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On the Track of Road Evolution

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DOI: 10.1177/0974930614543047

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Article

On the Track of Road Evolution Journal of Infrastructure Development

6(1) 1–15
© 2014 India Development Foundation
SAGE Publications
Los Angeles, London,
New Delhi, Singapore,
Anastasios Mouratidis Washington DC
DOI: 10.1177/0974930614543047
Professor of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki http://joi.sagepub.com
(AUTH), Department of Civil Engineering
Highway Laboratory, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
amouratidis@civil.auth.gr

Fotini Kehagia
Assistant Professor of Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki (AUTH), Department of Civil Engineering
Highway Laboratory, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
fkehagia@civil.auth.gr

Abstract
Man’s tendency to move began millennia ago, satisfying a basic need for food, shelter, clothing or
social interaction. The uncertain path of road construction through the centuries is set forth by the
primitive and everlasting need for mobility, trade and communication. In the era of engineering, and
mostly technological boost, highways of the fourth generation ensure safe, fast and easy driving. It
is difficult to discern deficiencies or drawbacks in the layout of a motorway of the fourth genera-
tion. However, weak points still exist. Vehicles moving on motorways consume energy and produce
negative impact to the environment either by emissions or by noise. Despite the performance of
the motorway, passengers still get trapped on routes by adverse climatic conditions and, even more,
by pile-up accidents. The overall challenge for the fifth generation is to provide convincing ideas
to handle effectively all these issues. In this article, the history of road from earliest times to the
present, from the first to the fifth generation, is presented. The different factors that have influenced
the design, development, construction and operation are examined. Moreover, new challenges to be
faced and addressed by the roads of fifth generation are presented.

JEL classification: R40

Keywords: Road design, highway, history, pavement, development, innovation

1. Road Transport and Societal Needs

Mobility of people and goods has been a primitive and everlasting need through the centuries. Mankind
has been compelled to move from one place to another in a continuous and persistent struggle to survive.
Either for hunting and exploring new land or for chasing enemies and shifting shelter, mankind has been

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2 Anastasios Mouratidis and Fotini Kehagia

driven to draw and construct safe and secure trackways, developing gradually, through the years, to stone
roads and later on, to modern highways.
Looking back to the history of roads, it is clear and discernible that technological development, but
also every extension of the pre-existing network, took place under stable social conditions, especially
during flourishing states: Persian reign, Roman Empire, Byzantine Empire. In Europe, the extended
network of Roman roads was practically abandoned during the Middle Ages without any systematic
maintenance or upgrading recorded. In fact, since the fall of the Roman Empire, in the fifth century, till
the end of the eighteen century, there was no progress in road technology and only a limited extension of
pre-existing networks in Europe. Following the Renaissance, and mainly during the age of Enlightenment,
commerce and mobility of people strived to regain a place in the list of human activities. Indeed, gradual
technological improvements in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw increased commercial traf-
fic and improved vehicles. These factors created an incessant demand for better roads, a real challenge
to road engineers and scientists of the period.
A positive appraisal of the overall transport system, that is, roads and navigable ways, was for-
mulated by the Scottish political economist Adam Smith, ‘Good roads, canals and navigable rivers,
by diminishing the expense of carriage, put the remote parts of the country more nearly upon a level
with those in the neighborhood of a town. They are upon that account the greatest of all improve-
ments’ (Britannica Encyclopedia 2012). In fact, the origin of the modern road lies back in the end
of eighteenth century. The concept of graded materials to construct pavement courses of Tresaguet,
Telford and MacAdam, linked to the concerns about drainage and the soil-bearing capacity, marks
a net technological advance in road making and a legacy to the asphalt pavement of the nineteenth
century.
In the new era of Industrial Revolution and technological expansion, roads developed rapidly.
Transport of goods, raw materials and industrial products appeared as a main human and social activity
with significant impact on the welfare of people. Road transport reserved a prominent place among all
transport means during the twentieth century, which, despite all adverse statistics and recommendations,
it still occupies to date. In this article, the history of roads from earliest times to the present, from the first
to the fifth generation, is presented. The different factors that have influenced the design, development,
construction and operation are examined. Moreover, new challenges to be faced and addressed by the
roads of fifth generation are examined and presented.

2. Ancient Pathway, the Need of Mobility

The ancient pathway (road of first generation) has been seemingly the mobility means of mankind for
centuries. Until the Middle Bronze Era and the use of metal tools to process stone, the pathway only
served as a travelable route. It is questionable whether these primitive roads had initially been the pas-
sage of wild animals or were, from the very beginning, drawn and shaped by men. However, for many
centuries, due to the nature of the travelled surface and the width of the path, mobility was limited and
reserved to travellers, soldiers and horsemen under major risk and unforeseeable adverse conditions.
Continual traffic by people and beasts of burden gradually eliminated bumps and holes to produce, along
these pathways, a primitive earth pavement. Wheeled vehicles appeared after 2000 BC, and thus the
demand for better roads rose and increased.

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On the Track of Road Evolution 3

Cross section

stone in plaster basalf flags stone drains

Surface

Figure 1. Cross-section and Surface View of Ancient Cretan Stone Road

Source: Britannica Encyclopedia.

3. Stone Road, the Need of Accessibility

The stone road, the road of the second generation, ruled for almost 4,000 years. At about 1000 BC, the
Minoans on the island of Crete, in Greece, built a 50 km road from Gortyna on the south coast, over the
mountains at an elevation of about 4,300 feet (1,300 m), to Knossos on the north coast. Constructed of
layers of stone, the roadway took account of the necessity of drainage by a crown throughout its length
and even gutters along certain sections (Figure 1). The pavement, which was about 12 feet wide, con-
sisted of sandstone bound by a clay–gypsum mortar. The surface of the central portion consisted of two
rows of basalt slabs, 2 inches thick. The centre of the roadway seems to have been used for foot traffic
and the edges for animal and carts. It is the oldest existing paved road (Britannica Encyclopedia 2012;
Wikipedia).
The Persian Royal Road was an ancient highway in the Middle East linking the royal city of Susa in
Mesopotamia to Sardes in Asia Minor. The road was originally drawn by the Assyrians and operated for
centuries as a broad, earth trackway. It was in the fifth century BC that King Darius rebuilt it and con-
structed a high-performing stone road. The distance of 2,700 km could be travelled by mounted couriers
in seven days. ‘Neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor darkness of night would prevent those couriers from
completing their designated stages with utmost speed’ (Ancient History Encyclopedia).
A special stone-made road during the classical period was the ancient Diolkos of Corinth, in Greece.
The ancient Diolkos was a 6 km stone trackway which enabled the overland transfer of cargos and boats
across the Isthmus of Corinth, thus dispensing the long and dangerous navigation round the peninsula
of Peloponnese. It is believed that the Diolkos had been built as early as eighth century BC and

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4 Anastasios Mouratidis and Fotini Kehagia

reconstructed by Periander, tyrant of Corinth, in the sixth century BC. Bearing a varying width from 4
m to 6 m, the paved trackway had two deep parallel grooves, 1.6 m apart, to facilitate movement of
transporting wheeled carts. This pioneer form of a guided movement along a paved road is considered
to be the forerunner of the railway.
Romans have been the great road builders of the antiquity. Under the Roman Empire, a dense and
extended network of roads was paved, covering, practically, the entire area of the conquered land. They
provided efficient means for the overland movement of armies, officials and civilians, and the inland
carriage of official communications and trade goods. Romans introduced, in the art of road making,
several innovative principles that remained valid and valuable until modern times. The first principle
defined the general layout, the road itinerary. Striving to prevent their routes from flooding, they drew
trackways uphill. At the same time, they were concerned about snow and ice, so they did not go up too
high and chose an intermediate itinerary.
The pavement structure was also a technical achievement. The pavement consisted of three distinct
layers: the first (lower) layer stood for the foundation of the whole structure (Figure 2). The second layer
from sand and gravel constituted a resistant levelling course to bear the slab stones of the upper layer
(summum dorsum). These hexagonal stones of the upper layer pinned in a stable, slightly deformable
material were very resistant and hardly breakable. In rare cases of pavement distress, repair by replace-
ment of several stones seemed a rather easy task. Special care was also paid to the shape of the pavement
surface. The crowned form facilitated surface drainage, while the raised edge stones prevented deviation
of moving carriages.
In northern Greece, Via Egnatia was the most significant road constructed by the Romans. Built up by
Gaius Egnatius on a formerly existing trackway, Via Egnatia constituted the most important link from the
Adriatic Sea to the Bosphorus, traversing Illyria, Macedonia and Thrace (Figure 3). Along the 860 km of
stone-paved road, Via Egnatia was fully equipped by milestones, landmarks, post stations and road-
houses to offer shelter to soldiers and travellers. It remained an overland link of major importance during
the early Byzantine times and fell in decline after the sixth century.

parallel summum dorsum nucleus

drainage (large stone slabs) (cemented sand
ditch and gravel)

rudus
(gravel in
cement mortar)
compacted sand
or dry earth statumen
leveled ground (crushed rock)

Figure 2. Cross-section of Ancient Roman Road

Source: Britannica Encyclopedia.

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On the Track of Road Evolution 5

Figure 3. Via Egnatia

Source: http://www.tauresium.info/english/news.html.

4. Road in the Age of the Automobile, the ‘Smooth’ Road

The development of the art of road building has been extremely slow through the years. In fact, from
the Greek and Roman stone road to the traditional asphalt road of the nineteenth century, little
progress has been recorded. Reasons must be looked for in the societal structure and its evolution.
For quite a long period of history, people were mostly organised in city-states, fairly self-sufficient,
exhibiting limited need for trade and mobility. A road in good shape would invite prospective ene-
mies to conquer and ravage the city. During the Middle Ages, the organisation of the population in
small states (feudalism), as well as aggressiveness and threat to life inflicted by diseases, calamities
and warfare between states, did not constitute favourable ground to road technological development.
Mobility of individuals was judged, in most cases, unnecessary and potentially harmful, while pre-
existing routes were deserted and left to perish. The very few cases of development of road network
in Western Europe under the reign of Charlemagne, and in Eastern Europe where the Varangian Road
(its main part was water road) served as a transnational route of commerce, do not alter the general
scenery of decline.
It was not until the end of the eighteenth century that the innovative ideas of Tresaguet, Telford and
McAdam changed the layout and the common practice in road building. Crushed stone materials and
grading of aggregates were the main principles introduced by the aforementioned road engineers. Soil
improvement and drainage assets were also included in the new road design at the end of the nineteenth
century. Crushed aggregate of 0/50 (mm), instead of large stones of 50 cm, were applied on the pavement
surface (Figure 4).

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6 Anastasios Mouratidis and Fotini Kehagia

Figure 4. McAdam Road

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macadam

In the beginning of the nineteenth century, several kilometres of roads were constructed in Europe and
America on the basis of these revolutionary principles. Road rideability proved to be satisfactory but the
issues of dust and mud had to be faced and dealt with. In fact, industrialisation, social progress and
exploding trade pushed forward to the era of ‘smooth road’, the road of the third generation.
During the late 1800s, and especially in the beginning of the twentieth century, the asphalt road
appeared and developed rapidly. First applied in urban network, tar and asphalt gained place in road
making, ensuring a clean and trafficable pavement surface. Gradually, the asphalt pavement surface,
starting from France and the United States (US), was made the rule for all new important overland links.
In the US, the famous Route 66, leading from Chicago to California with a length of 3,700 km, bore an
asphalt pavement surface and was completed in 1937 (Alikre). This new generation of road surfacing,
offering incessant trafficability and ride comfort, was the key to the development of new roads during
the later nineteenth and the twentieth centuries. At the same time, inventive road engineers appropriately
adapted technological achievements to produce some outstanding works of art in road making. To date,
and despite the ongoing and persistent pressure for highways and freeways, the traditional two-lane
asphalt roads of the third generation still are the rule. In most countries, the national and the local two-
lane road networks constitute the greater part of the total length of roads, whereas in some countries,
freeways simply do not exist. No matter the transport needs for better and safer roads, the old two-lane
network must not be abandoned, since it will constitute a multipurpose, reliable and safe transport infra-
structure for many years.

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On the Track of Road Evolution 7

5. The Age of Motorway

The industrial development and the need for trade in Europe after World War I led to the exploration of
improved transport infrastructure. The first application of the intrinsic principles of the motorway was
performed in Italy (1921). The ‘autostrada’ linking Milan to Varese, over a length of 42 km, had limited
access and toll payment. Nevertheless, this highway had no additional lanes for safe overtaking. The
overland link between Cologne and Bonn (1932) is considered as the first highway construction project.
An immense increase in traffic volume during the third decade of the twentieth century pushed forward
the financing of the project. The highway of a length of 20 km was completed in four years (1929–32)
and had two lanes per direction and no level crossings. No median lane or separation barrier was initially
installed and this resulted in numerous accidents due to overtaking manoeuvres. This project constituted
a starting point for Germany to construct an extended network of 2x2 highways with separated traffic.
The representative section consisted of two carriageways, each one of a width of 7.5 m and a median lane
of 5 m. By 1942, the network was extended to a total length of 6,500 km (Britannica Encyclopedia 2012;
Wikipedia) (Figure 5).
The first complete motorway was built in the US. It was in 1940 that the ‘Pennsylvania Turnpike’,
of a length of 320 km, was opened to traffic. This was the first full application of the concept of the
motorway: separated traffic; no level crossings; controlled access; two lanes per direction; and a

Figure 5. Alte Koeln–Bonner Autobahn

Source: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundesautobahn_555

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8 Anastasios Mouratidis and Fotini Kehagia

Figure 6. Pennsylvania Turnpike

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_Turnpike

median strip. Smooth grades and sweeping curves completed the configuration of the first motorway
in the history of roads. The Pennsylvania Turnpike was later extended to a length of 500 km linking
Philadelphia to Ohio (Figure 6).
A modern motorway is defined with regard to the fundamental concern for safer, faster and easier
driving. Median lane, removal of grade crossings and controlled access provide safety, while additional
traffic lanes and smooth grades contribute to fast driving. Innovative information devices and service
stations make travel more comfortable and pleasant.
While the great challenge of completion of the ongoing concession projects is always firm and insist-
ent, the issue of effectively operating and managing this network of motorways subsequently arises. As
sources of financing road maintenance become rarer, it is of utmost importance to provide reliable plans
for the welfare of the transport infrastructure, this being a major issue for all industrialised countries. The
stake for the roads of the new generation lies mainly in the domain of operation and maintenance, far
from searching new concepts in highway construction to achieve a clearly higher performance.

6. Sustainability in Road Engineering

During the age of motorway, it has seemed that the road network plays a multifaceted role in the pur-
suit of development and is inextricably linked to economic progress, both in developing and devel-
oped countries. Economic growth and increased personal wealth have contributed to a considerable
surge in demand for mobility in the past decades, especially in rapidly emerging countries. Queiroz

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On the Track of Road Evolution 9

and Gautam (1992) investigated the association between per capita income and the extent and quality
of road infrastructure based on analysis of data from 98 countries and time series analysis of the US
data since 1950. The analysis showed that the per capita stock of road infrastructure in high-income
economies is dramatically greater than in middle and low-income economies. The average density of
paved roads (km/106 inhabitants) varies from 170 in low-income economies to 1,660 in middle-in-
come economies and rises up to 10,110 in high-income economies. Road condition also seems to be
associated with economic development. The average density of paved roads in good condition varies
from 40 km/106 inhabitants in low-income countries to 470 km in middle-income ones and 8,550 km
in high-income economies.
In all Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, private cars domi-
nate the passenger transport mode, although there are notable differences in the modal shares. Since 1990,
growth in private car use has followed the same trend as gross domestic product (GDP), but has increased
at a slightly lower rate. Overall, transport activities have remained coupled to GPD growth. In more than
one-third of OECD countries, road traffic growth rates have exceeded economic growth (OECD 2013).
Road density has progressed at a significantly slower pace than economic activity in most OECD
countries, while the motorway density has rapidly increased, particularly in the last decade. Road
density trends are similar for OECD Americas and OECD Europe, but the motorway density increased
at a much higher rate in Europe, a fact perhaps related to the enlargement of the European Union (EU)
(+17 per cent between 2000 and 2008) (OECD 2013). In Figure 7, the motorway network density of
OECD is presented.

200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

OECD OECD America

OECD Asia-Oceania OECD Europe

Figure 7. Motorway Network Density, OECD (OECD 2013)

Source: OECD 2013.

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10 Anastasios Mouratidis and Fotini Kehagia

Table 1. Comparative Figures of Road Networks in EU-27, the US, Japan, China and Russia

EU-27 US Japan China Russia

Road network (paved) (x1,000 km ) 5,000 4,400 968 3,056 776
Motorway network (x1,000 km) 68.2 94.3 7.6 65.1 30
2
Land area (x1,000 km ) 4,325 9,827 378 9,707 17,075
Residents (x1,000) (2008) 497,686 304,090 128,084 1,324,655 142,742
Source: Authors’ own calculations.

20

15
km motorways per
1,000 km^2 land area
10
km motorways per
10,000 inhabitants
5

0
EU-27 USA Japan China Russia

Figure 8. Spatial Motorway Density and Motorway Density, Comparison between Different Countries (2009)
Source: Authors’ own calculations.

In Table 1, the comparison of data of road and motorway networks, land area and residents of five
countries (or union of countries, namely, EU-27, the US, Japan, China and Russia) is presented, while in
Figure 8, the spatial motorway density and the motorway density of the above countries is examined. The
road network includes all roads in the country: motorways, highways, main or national roads, secondary
or regional roads and other urban and rural roads. Spatial motorway density is a country’s motorway
length per land area and motorway density is per capita length of the motorway network.
The overall demand for transport services in the EU has increased steadily since the mid-1970s. The
rate of traffic growth during the period from the 1970s to today was seriously underestimated by the
transport forecasts of government agencies and private organisations due to overestimating the effects of
higher energy prices. Traffic grew robustly throughout the 1970s and the 1980s. Estimates show an
annual growth of 2.5 per cent for transport of people and 2.6 per cent for goods transport from 1975–84
(exceeding the average GPD growth of 2.2 per cent) (Vougias 1992).
As mentioned earlier, economic development and road mobility are closely correlated, or in other
words, road mobility potential is a key constituent of economic welfare and well-being. According to
European Road Statistics, in Europe (EU-27), passenger road transport is about the 82 per cent of all
transport modes, while freight road transport is about 46 per cent of all transport modal (2010), and 73
per cent of freight transport and 91 per cent of passenger transport by land is by road. The total turnover

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On the Track of Road Evolution 11

of the road sector in the EU is estimated to amount to €2,445 billion/year. This amount is six times higher
than the total amount invested by the EU in the Trans-European Transport Network between 1996 and
2009 (European Road Federation [ERF] 2009).
Global road travel, in particular, increased by 40 per cent between 2000 and 2010—the equivalent of
driving 14 million new cars and trucks. The starkest change between 2000 and 2010 took place in China,
where annual car sales skyrocketed from 500,000 in 2000 to 4 million in 2005, to over 12 million in 2010
(Dulac and Cuenot 2012).
However, the mobility projections, according to International Transport Forum 2012, indicate that
global passenger transport volumes in 2050 could be up to two-and-half times as large as in 2010 and
freight volumes could grow by a factor of four. As global travel continues to increase, supporting infra-
structure also needs to grow. Between 2000 and 2009, total global network length grew by 12 million
lane-km, or 23 per cent of total length, while 11 million lane-km of road additions were paved (Dulac
and Cuenot 2012). Despite significant infrastructure development, there will still be demand for more
infrastructures to keep up with growth in travel demand, or there will be urgent need for policies to man-
age expected traffic activity growth.
Taking into consideration the highway development, a question arises: is a highway project a con-
tributor or detractor in terms of sustainable development? Muench (2010) defines ‘sustainability’ as ‘a
system characteristic that reflects the system’s capacity to support natural laws and human values’,
where ‘natural laws’ refers to the basic principles that must be upheld to maintain earth’s ecosystem and
‘human values’ refers to equity and economy. This definition of sustainability contains the key elements of
ecology, equity and economy and is essentially consistent but more actionable on a project scale than the
often-quoted definition of sustainability by 1987 Brundtland Commission. The International Road
Federation (IRF 2009) has defined the concept of sustainable roads as ‘effectively and efficiently planned,
designed, built, operated, upgraded and preserved roads by means of integrated policies respecting the
environment and still providing the expected socio-economic services in terms of mobility and safety’. The
integrated approach of the three-dimensional concept of sustainability is highlighted, namely: the social
aspect—equity (users’ needs in terms of mobility and safety); the economic aspect—economy (competitive
and cost-effective roads); and the environmental aspect—ecology (sustainable mobility in the long run).
In Table 2, serious problems observed on modern highways are presented, based on data from the
Highway Agency 2003, European Road Transport Research Advisory Council (ERTRAC) 2010 and EU
Statistics (2009). These highlight that highway sustainability is questionable.
It will be wise to reduce the impact of road transport on the environment, but not at the expense of
mobility. Infrastructure has a crucial role to play in steering the transport sector towards a balance
between socio-economic development and respect for the environment.

7. The Challenges of the New Generation

No matter how perfect the road infrastructure of the highways and the motorways of the fourth genera-
tion is considered, it is certain that, in the context of the twenty-first century, persistent challenges have
to be faced:

• There is a current and future need to absorb the increasing flow of vehicles by means of the
existing infrastructure, all without reducing the level of safety. The increase in demand for road

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12 Anastasios Mouratidis and Fotini Kehagia

Table 2. Serious Problems Observed on Modern Highways

Criteria Observed Flaws

1.  ENVIRONMENT • Transport sector contribution to total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is 24%,
while the road transport contributes with 17% of that 24%.
• Aggressiveness to the environment either during construction (voluminous
earthmoving) or during operation (air emissions, noise, fauna fragmentation) has to
be significantly reduced.
• In maintenance operations, additional consumption of energy and materials is
recorded and harmful air emissions are released.
2.  ENERGY • Transport sector is 95% dependent on oil, accounting for 60% of all oil consumption.
• The share of transport in final energy consumption is 31.5% in EU-27 and 40% in
the US.
• Road sector energy consumption is 82% of total transport energy. The construction
and operation of one lane of road, one mile long, needs the same amount of energy
used in one year by about 50 average American households.
• Energy consumption by moving vehicles remains a major issue and, by itself,
constitutes a great challenge for the sustainable roads of the future.
3.  CLIMATE CHANGE • Extreme climatic events, such as flood, heavy snow or avalanches, may block the
passage for hours or even days.
• Adverse weather conditions (fog, rain, ice) can result in unpleasant situations, pile-up
accidents or even fatal crashes.
4.  RESOURCES • The construction, maintenance and operation of road consume large quantities of
resources. Estimates show that about 20,000–60,000 tonnes of aggregates are used
in construction of one mile of highway.
5.  INFORMATION • Incident management, including information and intervention, in most motorway
networks needs urgent improvement.
• Maintenance operations usually engender road closures and generate travel delays
and annoying congestion.
Source: Authors’ own calculations.

transport services will not keep pace only with the construction of new road links. The critical
challenge is how to use the available infrastructure in order to increase the capacity. As a result,
engineering rehabilitation projects must be undertaken on existing highway networks for upgrad-
ing the provided level of service. Moreover, intelligent steering of the traffic streams must be
aimed at to ensure smooth mobility.
• Innovative methods must be set forth and implemented in the construction of new road links. This
strategy aiming at sustainability would conserve existing resources, generate less waste and emis-
sions, abolish barriers that prevent the use of alternative materials and reduce energy consumption.
Fossil fuel resources are getting increasingly scarce and hence more expensive. The construction
of a new road link has to be environmentally friendly to diminish the impact on global warming.
• In developed countries, as traffic volumes constantly increase, the demand for new road networks

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On the Track of Road Evolution 13

may become more insistent. However, economic constraints combined with excessive cost of
expropriations will lead to more realistic solutions within the right-of-way of each road corridor.
Road widening, underground links and other techniques may be used to avoid time and funds-
consuming procedures for land expropriations.
• Road maintenance has to be sustainable and more effective. Upgrading works that impede and
interrupt free traffic flow, causing disruption to road users, have to be minimised. This new main-
tenance practice will be associated either with the use of better-quality materials or by innovative
construction methods.
• Road engineers and researchers have to deal with the advent of extreme weather conditions due
to climate change. Undoubtedly, roads will be subject to greater climatic stress in the future.
Highways and common roads must be designed in a way to confront adverse climate, and also be
adequately equipped to protect passengers and vehicles.

In order to master these challenges, highly innovative and application-oriented research is needed.
Existing processes and products of basic research, for example, sensor technology, risk management,
simulation methods or the use of innovative construction materials and structures, should be transferred
promptly and in a solution-oriented way into practice (Kunz and Saintillan 2012; Lamb and Collis 2011).
The highway of the new generation will be characterised by reliability, availability, safety and environ-
ment friendliness (Table 3).

Table 3. The Characteristics of Modern Highway of the Fifth Generation

Criteria Characteristics
1.  ENVIRONMENT • Green infrastructure fits into its surrounding landscape and contributes by means
of design and construction to minimise the impact of traffic (noise, air pollution).
The use of alternative materials will be optimised.
• Appropriate channels will allow rainwater to be quickly discharged to form a drainage
system for storm control and water collection reservoirs. The pavement will produce
low noise.
2.  ENERGY • Kinetic energy produced by moving vehicles may be appropriately stored and
reused to cover road operation needs.
• Innovative techniques will be implemented for solar energy harvesting and storage for
moderating pavement temperature to prevent frost. Energy saved and stored may be
used in roadside infrastructure, for traffic lighting, toll stations and service stations.
3.  CLIMATE CHANGE • A fundamental quality of the road network of new generation will be its resilience,
namely, its ability to handle and restore normal traffic conditions after unexpected
disruptions due to natural disasters and major accidents.
4.  RESOURCES • The road infrastructure may consist of prefabricated modular pavements,
manufactured from high-quality concrete and specially designed to be set firmly
upon raft foundations.
• The distressed parts of the pavement will be easily replaceable, thus providing a
cost-effective and environment-friendly method of maintenance.
(Table 3 Continued)

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14 Anastasios Mouratidis and Fotini Kehagia

(Table 3 Continued)

Criteria Characteristics
5.  INFORMATION • A permanent electronic monitoring system can be adapted into the pavement to
provide on-time information at each sign of distress.
• The monitoring system will produce and transfer information about actual traffic
characteristics (volume and average speed), weather conditions and pavement
temperature.
• At the same time, developments in intelligent transport systems, vehicle design,
mobile and wireless communications and sensor technologies play a key role in the
dissemination of information.
• Comprehensive and interoperable communications link driver and vehicle to the
road information system and the operator. Information from vehicle to infrastructure
communication enables advance guidance and traffic management system, improving
the reliability and efficiency of the road network.
Source: Authors’ own calculations.

8. Conclusions

Technological evolution in road development across the centuries has been extremely slow. Thousands
of years have gone by from the pathway to the stone road, and no less than 40 centuries until the era of
the third generation, the two-lane asphalt road. Similarly, every decisive initiative towards an extension
of pre-existing road network took place under favourable political conditions, that is, under the domi-
nance of flourishing and powerful states. During the twentieth century, the development of a fourth
generation of roads was recorded: the modern highway. Speed, safety and comfort are the main charac-
teristics of a motorway, incessantly evolving to integrate new technological achievements for benefit of
passengers, drivers and vehicles: high-quality materials, safety devices, intelligent transportation sys-
tems and electronic information. It is difficult to discern deficiencies or drawbacks in the layout of a
motorway of the fourth generation. However, weak points still exist. Vehicles moving on motorways
consume energy and have a negative impact on the environment either by emissions or by noise. Despite
the performance of the motorway, passengers still get trapped on routes by adverse climatic conditions
and, even more, by pile-up accidents. The overall challenge for the fifth generation is to provide con-
vincing ideas to handle effectively all these issues. The highway of the fifth generation will be a real
freeway, non-dependent on energy and free of environmental burden. Adaptable to weather conditions
and able to manage on-road incidents, the freeway of the new generation will be constantly free and
suitably open to traffic.

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