__Freedom Notes — ---

➔ The concept of freedom has been understood in different ways through the course
of time.
➔ There are notions of it in a non-philosophical manner, political perspective, and
philosophical view, and there are also misconceptions of it. Whatever definition is
given to it, man’s every action is always influenced or dictated by whatever
concept is perceived or held in one’s consciousness. However, for the sake of this
discussion, certain definitions will be provided and they are as follow:
◆ Freedom is doing what one ought to do. (always directed towards the good)
◆ Freedom means being responsible.
◆ Freedom means having the capacity to choose any course of action.
◆ Freedom means having the right to do anything as long as such action is in
accordance with the law.

Different Perceptions on
Human Freedom
❖ Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s point of view
➢ He was an American philosopher, author, and psychologist.
➢ He strongly contended that the human person is absolutely determined.
With this idea he argued that there is no such thing as human freedom (an
illusion) since man’s being and actions are determined or dictated by the
past events which include aspects like psychological, environmental, and
educational factors. Man’s behavior is a product of conditioning.
 ❖ · Jean-Paul Sartre’s point of view
➢ He was a French philosopher, writer, and political activist who promoted
the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology.
➢ Man is absolutely free since man is condemned to be free and that whatever
man does is a result of one’s freedom to choose. Moreover, he contended
that the human person is responsible for making his future self.

❖ Abraham Maslow’s point of view

➢ He was an American psychologist who tried to reconcile the two opposing
ideas mentioned above.
➢ Man is indeed free since man has the capacity to design his own self, to
know, to act, and to question. However, he added that man’s historicity
also plays a great role in man’s being and decision making.

Determinism
– This is a philosophical view which holds the idea that every event in reality or

everything in the world is caused or determined by the events that happened in the past
or caused by the conditions of the laws of nature. Hence, the concept of freedom is not
real and that the human person does not have the capacity to choose. Moreover,
determinists believe that the events in the future are predictable or
predetermined/destined. In this kind of thinking, man’s accountability for his action is
denied or rejected.

- Fate
Existentialism – This is a philosophy that holds on to the idea that the
human person is free and capable of defining or making meaning in his existence. Such
philosophy strongly contends that “existence precedes essence.” The human person who is
free is responsible for his own life and actions committed.

- Essence

Freewill and Consequences - Some of the

existentialists who believe in human freedom, somewhat do not agree with the idea of
absolute freedom. They argue that since man is free to make choices and is conscious of
making such choices he must be responsible or accountable for his actions. The human
person must realize that in whatever action he commits there are always consequences
that he must face. Such accountability does not only concern the individual person but
also the human society.

Types of Societies
Hunter-gatherer Societies (Nomadic Societies)
➔ This particular type of society is categorized as an animal-hunting,
fishing, and food-gathering society.
➔ The people in this society are greatly dependent on what nature
provides for their survival.
➔ They are also known as nomadic societies because of their
characteristic of transferring from one place to another at times
when there is already a scarcity or no availability of resources.
➔ There are no distinguished leaders yet and the decision-making for
the community is done by everyone in the group.
Pastoral Societies
➔ The people in this type of society already know how to domesticate and
herd animals and have progressed from just being dependent on hunting for
survival.
➔ Accordingly, such animals are not only meant for food consumption but also
for transportation and clothing.
➔ They are also seemingly nomadic but not really the same with the nomadic
society.
➔ the hierarchical social structure started to exist.

Horticultural Societies
➔ These societies were dependent on the cultivation of plants, fruits, and
vegetables for their food.
➔ Some would call them as vegans though some would say that some of them
do really eat meat.
➔ they also have hierarchical social structure in their community.

Agricultural Societies
➔ The people in this type of society already know how to cultivate crops, like
corn, rice, and wheat.
➔ They already knew how to employ advanced technologies in cultivating the
crops. Due to the increase in food supplies brought about by advanced
production of food, populations started to grow bigger.
➔ the hierarchical social structure in these societies started to be more
complex when social classes emerged.
Industrial Societies
➔ These societies emerged due to the Industrial Revolution, when stuffs like
steam engines were invented. Accordingly, people in this kind of society have
so much reliance on mechanical means for production of their food, not only
for their consumption but also for commerce. Also, large cities started to
emerge and life became more complex.

Postindustrial Societies
➔ These societies are characterized by sophisticated technological
advancements, thus making them technology-based societies.
➔ Information in this kind of society is just a click away.
➔ the people are mostly dependent on service-oriented work in matters that
involve education, industries, commerce, and healthcare.

Virtual Society·
➔ These societies are basically characterized by the birth of the internet
and more sophisticated technological advancements.
➔ People in this kind of society are not bound by any geographical or
territorial boundaries.
➔ There are more advancements in computer technology and
telecommunication system that allow humans to form virtual societies in
the cyberspace.
Theories of Truth
Correspondence Theory – Accordingly, it is the idea which contends that something is true
when it corresponds to what is in reality or to a specific fact. When it relates to what is the real
world then it is held as true.

Coherence Theory – Accordingly, it is the idea which contends that something is true when it
coheres to an established system, rules, or a certain set of beliefs.

Pragmatic Theory – Accordingly, it is the idea which contends that something is true when it is
useful or beneficial for the person. It is mainly grounded on the principle of utility.

Methods of Philosophizing
Socratic Method – Accordingly, this is a form of inquiring or debate wherein individuals ask and
answer questions so as to encourage critical thinking and generate ideas and consequently
come to a certain well-grounded conclusion or realization. It is like cross-examining or doing
logical refutation which is called as elenchus.

Observation – Accordingly, it is a method where a person verifies the truth of something by

observing the factual representations in the observable world.

Reasoning – Accordingly, it refers to the process of establishing truth through one’s reason
which may employ inductive or deductive reasoning.

Dialectic – Accordingly, it is a process of or the art of conversing to arrive to a certain

conclusion through an exchange of contradicting arguments.

Religious experience – Accordingly, it is the process of knowing the truth that cannot be known
by the usual or normal way of knowing for it may involve a certain king of spiritual or
non-physical experience. The person is not only inspired by God but also has received a certain
kind of revelation or messages.

Appeal to Authority – Accordingly, it is a process of verifying the truthfulness of something by

referring to the information or data coming from an expert or a testimony of a true eyewitness.
Types of Fallacies
Argumentum ad hominem – Accordingly, it refers to the argument of attacking a person so as
to disprove his/her argument instead of throwing another logical or reasonable argument to
refute the other person’s argument.

Argumentum ad baculum – This is also called as the fallacy of appeal to force. Accordingly,
here, the person threatens with negative consequences or makes use of a force towards the
other person so as to make that person accept his/her argument or point.

Argumentum ad misericordiam – Also called as appeal to pity, when the person urges the
other person to accept his/her argument by appealing to the other person’s feelings or
sympathy.

Argumentum ad populum – Also called as appeal to popular opinion. Accordingly, in this kind
of fallacy, the person encourages the other person to accept his/her argument because it is
believed by many or most of the people. Since many believe it to be true therefore, it is.

Argumentum ad antiquitatem – Also called as appeal to tradition, when the person claims that
something is true for the reason that it is believed or practiced for a long time already.

Begging the question – In Latin it is petition principia or the act of assuming the initial point of
the statement as the basis of the statement’s truthfulness.

Fallacy of composition – Accordingly, it is the fallacy of inferring that what is true of the part
must be true to the whole.

Fallacy of division – Accordingly, it is the fallacy of inferring that what is true of the whole must
be true to the parts.

Fallacy of equivocation – Accordingly, it is a certain kind of fallacy when the person uses a
certain term with equivocal meaning in an argument or in one’s statement.
Definitions of death

Death
- the permanent discontinuity or cessation of life or bodily
functions.
- the end of man’s journey as a sojourner in this material or
earthly reality.
- a punishment or a payment for one’s sins.
- a door or a gateway to another state of being or life.
- an inevitable reality or event that culminateslife.
- the end of all possibilities which completes the existence of
man.

Conditions of being dead

Cardiopulmonary approach

– Accordingly, it is the idea that claims that a human

person is dead once his/her heart and lungs permanently stop
to function. This assumes that since they stop functioning
so will the other bodily organs.
 Whole-brain approach

– Accordingly, in this kind of approach, the person is

considered dead once his/her whole brain ceases to operate or
function. Thus, the person is dead when he/she is no longer
conscious and capable of breathing.
Higher-brain approach

– Accordingly, unlike the whole-brain approach, this

approach claims that an individual is dead once his/her upper
brain ceases to function. Here, the individuals who are still
breathing yet no longer conscious are considered as dead.

Notions of death

Buddhist View

For the Buddhists, life is temporary and death is seen as a natural process which is not
the end of life but simply the corruption of the body. Death is an event that leads the soul to look
for another body to have a new life; death should not be feared but accepted. Thus, they believe
in the concept of transmigration of the spirit and reincarnation. However, the person may or may
not be reborn to the recent state of life for the result of the accumulation of one’s deeds will be
considered. And so, the concept of karma comes in. Accordingly, the way a person lived his/her
life determines the state of life that he/she will be reborn. Moreover, for them, a person may be
reborn in one of the six realms where nobody stays permanently.
 Six Realms:
· Heaven – Accordingly, it is the world of everlasting happiness and peace.
· Humans – It refers to the world where human beings exist.
· Asura – Accordingly, this world is the spiritual realm constituted by strife and
never-ending fight due to competition and jealousy.
· Hungry spirits – Accordingly, this is another spiritual realm that is characterized
by discontent and dissatisfaction. A realm where those who craved and desired
excessively in the past exist.
· Animals – It is the world that is inferior to human beings for the reason that
humans do hunt them. Accordingly, the ones who are reborn in this realm are those
who did a lot of evil acts and abused or slaughtered animals.
· Hell – Accordingly, it is the world of eternal suffering and pain. Needless to say,
the ones reborn here are those who committed the most grievous sins in the past
life.

Hindu View

For the Hindus, death is also a part of the natural process in the existence of the soul as
another separate entity. Accordingly, they believe that death is a journey which begins when life
has already taught the soul the lessons it needs to learn and karma has reached a level of
intensity. Death is for them a transition period for a soul to regain its strength, return to life, and
continue its journey. Moreover, they also believe in the concept of reincarnation and rebirth.
Thus, they claim that the soul is indeed immortal and imperishable.

Reincarnation is, for them, something that occurs to free the soul from all its mistakes,
desires, inconsistencies, and sins until the end of such cycle leads man to be eternally one with
the Creator. The union with God is achieved through devotion and discipline. And so they are
obliged to lead a virtuous life and refrain from committing the highest immoral act which is the
act of suicide or else the person’s soul stays in hell for a long period of time. Moreover, it should
be noted that even if they believe the concept of heaven they do not see it as a solution to the
problem of death but the liberation of one’s soul from the hindrances caused by the material
world.

Christian View

Christians believe in the concept of afterlife and the reality of heaven and hell as they
hold on to the idea that when a person dies, his/her soul goes either to heaven or to hell
depending on the judgment given to him/her. Thus, they are encouraged to live a meaningful life
by following or living out the teaching of Jesus Christ and of the Bible so as to inherit eternal life
and be in God’s heavenly kingdom.

For them, death is also called or closely related to the Judgment Day. For some of them, they
consider it as a payment for man’s sins, the end of earthly suffering, attainment of eternal rest
and peace, and also a gateway to the heavenly dwelling. Some theologians would also say that
death is a cessation or loss of control and the reign of darkness of perfect loneliness. Also, for
them it is only Jesus, who became man, died on the cross, and resurrected, that can give them
eternal life or salvation. Christ, who conquered death through his resurrection after sacrificing
his life out of love, saves the humankind. It is by the grace of God and human effort (good
deeds) that they come into unity with Him.

Common to all of these views is the optimism that there is indeed an afterlife and that death
should not be feared. Death is not a problem but a reality that everyone will go through. The
reality of death is something that urges man to live a life of virtue thereby making him worthy of
attaining eternal peace, happiness, and rest in God’s heavenly kingdom. In the loss of life, a
new one is given. It is only in the correct understanding of death that one can truly understand
life.

The Meaningful and Authentic Life

It has been realized after the discussions that death is indeed part of man’s life and it is really an
impending reality that nobody knows when and how it will occur. Because of this realization
everyone came into a deeper understanding that the quality of life that a person lives at the
moment is indeed very important. It is important for not only will it determine the kind of life that
a person may have in the next life, if there is such, but also it will help man find meaning in his
existence and experience a certain degree of fulfillment, happiness, and contentment.

Now, what could be the qualities or what constitutes a meaningful and authentic life? Here are
some of the ideas of many philosophers or thinkers that may answer such a question.
 - Some philosophers or thinkers would contend that a meaningful and authentic life
is the acquisition of wealth and earthly treasures.
- For some, it is living a peaceful and abundant life.
- For others, it is to live while doing what one wants to do in his/her life.
- While for many people, it is when one comes to an understanding of his/her
purpose in life and work towards the realization of that purpose.
- For others, it is to live a life of virtues patterned on someone else’s life like that of
Jesus, and others.
- Also, for some, it is to realize one’s dreams, hone one’s skills and talents, and live
one’s passion.
- Lastly, for others, it is to live a life lived for others (service to others) and
ultimately dedicating one’s life to God.

These are just but some of the definitions of a meaningful and authentic life. It is a life lived
without the fear of death but with the fear of not living a life worth living.