occurs, earthquake may suddenly occur, and other changes that affects
life. Interactions of spheres resulted in an ongoing changes to the Earth systems.
3. What are the two major types of earth processes? Give examples for each
Gradual processes are the reason behind changes and our Earth is made up
of different geological processes. Under this includes endogenous and exogenous
processes of the Earth. Endogenous process is a process that is particularly
coming from the force inside the Earth such as folding, failure and volcanism. The
occurrence happens in the weak area along the boundaries of the plate. Thermal
energy of the crust is the reason of endogenous process; this thermal energy
derives from the disintegration of the radioactive elements and the gravitational
differentiation. Examples of this type are earthquake, tectonic movements, and
volcanism. On the other hand exogenous processes are processes that derive their
energy from external sources of the Earth. This process shape land through
atmosphere and biosphere. An example of external source is the heat of the sun
that result different heat pressure, other external agent includes weather, wind
blowing, running water, groundwater, waves and currents in the water, glaciers,
and etc. an example of exogene processes are weathering, erosion, and
sedimentation.
4. What are the theories explaining the constant movement of the earth’s
continents?
Plate tectonics theory is explaining the Earth’s solid outer crust

(lithosphere), as separated into plates that move over the asthenosphere to the
mantle. Oceanic and continental plates come together, spread apart, and
interact at boundaries all over the planet. When two tectonic plates meet, there
is a “plate boundary”. Tectonics defined as the structure and properties of
earth crust and the evolution of time, with this are the three types of plate
boundaries namely divergent, convergent, and transform boundaries.
Divergent plate boundary is the movement by which two tectonic plate

moves away from each other. This movement produces rifts that become rift
valleys and also mid-oceanic ridges. Most of this type is underwater form
submarine mountain ranges called as oceanic spreading ridges. Magma rises to
form new crust on the lithosphere due to volcanic eruption and earthquake.
This magma is and constantly moved by the internal heat that reaches the
mantle of the earth through convection flow. Crust cracks and form faults
where earthquake occurs. Since new crusts are formed by this movement this
is also called as constructive plate boundary.
Collision of two or more lithospheric plates is called as convergent

boundary theory. Subduction occurs or the movement where one plate
eventually slides beneath the other and this zone is where mostly earthquakes
occur. In this case the crust is forcedly moved down into the mantle and it
melts. Continental crust is created but oceanic crust is destroyed. As this
happens the new magma rises and possibly may erupt violently to form
volcanoes.
The last type is the transform fault or transform boundary is a fault

along plate boundary where motion is predominantly horizontal. These
boundaries refer to the plates that slide to each other that cause of rock break
that result of earthquakes. Where it can be found on the seafloor, where they
connect segments of diverging mid-ocean ridges.
5. Why some of the earth’s natural processes cause disasters? What is a

disaster?
Earth works along with its natural processes to maintain the balance
and keep the lives living. The Earth’s natural forces have to change our
landscape by different processes that shape the place. Energy flow and nutrient
cycles are those processes that give a by-product of food and essential
nutrients. Others are sediment transport, soil formation, water cycle,
reproduction, natural disturbance and succession.
Disaster defined as the disruption occurring over a short or long period

of time that causes loss in much aspect such as human, material, economic,
and environmental destruction. This is a sudden and calamitous event that
disrupt functioning of a community as well as the societies ability to cope with
own natural resources. Natural disturbance is the natural processes that cause
disaster such as fires, insect’s outbreaks, disease epidemic, droughts, floods,
hurricanes, landslides, and volcanic eruption. These are physical stressor of
the environment, sometimes cyclical, events that causes significant change in
ecosystem structure or composition.
Plate movements’ triggers earthquakes and tsunamis. The natural

disturbance causes disaster for the reason that some outside pressure trigger
such activities just like human actions. We humans as inhibitor of the planet
we should be accountable of all our actions for it can result to huge
disturbance of both human and the ecosystem. Every year we face various
natural disturbance that leads us to cope to new strategies but sometimes it
worsen the situation. The bottom line is we must consider every single aspect
of the planet we are in. Given with the fact that we can’t prevent natural
processes that lead to disturbance but we may do actions that will trigger to
such calamities.
6. When extractions of earth’s resources will results to a disaster?
Earth’s resources are many and varied that are highly needed for us
humans to survive. Air, water, soil, minerals, plants, animals and etc. are those
under it, fossil fuels, renewable energy and as well as mineral resources are
included. The following are the facts of essential these resources us to each
one in the planet, energy and fuels are used for warmth, building materials for
shelter, through farming crops and vegetables are used as food, fuel for
transport, and materials for clothing. Resources extraction is defined as the
activities that involve withdrawing materials from the environment.
Humans do really depend on the environment in every single aspect of

life we experience. With these we are in demand of those resources to the
point that there are human processes done to double and even triple the size of
the production of the resources that leads to disaster. Raw material extraction
and processing impact on the environment, it result to soil degradation, water
shortages and worse is global warming. Advantages and disadvantages are
weigh here wherein with the extraction that are done it is economically
beneficial that reduces poverty and increase income but on the other hand the
ecosystem is being killed with the vision of economic richness. Excessive
mining can result to major disruption of surfaces such as pits and waste
dumps, it as well pollute air and water, destruction of animal habitat and harm
to local communities. The uncontrollably power of human to satisfy their
wants and not just the needs resulted to disaster. If we cut all tress to make
products out of raw materials, there will be no enough tress to prevent
flooding. Too much of everything is indeed evil.
Sustainable resources conservation is the best way to preserve the

planet that only holds our precious lives. Managing needs and balance would
help a lot to the future we are composing. Protecting earth’s resources will be
beneficial to all mankind.
7. What is risk?
The possibility of something to bad to happen is simply known as the

risk. Uncertainty of things in life is inevitable and so chances of unplanned
situations are possible. Ecologically risk is the probability of occurrence of an
undesired ecological impact. Ecological assessment is used to determine the
risk of environmental conditions to the ecosystem. Ecological risk is different
from human health risk in particular reason that ecological risk assess
exposure to terrestrial animals while human health risk is the exposure to
humans. When the ecosystem is at risk all the branches of it are at risk. Risk is
the chance that someone will be harmed if it is exposed to hazard. For
example is drinking too much alcohol of a person opens a risk of having many
body implications.
Possibility of experiencing risk every day is high for there are a lot of
factors affecting it. Within the span of 24 hours a day a lot of things that is
bound to happen.
8. What is hazard?
Hazard is simply the possible cause of harm, there may be factors of

harm and these are the hazards around you example are the electricity, debris
and others that can cause human injury. Hazard is connected to damage and
ill. It may be property, health, environment or any other. This is a source of
potential damage harm or hostile health effects. These can be objects, human,
behavior or anything that cause injury. The five workplace hazards are
classified as safety, chemical, biological, physical and ergonomic. There are
four categories of hazard counting from 1-4 where 1 is the lowest then 4 is the
serious harm in human.
Unlike risk that is just a “might” or “possibility, the hazard is contrary.

If the risk is high then the hazard is really expected. Risk is the chance it may
be high or low but hazard is the actual cause of harm.
9. What is the difference between weather and climate?
Weather refers to the short term conditions of the atmosphere while the
climate is the weather of a specific region average over a long period of time. The
key terms are the time, short term for weather and long term for climate. Climates
are observed over decades. Different regions have different climate due to the
factors affecting the location such as air pressure, humidity, wind, temperature,
rain, cloudiness, storms, snow and precipitation. Climate can be defined as the
daily change in the atmospheric condition of the world. Under the examples of
weather are sunshine, rain, cloud cover, winds, hail, snow sleet, freezing rain,
thunderstorms, blizzards and heat wave whereas climates are for instance there
will be snow in few months in Northeast, then it will be humid by July. Extremes
are under climate such records of extreme heat or extreme cold.
10. What is climate change?
Climate change is the change in the global or regional patterns of climate

including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, biosphere, and cryosphere.
This is a long term alteration of temperature and weather patterns. Human activity
has the biggest contribution to this climate change, activities such as burning
plastics, natural gas, coals and then releasing these to fumes to the air that reduces
the ozone layer resulted to very hot world of today. This change does not happen
rapidly like a year this took decades or more, like there is a huge difference of the
world before mid to late 90’s unlike this mid 20’s. The extreme average
temperature affects all of us that it will come to the point that the world is no
longer human friendly.
Laboratory Activity 3
A CAN OF SODA
I. Introduction
A can of soda is a metal container that holds drink. In making a soda can
take a lot of processes obtained by heating baking soda and alike. This activity
evaluates the processes done in making a can of soda where it takes miles to
accomplish. Ensuring safety of the container of what we drink is a heavy
activity for us to know but this activity will do it so.
II. Objectives
At the end of the activity the students are expected to make a concept
paper of the processes in making a can of soda.
III. Materials
The activity used laptop and internet connection
IV. Procedure
Using the reading describing the creation of a can of soda
(https://www.cancentral.com/can-stats/history-of-the-can/time-
innovation), create a concept map, with appropriate labels, for the
process of producing a can of soda. Include all of the components and
actions mentioned specifically within the description but also add
factors that are implied beyond the description, including some of the
aspects related to mining that we have been discussing, as well as other
“invisible” factors (i.e., transport, fuel, etc.). Please be sure to be neat
and write legibly.
V. Result
Making of Can of Soda
Two-Piece Can Three-Piece Can

Cup Blanking and Shearing. The large coil of
Ironing and Doming.
Drawing. Press metal is cut into pre-scrolled
Cup is forced Shearing. The large
punches out sheets at the rate of 150
through a series of coil of metal is cut sheets per minute. The
hundreds of cups
rings to iron out cans into sheets at the irregular ends of the sheets
per minute from
to full length and rate of 160 sheets are designed for the
huge coils of
form bottom dome. per minute on the maximum number of ends per
aluminum or steel. sheet.
shear press.
Trimming. Cans are Trimming. Cans are Trimming. Cans are
Cleaning. Washer
cycles hundreds of spun as cutting tool spun as cutting tool spun as cutting tool
cans per minute trims to length. trims to length. trims to length.
through multiple
cleaning stations.
Printing. The sheets Printing. The sheets
Printing and Bottom Varnishing. are decorated with are decorated with
Varnishing. At Cans are conveyed whatever printing the whatever printing the
printing station, past applicator that customer desires and customer desires and
cans are rolled varnishes bottom. then an over coat of then an over coat of
against cylinder to varnish is placed on varnish is placed on
print up to four the decorated sheet the decorated sheet.
and cured. The body
colors
sheets are now
simultaneously. stacked on pallets for
shipment to a
Inside Spraying. A Baking. Cans wind fabricating plant. Coating. A second
through conveying Slitting. Body sheets inside protective
protective specially containing up to 35
compounded system in oven to coating is placed on
body blanks per sheet
coating is applied to dry and set are slit into individual the sheets and
inside of cans. lithography. body blanks which will cured.
be formed into cans.
Baking. Trip End Forming. Ends are
through funnel Necking In. Can
Scroll Shearing. The stamped out of the
oven bakes and necks are reduced pre-scrolled sheets are scroll sheets at the
cures inside coating. at top to fit the now cut into small rate of 650 ends per
designated end size. scroll sheets which will minute. Finished ends
be fed into the end are packed into tubes
making press. for delivery to
Flanging and Testing. Can rims are fabricating plants and
flanged for future double seaming of customers.
Flanging. The formed Body Forming. Body
ends. Then, each can be mechanically
cylinder comes from blanks are fed into a
tested for leakage. Finally, cans are body maker where
the body maker to the
automatically stacked in cartons or on they are formed into
flange. Here the metal
pallets for shipment. on both ends is rolled cylinders and joined at
to form a flange on their side seams by
each end of the can. solder, cement or
This flange will at a weld.
later time accepts
double seaming.
Spray Coating. A final
coating is placed on the
Double Seaming. One end, interior surface of the can.
top or bottom, depending on This is a specially
customer specifications, is compounded protective
double seamed on the can. coating.
Testing. A 100 per cent Baking here the final interior

coating is baked and cured
quality control inspection for
through a funnel type oven
any micro leak is given to where the time-temperature
every can. cycle must be controlled
carefully.
Packing. Cans are packed

into cartons or placed on
pallets for delivery to
customers
VI. Conclusion
The activity shows the complexity of making a can of soda. There are a lot of
processes done before a single can is made. The question asked here if the drinks are
safe inside knowing the processes it undergone. Nowadays, cans are commonly used.
It's no longer just for soft drinks and beer; it might also be used to package other
processed foods. This paves the door for better packaging and more secure storage of
various items.
MODULE 4
Pre – Assessment
1. What is an environmentally sustainable society?
 As we are concerned of the future and upcoming generations we sustain our

environment for them. This preservation is as important as the current time
in order for tomorrow to exist. A society that is environmentally sustainable
meets the current and future basic resources need of its citizens in a fair and
just manner. It is a society capable of being nearly self-sufficient in natural
resources while releasing no greenhouse gases. We can keep the bees that
we rely on if we don’t turn forests into booze and do not use chemicals in
any form and if essential be responsible. One in which we do not harm the
environment or misuse resources, and hence can leave a beautiful legacy.
2. How can environmentally sustainable society grow economically?
 Economic growth is interrelated with the sustainability of a society to feed

the needs of the general humanity and the yet comes in the idea of excess to
support other society as well. Yet according to one author they are not
compatible, the increase in GDP will result to more raw materials to be
exported outside as a byproduct. Perhaps in my perspective the planning,
economic planning is essential for a fair society to work, because it will be
imbalance if the products are exported outside but the society inside are
starving. The idea for a sustainable society to economically grow is to
maintain growth and development and especially take care for a better
future ahead.
3. How are our ecological footprints affecting the earth?
 The footprints of the past can be our guide on what we should do on the
Earth today for it to be sustainable to each species living ad promote
species richness and diversity. We can count our ecological footprint and
by this we can assess on to lessen on our usage that affects the Earth’s
health, such as using fuels, coils, gasses and etc. These affects the Earth
because everything we do is in all cause will impact to the availability of
resources we have.
LESSON 1: APPLICATION 1
1. What is exponential growth? Why is living an exponential age a cause for

concern for everyone living on the planet?
 Exponential growth is the increase of quantity over time. There is a greater

pattern of increase over time. Living in an exponential age may cause
concern for a particular reason that it no longer in control and will affect the
sustainable environment. By the rapid increase it may result to lack of
habitat, lack of food sources and imbalance world of today. This will no
longer accommodate the upcoming generations if the current itself is killing
the ecosystem.
2. Define environment. Distinguish among environmental science, ecology, and

environmentalism. Distinguish between an organism and a species. What is an
ecosystem? What is sustainability? Explain the terms natural capital, natural
resources, natural services, solar capital, and natural capital degradation. What
is nutrient cycling and why is it important? Describe the ultimate goal of an
environmentally sustainable society. What is natural income?
 Environment is our source of everything from food source to habitat and

recreation we are experiencing. The interaction happening is because of the
processes and stability of life. The food chain to food web will not be
possible without this amazing world we live in.
Environmental Science is the field that study between the interactions of

human to its environment. Ecology on the other hand is the science of
interactions of different species of organisms with one another.
Environmentalism this is a movement of group of people with the same
beliefs and ideology. Natural capital is the reason of our existence as it
talks about the natural resources and forms of life on Earth. Natural
services are the function of nature; these are biogeochemical activities such
as purification of air and water that support humanities. Nutrient cycling is
the circulation of chemicals necessary for life from the environment that
create huge impact to the bodily masses and life purposes. As one we aim
to survive the life of today and the upcoming future.
APPLICATION 2
1. What is the difference between economic growth and economic development?
 Economic growth is a contracted term, it is the increase in the real output of

the country within a specific allotted time. Practically this is the increase in
the good produced by en economy such as good and services. On the other
hand the economic development is the surge in the level of product in an
economy in line with enrichment of living standards and the advancement
of technology. By this development it means to eliminate poverty and
unemployment rate to reduce.
2. Distinguish among gross domestic product (GDP), per capita GDP, and per
capita GDP PPP.
 Gross domestic product (GDP) is the total economic output of a certain

country or the total amount of money a country can make, while PPP is the
attempt at a relative measure that putting consideration that puts a person’s
standard living within a that country.
3. Distinguish between developed countries and developing countries and

describe their key characteristics.
 Developed countries are generally characterized as the countries that are

further industrialized and developed a higher capita income levels. The
characteristics under developed countries such as high income per capita,
the security is guaranteed as well as health, low unemployment rate,
masters in science and technology and the level of exports is higher than
imports. While developing countries has low population growth rate,
dependent on primary sector, dependent on exports of primary commodities
and high rate of unemployment.
4. What is environmentally sustainable economic development?
 Sustainable economic development is the rate that the export products are
renewed. The sustainable environment is used to grow the economy such
as used of micro farming, solar energy expansion, air to water innovations,
and sustainable fish farming. This can be seen when economic
sustainability supports long term growth without the negative impact to the
humanity and environment.
POST ASSESSMENT IN MODULE 4
1. Describe two environmentally beneficial forms of exponential growth.
 Rapid increase of human – meaning there are many individuals that will
take care of the world and just hopingly everyone will be beneficial to the
environment
 Compound interest – this is the interest on interest, it is investing interest

rather than paying it out. By this people can have a better life and not harm
and over use the environment.
2. Explain why you agree or disagree with the following propositions:
a. Stabilizing population is not desirable because, without more

consumers, economic growth would stop
 Disagree; it is desirable to have a stabilized population. By

stabilizing the population everything will be in control, and it is a
good point to have a sustainable environment and as well
economic development. This will mean that the steady population
will maintain the good state of the environment and will not
cause deficiency, I believe even with steady population it will
still lead to economic growth in a way that the raw materials will
continuously to supply the needs of the people and can exports it
outside. More consumers would lead to over use of the raw
materials of the environment that might lead to ecosystem
collapse.
b. The world will never run out of resources because we can use
technology to find substitutes and to help us reduce resource waste
 Disagree; the world is just like human it will collapse if it over

used. The world will eventually run out of resources no matter
how good the technologies are as a substitute to help reduce
resources waste. Even with good technology we still need the
natural way of things for us to live longer. We will run out if we
will not overuse the power of nature. Technologies may imitate
but surely the natural goods and services will still be highly
needed.
3. Suppose the world’s population stopped growing today. What environmental

problems might this help solve? What environmental problems would remain?
What economic problems might population stabilization make worse?
 If the world will stop growing today then maybe all problems will be solves.
Starting from more spaces will be stable to use for agriculture and will not
be converted to houses and establishment. There will be enough goods and
services for everyone without over using the environment, then there will be
enough spaces for developing species, I think as well every good thing will
follow. But we all know that if this state of population will not continue the
world will stop and humans will be extinct. We don’t need to stop the
population we just need to control and manage it well.

ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT ANALYSIS
I. Introduction
If a country’s or the world’s ecological footprint per person is larger

than its biological capacity per person to replenish its renewable
resources and to absorb the resulting waste products and pollution, it is
said to have an ecological deficit. If the reverse is true, it has an
ecological credit or reverse. Use Data below to calcite the ecological
deficit or credit for various countries.
II. Material
The materials used were laptop and internet connection
III. Objective
At the end of the activity the students were expected to know the
ecological footprints and interpret the given data
IV. Procedure
Analyze the data and give the answers to the questions

V. Results
Place Per Capita Per Capita Bio Ecological Credit

Ecological capacity (hectares (+) or Debit (-)
Footprint (hectares per person) (hectares per
per person) person)
World 2.2 1.8 -0.4
United 9.8 4.7 -5.4

States
China 1.6 0.8 6.9
India 0.8 0.4 -4.0
Russia 4.4 0.9 -2.8
Japan 4.4 0.7 -3.5

Brazil 2.1 9.9 -3.7
Germany 4.5 1.7 -0.9
United 5.6 1.6 7.8

Kingdom
Mexico 2.6 1.7 -0.8
Canada 7.6 14.5 -0.4
1. Which two countries have largest ecological deficit?
 United States and United Kingdom, they both have high hectare
ecological deficit and by interpreting we can that they are over using
their materials since it is over consumption.
2. Which two countries have ecological credits?
 Brazil and Canada for the reason that have lesser population that is
not proportional to the available resources, which means less people
many resources.
3. Rank the countries in order from largest to smallest per capita footprint.
 United States
 Canada
 United Kingdom
 Germany
 Russia
 Japan
 Mexico
 Brazil
 China
 India
VI. Conclusion
The rapid increase of population affects the resources needed and the
raw materials to be produced by the ecosystem. Those that have largest
ecological deficit is not good to the ecosystem for it is putting pressure to the
future that might not come if all countries in the world will have large deficit.
We humans need to be aware of this ecological footprints for us to asses our
doings and lessen what we are over consuming for a beautiful tomorrow to
continue.

MODULE 5
Pre-Assessment
1. What is pollution, and what we can do about it?
 Pollution is harming the ecosystem; it is putting things out of order. This

is introducing poisonous chemicals to the environment. We humans are
accountable to this; by changing our behavior we cab eradicate pollution.
We need to be responsible to our actions and we need to think the
outcome first before doing such, for example throwing garbage to the
ocean means reducing your problems at home about the wastes but aside
from it a huge catastrophe is ahead of you because of that. By this we are
not putting ourselves at risk but the whole ecosystem. It can poison the
fish in the oceans and by chance we come to eat the fish we will also be
poison, your simple act can means so much to whole world. Be
responsible and act as a human accordingly.
2. Why do we have environmental problems?
 Environmental problems have two types the natural and man-made, those
natural environmental problems are inevitable for some reason they are
released to have a balanced ecosystem for example is the opening of dams
after heavy rains these are done in order not to splash out water that
cannot carry out already by the tank. Volcanic eruption, earthquakes, and
etc. are under this category. On the other hand the man-made
environmental problems are due to the abusive human on Earth that
thinks that there is no end of everything. Throwing garbage everywhere,
spoilage of gases and oils to the oceans, illegal loggings, deforestation,
mining, and a lot to mention. All those are caused by human evilness
thinking only of themselves and not the future of everyone. Image if we
all thrown a single garbage then the world will eventually be wrapped by
plastics.
3. What are the four scientific principles of sustainability?
 The four pillars of scientific principles of sustainability are human, social,

economic, and environmental
Human sustainability objects to preserve and improve the human

capital of the society. People are the drivers of this environment we
need to know the right path in order to keep the good tract of life. The
canopy of human sustainability revolves around investment in health
and education, nutrition, knowledge and skills that helps each one to
function accordingly in line with the principles of the world. This
focuses on the involvement and importance of human in the process of
making goods and services, this as well promotes wellbeing of society.
Social sustainability aims reservation to social capital by investing
and generating services that establish the society. This means that
whatever we are doing today will impact to what tomorrow may bring,
and this cares for the upcoming future. This focuses on the maintaining
and improving social quality of life in accordance to importance of
relationship of each one. Equality of each member is prioritizing here
as well as it protects human rights no matter the statuses. Economic
sustainability is stating and assign in maintaining the capital intact,
this promotes a good standard of living. In terms of businesses this
asset is concerned on the maintenance and continuous profitability of
each company. Environmental sustainability the last pillar is tackling
about the natural resources care such as air, land, water mineral and
etc. The society’s needs are aimed to be met without risking the natural
environment. There must be an equal of everything, balance and
contentment.
APPLICATION 1
1. Define pollution.
 Pollution is the introduction of harm and poisons to the environment that

causes contrary change. There are many forms of pollutants such as
chemicals, plastics, volcanic ashes and others. Pollutants can damage the
environment such as the quality of water, air land and even the greenness
of the world. An example of pollution is trashes thrown in the water
bodies and toxic wastes dumped, this can pollute the water system.
2. Distinguish between point sources and nonpoint sources of pollution
 Point sources literally from its name there is a specific point where the
pollutants coming from. This is single and identifiable source such as
water, air and light pollution. Contrary the non-point source pollution are
more harder to identify for there is no specific trace of where the
pollution came from, there are many places that had occurred at once.
Run-offs from agricultural lands are example of this where it can wash
out chemicals to the bodies of water in miles away.
3. Distinguish between biodegradable pollutants and non-degradable pollutants

and give an example of each.
 Biodegradable pollutants are those that are driven by natural biological

agents. These are the waste that emerges from household which is
decomposed by microorganisms. Examples for this are urine, cattle
dung, human waste, paper, cloth and many more alike. On the other
hand is the non-biodegradable pollutant these are the wastes that
cannot be decomposed easily within the short time and took several
period to be worn out. Plastics, foil, insecticides, pesticides, lead,
arsenic and etc. are the examples of this type.
4. Distinguish between pollution cleanup and pollution prevention and give an

example of each.
 Pollution clean-up have something to do with the environmental media
such as soil, sediments, surface & underground water that are remove
as contaminants. On the other hand is the pollution prevention are the
practices of not making wastes such as using less toxic cleaning agents
that can harm the environment.
5. Describe three problems with solutions that rely mostly on pollution cleanup.
 First is that there are some cases of the removal of pollutants causes
harm from the other agent, by the proposed solution is that we need to
be aware of the existence of the other materials around it, which would
have though the more you want to clean it the more damage it may
cause. Second, removal of pollutants causes a wind pollution that
became worse the contaminants dispersed to other places through air,
we need to consider outside factors before doing anything. Lastly, the
temporary action done is not advisable especially the ever growing
population.
APPLICATION 2
1. Identify five basic causes of the environmental problems that we face today.
What is poverty? In what ways do poverty and affluence affect the
environment? Explain the problems we face by not including the harmful
environmental costs in the prices of goods and services.
 Population growth, unsustainable environment, poverty, excluding

environmental cost at market price, trying to manage nature without
knowing about it, are the five causes of environmental problems that
we are currently facing. Poverty is the situations where people cannot
meet their basic needs for sufficient food, water, shelter, health, and
education. Poverty greatly affect the environment foremost is the
exponential growth due to less knowledge of its effects, the rapid
increase can cause conversion of agricultural lands into industrial and
commercials. The average consumption of ecological footprint
increases multiple times that harm the environment and the coming
future. Not including the harmful environmental costs in the prices of
goods and services may result to unsustainable environment and
extinction of species. For example fishing, paying of the fish to the
fishers is required without minding depletion of the fish stock. As a
result, the costs of detrimental environmental effects are not included
in the prices of goods and services. As a result, most consumers are
unaware of them and lack an efficient way to assess the adverse effects
on the earth's life-support systems and their own health.
2. What is an environmental worldview? What is environmental ethics?

Distinguish among the planetary management, stewardship, and
environmental wisdom worldviews. Describe Aldo Leopold’s environmental
ethics. What major steps are involved in making an environmental decision?
What is social capital?
 A set of assumptions and ideals that reflect how you think the world
works and what you think your position in the world should be are
known as an environmental worldview. Environmental ethics refers to
our opinions about what is ethical and wrong when it comes to how we
handle the environment. These are the “it should be like this”, when
you believe that you think is right in handling the environment. We are
a part of and entirely dependant on nature, according to the
environmental knowledge worldview, and nature exists for all animals,
not just humans. It also promotes environmentally friendly economic
growth and development while opposing those that harm the
environment. Human prosperity, according to this viewpoint, is
dependant on our understanding of how life on Earth sustains itself, as
well as our ability to apply that knowledge to how we think and act.
Aldo Leopold's publications provide many of the themes that drive the
stewardship and environmental knowledge worldviews.
The major steps to take includes: (1) identify an environmental

problem, (2) gather scientific information, (3) propose one or more solutions,
(4) project the short-and long term environmental and economic advantages
and disadvantages of each solution, (5) decide on and implement a solution,
(6) evaluate the consequences, and (7) revise decision as needed. Social
capital refers to a collection of shared values that enable people to work
together in a group to achieve a common goal. Social capital in the workplace
can help a firm succeed by fostering a feeling of shared ideals and mutual
respect.
APPLICATION 3
1. For each of the following actions, state one or more of the four scientific
principles of sustainability that are involved: (a) recycling soda cans; (b)
using a rake instead of leaf blower; (c) choosing to have no more than one
child; (d) walking to class instead of driving; (e) taking your own reusable
bags to the grocery store to carry things home in; (F) Volunteering to help
restore a prairie.

A. Nutrient Recycling & Reliance on Solar Energy
B. Reliance on Solar Energy & Nutrient cycling
C. Population Control, Reliance on Solar Energy & Biodiversity
D. Nutrient Recycling, Biodiversity & Reliance on Solar Energy
E. Biodiversity & Nutrient Recycling
F. Population control, Reliance on Solar Energy & Biodiversity
2. What are the basic beliefs of your environmental worldview? Record your
answer. Then at the end of this course, return to your answer to see if
you’re environmental worldview has changed. Are the beliefs included in
your environmental worldview consistent? Are your environmental actions
consistent with your environmental worldview?
 Nature should not be harmed, and the environment should not be
poisoned. Nature, like us, has its own set of boundaries, which should
be respected and cared for because they also offer us with tools to meet
our everyday needs. In my environmental philosophy, hope, incentives,
and permission for nature to thrive while undeniably correcting the
pollution and wastes that risk human survival are among the ideals. It
should not be difficult to administer and save the earth with this kind
of environmental philosophy and having people understand the value
and nature of the environment.
3. List two questions that you would like to have answered as a result of
reading this module
 How can we become a good pillar of environment if our proposed
solution still can harm other factors of the ecosystem?
 What are the suggestions for human to maintain sustainable
environment while there is an inevitable exponential growth?
PRE – ASSESSMENT MODULE 5
1. What are four scientific principles of sustainability? Explain how e

exponential growth affects them.
 Reliance on Solar Energy - The sun (solar capital) heats the earth
and enables photosynthesis, which plants, as well as humans and most
other animals, use to sustain themselves.
 Biodiversity (short for biological diversity): Over the course of the
planet's history, the great diversity of species, their genes, the
ecosystems in which they live, and the natural services they provide
has resulted in infinite ways for life to adapt to changing
environmental conditions.
 Population Control - Due to competition for limited resources,
different species' potential to expand their numbers is limited.
 Nutrient Cycling - Natural processes recycle the chemicals that
plants and animals need to stay alive and reproduce. Natural systems
generate very little, if any, waste.
- Exponential growth affects sustainability; finite world, exponential
expansion exacerbates many environmental issues such as climate change,
biodiversity loss, and deforestation. The exponential growth of the human
population is an excellent example of how exponential expansion can have a
negative impact on our environment. Consider how long it takes to double the
human population.
2. Explain why you agree or disagree with each of the following

statements:
a) Humans are superior to other forms of life.
 Humans and other living things share the same space. Humans,
on the other hand, are superior to other kinds of life because they
can make decisions, control, shape, and change their
environment. Agree, due to the power of thinking humans
become superior to other forms of life.
b) Humans are in charge of the earth

 Agree, humans are the primary consumer of the fruit of the earth
and so we are as well the foremost in charge of the Earth. We
need to think of our future before doing things in selfish manners.
We need to know how to take care of the environment to have a
future to come. Taking care of the environment means taking
care of yourself. The more you harm the ecosystem, the worse
your situation is.
c) all economic growth is good,

 Economic growth will suffer if firms do not include full-cost
pricing to alert consumers about the health and environmental
dangers associated with their products. Too much reliance on the
market at the expense of tree destruction and resource extraction
is not a sustainable economic strategy. Therefore I disagree.
d) the value of other forms of life depends only on whether they are
useful to us
 Disagree, we are all just occupants of the world no matter how
useful or useless at a sense you are, we are all valuable. Just think
that maybe they are designed to be décor, just like those
poisonous flowers even if they can’t be eaten they are used as
décor, imagine if the world is just pure green it will be dull.
e) because all forms of life eventually become extinct we should not

worry about whether our activities cause their premature extinction,
 Disagree, we can prevent extinction if we take care of each
species in same way. Our activities should be favorable to the
existence of each one and we need to be responsible of our
action. With the statement in letter somehow the point is we are
allowed to kill, that is a very awful mindset for we all know we
are just occupants of the world and we don’t own it, we need to
be a good boarder.
f) all forms of life have an inherent right to exist

 Agree, all forms of life have right to exist. Rather than regarding
nature as property, rights of nature recognizes that all living
things have the right to exist, continue, maintain, and regenerate
their vital cycles. The right to exist is not questionable and asked
for because it is gift from above to exist. No matter how good or
evil or how useful or useless you are, the right to exist is still
same as other. We need to bare in minds that a world is not that
perfect with such humans as we are and so we need to make it as
better place as we deserve.
g) nature has an almost unlimited storehouse of resources for human use,

 Disagree, everything has limitation if abused. Due to the
exponential growth the world don’t have enough resources for
everyone, the reason of arising number of technologies to sustain
what we need. Everything must be in moderation.
h) technology can solve our environmental problems,

 Agree, Technology-efficient energy solutions include fuel cells,
lithium-air batteries, hydrogen energy storage, and thermal
energy collectors. Smart grids assist in the distribution of
generated electricity across the network, ensuring that everyone
has access to it. Instead, new technology has led to more
sustainable practices, better natural resource stewardship, and the
adoption of solar and renewable energy sources. And it's been
demonstrated that they have a significantly positive
environmental impact.
i) I do not believe I have any obligation to future generations, and

 Disagree, what we do today will affect tomorrow, by this we are
responsible of the future generations. If we will not take
accountability on our actions there will be no future to come. It’s
not an obligation but a responsible to take.
j) I do not believe I have any obligation to other forms of life.

 Disagree, we are just dependent on the other forms of life such as
animals and plants. If there is no existence of them what should
we eat, even there are commercial goods, naturals products are
still used to process them especially in the case of making
medicines.
DATA ANALYSIS
I. Introduction
Marine scientists from the U.S. state of Maryland have produced the following
two graphs as part of a report on the current health of the Chesapeake Bay. They are
pleased with the recovery of the striped bass population but are concerned about the
decline of the blue crab population, because blue crabs are consumed by mature
striped bass. Their hypothesis is that as the population of striped bass increases, the
population of blue crab decreases.
II. Objective
The aim of this activity is to identify and compare the striped bass population
as it has risen while the blue crab population has dramatically decreased.
III. Materials
The materials used in this activity were the graph of data given in the material used to
analyze and answer the tasked followed.
IV. Procedure
See how the populations of striped bass and blue crabs have been affecting
each other in the graph below. By using the graph and adapting the dates, the results
can be observed both inside the year and between years
V. Result
1. Which years confirm their hypothesis?

 The notion that the species of striped bass is increasing was
proven in 2005, although there is concern that the blue crab
population is progressively declining during that year.
2. Which years do not support their hypothesis?

 Between the year 1990 and 2000.
3. If the crab population reaches 100% of the goal figure,

what would you predict the striped bass.
 The lined bass population will initiate to grow between 1990 and
1995, when the blue crab population is at its peak; the population
of striped bass will continue to grow during that year, and it will
collapse when the blue crab population lowers in 2005, according
to the graph. As a result, even if the blue crab population reaches
100%, it will have little effect on the striped bass population
because the blue crab population will continue to decline as the
number of mature striped bass increases. As a result, increasing
the blue crab population would only result in a larger striped bass
population.
VI. Conclusion
 There are many factors affecting the growth of the population in
a certain area. It has worse impact to the condition of the
ecosystem and the best way we for us to have sustainable
environment is to balance everything and have accountability of
the things we are to do that might harm or poison the ecosystem
we live in. Momentarily only Earth support life and if this will no
longer holds life, poor us we don’t have any other planet exist
with.

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Republic of the Philippines

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

Name: Ariane Mae D. Caberio Course: General Ecology

Prorgam/Yr/Section: BSBIO AB – 21 Instructor: Mr. Bryan Joseph Matillano

Population and Community Ecology

3. On the origin of life on earth, several explanations/ theories were circulating

Humans after a thousand of years evolves base on the need for

4. The formation and development of terrestrial ecosystems took hundreds or

There is already a threat in drinking water anywhere. The need for

1. What is an ecosystem? Why is it considered a system? Name the

 An ecosystem is a community of plants and animals in an area interacting

 The components of an ecosystem are producers, consumers, and

 The interaction in these components is represented by a food chain, wherein

4. What is hierarchy in ecology? How do lower hierarchical levels behave

 Hierarchy in ecology states the arrangement of biological organisms

5. What is meant by an emergent property of an ecosystem? Give example of

 "The whole is greater than sum of its parts". Emergent property of an

7. What is a biogeochemical cycle?

 If one component in a cycle is removed the whole biogeochemical cycles

9. Define these properties of an ecosystem?

 In the concept of ecosystem productivity means the rate or percentage of an

 The capacity of an ecosystem to remain in a steady state even with outside

 Diversity is talking about the variations in an ecosystem and each of their

 Sustainable ecosystem is the capability of an area to support itself without

 In an ecosystem equitability is tackling about the equal and fair numbers of

People across the world unknowingly consume roughly 5 grams of plastic

 Group of interacting similar species that inhabit an area is called the

 In a population the number of individuals occupying a specific area is the

3. What is meant by k-strategist population? And r-strategies?

4. How do you classify human population in terms of these two types?

 Human belongs to k- strategist population for they produce an expensive

 Population size (N) refers to the number of individuals in an area. Upon

6. How a population growth is illustrated?

 Population growth is illustrated by the models of population growth. J-shape

 The types of population growth are exponential growth (J-curve) an

8. What is the population doubling time? What is the Philippine’s population

 Doubling time is stated as the amount of time it given for a quantity to

o 109,581,078 x 51.85 = 5,681,778,894.30

 Therefore the Philippines population doubling time is 5,681,778,894.30

9. Describe the concept of carrying capacity, what happens to a population if its

 The concept of carrying capacity tells species average population in a

10. What is a limiting factor?

 Community is simply the summing-up many population. These are two or

 Species richness is simply defined as the number of different species in a

 There are a lot of interactions in a community and these keeps the

15. What is ecological succession? Differentiate the type of succession?

Name: Ariane Mae D. Caberio Course: General Ecology

SPECIES RICHNESS AND DIVERSITY

Community is composed of interacting individuals inhibiting in a

Population size estimation and measuring richness and diversity are

The aim of this activity is to able to determine the richness and

The steps below were the steps in accomplishing the activity.

2. To see the data, please access the next page.

4. Based on the computed values, which community has highest and

Species Species Proportion Negative Product P

Brachinus leytensis 96 0.057 -2.865 0.163

Trigonotoma goelten bothi 0 0 0 0

Pheropsophus uliweberi 65 0.038 -1.420 0.053

Pheropsophus hassenteufeli 268 0.159 -0.774 0.127

Pheropsophus nigerrimus 1 5.938 0.774 4.596

Pheropsophus azouleyi 188 0.111 -0.955 0.106

Pheropsophus fumigatus 1 0.111 -0.955 0.106

Pheropsophus lumawigi 133 0.078 -1.108 0.086