Module 1 Introduction to Highway and Railroad Engineering

Introduction
Transportation has always been an important aspect of human civilization. In this
module, the student will learn the overview and development in transportation sectors
including the different modes of transportation, characteristics of road transport. This
module will also explain the transportation engineering profession and the scope of
highway and railroad engineering, which is the focus of this course.
Topic Outcomes
At the end of this module, the student will be able to:

1. explain the timeline of development of transportation sector, development of

transportation infrastructure
2. present the evolution of transportation engineering profession, its various
specialization and the scope of highway and railroad engineering

This module will be divided into different topics to ensure that the outcomes will be
attained:

1. The development and significance of transportation

2. Different Modes of Transportation
3. Different Transportation Infrastructures
4. Transportation Engineering: evolution and its specialization
Topic 1: The Development and Significance of Transportation

Transportation is a means in which people and goods are moved from one place
to another. It is considered as the circulatory system of a society. The increasing
transportation demand for systematized mobility of people, goods and services as part
of rural development and urbanization all over the country indicates the need to
increase specialists for the transportation sector.

One of the advocates of transportation, Prof. Rodrigue, in his book on

transportation geography, highlighted how transportation shapes the development of the
world. The economic and social development of people evolve with how transportation
is being shaped in its locale. To quote:

The unique purpose of transportation is to overcome space,

which is shaped by a variety of human and physical constraints
such as distance, time, administrative divisions, and
topography. Jointly, they confer friction to any movement,
commonly known as the friction of distance (or friction of
space). In an ideal world, transportation would come at no effort
in terms of cost and time and would have unlimited capacity and
spatial reach. Under such circumstances, geography would not
matter. In the real world, however, geography can be a
significant constraint to transport since it trades space for time
and money and can only be partially circumscribed. The extent
to which this is done has a cost that varies significantly
according to factors such as the length of the trip, the capacity
of modes and infrastructures, and the nature of what is being
transported. Transport geography can be understood from a
series of eight core principles:

1. Transportation is the spatial linking of derived demand.

2. Distance is a relative concept involving space, time, and effort.
3. Space is at the same time the generator, support, and a constraint for
mobility.
4. The relation between space and time can converge or diverge.
5. A location can be central, where it generates and attracts traffic, or an
intermediate element where traffic transits through.
6. To overcome geography, transportation must consume space.
7. Transportation seeks massification but is constrained by atomization.
8. Velocity is a modal, intermodal, and managerial effort.
Topic 2: Different Modes of Transportation

The earliest form of transportation is by foot. Now, transportation may vary from land
travel to space travel. Listed below are some examples of different modes of
transportation:
1. Land
a. By foot
b. Animal-pulled wagons
c. Bicycle
d. Cars
e. Buses
f. Trains
2. Water
a. Boats
b. Ships
c. Submarines
d. Hovercrafts (fig. 1.2.1)
3. Air
a. Airplanes
b. Helicopters
4. Others
a. Ski lifts (cable transport) (fig. 1.2.2)
b. Spacecrafts (space transport)

Fig.

1.2.1. Hovercraft (image from industrytap.com) Fig. 1.2.2. Ski lift (image from cit

With recent concerns of mobility specifically in urban areas, mode of transportation is

being reviewed and revisited by transport experts and travel enthusiasts. Figure below
presents the New Reverse Traffic Pyramid presented by Bicycle Network in Australia.
This pyramid aims to suggest an approach to city and urban planning that appropriately
prioritizes active travel and aims to decrease the congestion and pollution of a car-
centric city.
 Topic 3: Different
Transportation Infrastructures

The innovation of modes of transportation comes hand in hand with different

transportation infrastructures. The following are examples of common transportation
infrastructures:

● Roads
 - Highways
- Walkways
- Bicycle lanes
- Bridges
- Tunnels
● Railways
● Stations
● Ports
● Airports

In the Philippines, the road infrastructures are managed and monitored by the
Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH). The DPWH is mandated to
undertake (a) the planning of infrastructure, such as national roads and bridges, flood
control, water resources projects and other public works, and (b) the design,
construction, and maintenance of national roads and bridges, and major flood control
systems. The Department of Transportation (DOTr), on the other hand, focuses on
other modes of transportation such as railway (PNR, MRT, and LRT), airport, and ports
(PPA).

Further readings:
Boquet Y. (2017) Transportation in the Philippines. In: The Philippine Archipelago.
Springer Geography. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51926-
5_15
DPWH Atlas (2019). Philippine National Road Network. Accessed through
https://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/2019%20DPWH%20ATLAS/index.htm
Topic 4: Transportation Engineering: Evolution and Its Specialization

Application of technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional

design, operations and management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order
to provide for the safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally
compatible movement of people and goods. - Institute of Transportation Engineering
(ITE)

Transport engineers plan, design and operate the large public and private
infrastructure systems that connect our physical world. - University of New South Wales
(UNSW), Australia

Transportation engineering is the application of technology and scientific

principles to the design, operation, planning and management of transportation
infrastructure, mobility service, traffic, and travelers for various travel modes, in order to
provide for the safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and
environmentally sustainable movement of people and goods. - Columbia University,
New York

Evolution
Mobility of people can be traced as early as the paleolithic age when people
sought to travel to different continents. Pathways created by animals are also
considered as the start of transportation networks. Evidence showed how humans
followed animal tracks for walking which eventually evolved into a clear path for humans
to move from one location to another. With the introduction of the wheel about 7,000
years ago, the larger, heavier loads that could be transported showed the limitations of
dirt paths that turned into muddy bogs when it rained. The earliest stone paved roads
have been traced to about 4,000 B.C. in the Indian subcontinent and Mesopotamia (see
figure).
The roadway construction, on the other hand, can be traced to Roman civilization
wherein roads are made of blocks of rocks embedded on soil and are used as
carriageways. The Romans developed techniques to build durable roads using multiple
layers of materials atop deep beds of crushed stone for water drainage. Some of those
roads remain in use more than 2,000 years later, and the fundamental techniques form
the basis of today's roads.
Modern road-construction techniques can be traced to a process developed by
Scottish engineer John McAdam in the early 19th century. McAdam topped multi-layer
roadbeds with a soil and crushed stone aggregate that was then packed down with
heavy rollers to lock it all together. Contemporary asphalt roads capable of supporting
the vehicles that emerged in the 20th century built upon McAdams' methods by adding
tar as a binder.
The actual process of road building has changed dramatically over the past century,
going from large gangs of workers with picks and shovels to enormous specialized
machines. Rebuilding existing roads starts with peeling up existing pavement, grinding it
and dumping it straight into trucks for reuse later as aggregate for new roads. After
grading the surface, pavers come in and lay down fresh, continuous sheets of asphalt
followed directly by the rollers.
 Figure 4.1 Ancient Road in Greece
(Archaeological Site of Dion, Macedonia, Greece; taken June 2015)

In the pre-industrial revolution, transport technology was mainly limited to

harnessing animal labor for land transport and to wind for maritime transport. Initially,
ships were propelled by rowers, and sails were added around 2,500 BCE as a
complementary form of propulsion. Most of the technical innovations that modified the
transportation sector took place in a short period of industrial era, mainly between 1760
and 1800. It was during this industrial revolution that massive modifications of transport
systems occurred in two major phases: the first, centered along with the development of
canal systems and the second, centered along railways. This period marked the
development of the steam engine, an external combustion engine that converted
thermal energy into mechanical energy, providing an important territorial expansion for
maritime and railway transport systems.
Figure 4.2 demonstrates the evolution of different transportation sectors from the
18th century.

Figure 4.1 Evolution of Transport Technology since the 18th Century

(Source: Rodrigue, J-P (2020), The Geography of Transport Systems, Fifth Edition, New York:
Routledge)

Subdisciplines in Transportation Engineering

Traffic Engineering is the subdiscipline of transportation engineering that

addresses the planning, design and operation of streets and highways, their
networks, adjacent land uses and interaction with other modes of
transportation and their terminals (ITE)

Highway Engineering involved in the planning, design, construction,

operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe and
effective transportation of people and goods.

Railway Systems Engineering a field of engineering which deals with the

design, construction, and operation of all railway systems. This specialization
is a multifaceted science as it involves different engineering disciplines such
as mechanical engineering, computer engineering, civil engineering, electrical
engineering, production engineering and industrial engineering.

Airport Engineering is the field responsible for engineering standards and

research for design, equipment, and airfield development at civil airports. It is
also responsible for airport data, safety-related airport airspace issues, and
facilitating innovative methods of improving airport infrastructure

Ports and Harbor Engineering handle the design, construction, and

operation of ports, harbors, canals, and other maritime facilities. Recently,
this is also termed as navigation engineering, a civil engineering specialty
that involves the life-cycle planning, design, construction, operation, and
maintenance of safe, secure, reliable, efficient, and environmentally
sustainable navigable waterways (channels, structures, and support systems)
used to move people and goods by waterborne vessels.
Bibliography:
Jean-Paul Rodrigue (2020), The Geography of Transport Systems, 5th edition. New York:
Routledge, 456 pages. ISBN 978-0-367-36463-2
Boquet Y. (2017) Transportation in the Philippines. In: The Philippine Archipelago. Springer
Geography. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51926-5_15
Mannering Fred, Washburn Scott,Kilaresky Walter. 2004. Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic
Analysis. Muze Inc.
Wright, Paul H. 2003. Highway Engineering.Wiley & Sons.
Garber, Nicholas and Hoel, Lester. 2001.Highway and Traffic Engineering. Brookes/Cole Publishing.
Fajardo, Max Jr. B., Elements of Roads and Highways, Second Edition, 5138. Merchandising Publisher,
Manila,1998.
Lay, Maxwell G (1992). Ways of the World: A History of the World's Roads and of the Vehicles that
Used Them. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-2691-1

Websites:
https://www.asce.org/
https://www.ite.org/
https://www.roadandtrack.com/car-culture/a4447/the-road-ahead-road-evolution/
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/back0506.cfm
 Module 2 Highway and Railways Development: Planning and Design
Introduction

Topic Outcomes
At the end of this module, the student will be able to:

1. Define and understand road classifications and their uses

2. Understand different planning considerations for each road classification

This module will be divided into different topics to ensure that the outcomes will be attained:

1. Road classifications and hierarchy

2. Considerations for highway planning
3. Design criteria for highways and railways
Topic 1: Road Classifications and Hierarchy
In general, highways are based upon two primary functions:

a. MOBILITY: Continuous, high-speed travel

b. ACCESSIBILITY: Ability to get to destination Direct access to adjoining property

Figure 2.1.1 Proportion of Service for classifying highways

In the Philippines, roads and highways are classified and named according to their functions.
Based on DPWH D.O. No. 133, s. 2018, Philippine roads are classified as follows:

1. National Roads (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary)

National roads are continuous in extent that form part of the main trunk line system.
● Primary roads
○ connect major cities (at least around 100,000 population) and comprise the
national road system
● Secondary roads
○ connect cities to National Primary Roads, except in metropolitan areas.
○ connect major airports to National Primary Roads
○ connect tourist service centers to National Primary Roads or other
National Secondary Roads
○ connect cities not classified as major cities
○ connect provincial capitals within the same region
○ connect National Primary Roads to National Government Infrastructures
● Tertiary roads
○ other existing roads under DPWH which perform a local function
 2. Bypass/Diversion Roads
These roads divert through traffic away from the city/municipality business centers.

3. Provincial Roads
Provincial roads connect cities and municipalities without traversing National Roads.
They also connect National Roads to major provincial infrastructures as well as to
barangays through rural areas.

4. Municipal and City Roads

Roads within a Poblacion that provide inter-barangay connections to major municipal and
city infrastructures without traversing Provincial Roads.

5. Barangay Roads
Other roads within the barangay and not covered in the above definitions

6. Expressways
These are highways with limited access, normally with interchanges. They may include
facilities for levying tolls for passage in an open or closed system.

Other highway classifications by functions:

7. By-passes
These are roads or highways that avoid a built-up area, town or city proper to let through
traffic flow without interference from local traffic reduce congestion and improve road
safety where a toll for passage is levied in an open or closed system

8. Parkways
These are arterial highways for non-commercial traffic with full or partial control of
access, usually located within a park or a ribbon of park-like development.
Topic 2: Considerations for Highway Planning
Along with its highway classifications, roads have different planning considerations based on
their functions.

1. National Roads
● Limited frontage access
● Development set well back from the highway
● All access to premises provided via provincial roads
● Number of intersections are minimized
● Suitable at-grade channelized intersections for minor flows and other elements

2. Expressways
● No frontage access
● Development set well back from the highway
● Grade-separated intersections for extremely high flows and other intersecting
expressways
● Number of intersections are minimized
● Where necessary or for emergency purposes, parking/stopping to be provided
clear of the main carriageway

3. Provincial Roads
● Limited frontage access. In exceptional circumstances, large individual
developments may have direct access when a high level intersection is provided
● Development set back from the highway
● Most development to be given access via intersections with local distributor roads
● All intersections will normally be at-grade
● Turning traffic should be separated out from the through traffic
● Separated pedestrians/bikeways remote from the carriageway
● Pedestrian crossing points should be clearly defined and controlled
● Parking on the road should not be permitted
● Bus stops and other loading areas should be in separate well designed lay bys
● Regular stopping places should be identified and safe stopping places established

4. City/Municipal Roads
● The road is only for local traffic; through traffic is adequately accommodated on
an alternative more direct main road
● Where possible, an industrial traffic route should not pass through a residential
area
● Vehicle speeds should be kept low so long straight roads should be avoided
● Parking is allowed, but alternative off-road provision should be made if possible
● Non-motorized traffic is of equal importance to motor traffic and separate should
be provided if possible
● Where non-motorized traffic needs to use a local distributor it should be separated
from motorized traffic
● The road width can be varied to provide for parking or to give emphasis to
 crossing points depending upon traffic flows
● Bus stops and other loading areas should be in separate well designed lay-bys
● Through-movements should be made awkward and inconvenient to discourage
them

Table 2.2.1. Summary of Minimum Requirements of different of roads in the Philippines

Classification of Road Road Right of way Width of travelled way Allowable grade
(min, m) 2-lane (%, maximum)
(min, m)

National 20.00 6.70 6.0

Provincial 15.00 6.10 6.0

City 15.00 6.10 6.0

Municipal 15.00 6.10 6.0

Barangay 10.00 4.00 10.0

Tourism 2.10 6.10 6.0

Farm to Market Road 6.00 4.00 10.00

In addition to these considerations, the following design data are necessary in planning and
design of highways and railroads:

a. Field Survey Information

Topography is a major factor in determining the physical location, alignment, gradients, sight
distance, cross sections and other design elements of a highway. Hills, valleys, steep slopes,
rivers and lakes often imposed limitations upon location and design. In the case of flat-land
areas, topography in itself may exercise little if any control on location but it may cause
difficulties in some design elements such as drainage or grade separation.

b. Highway Location
Highway location is concerned with gathering of pertinent data for more effective highway
planning, design, construction and operation. It consists mainly of reconnaissance, topographic
surveys, establishment of horizontal and vertical controls, centerline staking, centerline profile
and cross-sectional leveling, bridge site survey, parcellary survey, and other surveys related to
highway engineering. The survey shall be under the direct supervision of a Locating Engineer.

i. Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance is carried out in order to plan the best possible horizontal and vertical
alignments. Rock cuts, agricultural farms, steep side slopes, slides and other controls are
identified. Bridge crossings, expensive buildings and structures are also noted. Reconnaissance is
substantiated by the study of available maps, and stereoscopic examination of the site on foot, all
of which aid in the elimination of costly locations to limit the choice to one or two possible
routes.

ii. Preliminary Survey

In the preliminary survey the topography of the strip or strips flagged is obtained and from which
a topographic map will be prepared to be utilized as the basic framework for projection of the
line in the office.
The required preliminary borings shall include review of available topographic and geologic
information, plus aerial photographs, in addition to site examination.

iii. Utility Service Records

Depending on the location of a project, the utilities involved could include (1) sanitary sewers,
(2) water supply lines, (3) oil, gas and petroleum product pipelines, (4) overhead and
underground power and communication lines including fiber optic cables, (5) cable television
lines, (6) wireless communication towers, (7) drainage and irrigation lines, and (8) special
tunnels for building connections.

Utility service providers should be consulted and records obtained for all services in a project
area, including exact locations and depths. Obtaining Utility service records benefits both
highway agencies and the impacted utilities in the following ways;
● Unnecessary utility relocations are avoided
● Unexpected conflicts with utilities are reduced
● Safety is enhanced

For the typical Roadway Section showing the location of service utilities, refer Figure 2.2.1 to
Figure 2.2.2.

iv. Office Projection

In the office, the proposed highway line is projected on the topographic map which is fitted as
close as possible into the terrain within the desired standards. Many lines should be tried so as to
obtain the most economical line without increasing the cost of surveys. This is a trial and error
process to obtain the best line, in consideration of constraints such as alignment, grades, sight
distances and compensation.

v. Final Location Survey

Final location survey is done to transfer the office projection of the best line to the actual site in
the field.
Whenever possible, video logs of a site with chainages are a useful tool to assist the process of
designing upgrading and rehabilitation schemes.
Figure 2.2.1. Typical Roadway section for a National Road in Urbanized Areas showing Underground Service
Utilities
Figure 2.2.1. Typical Roadway section for a National Road in Rural Areas showing Underground Service
Utilities
Topic 3: Design Criteria for Highways and Railways

The goal in Highway Design is to provide safe roads for all road users, and not just those in
motor vehicles. The principle that ‘man is the reference standard’ implies that roads must be
adapted to the limitations of human capacity. This leads to what is called the ‘safe systems
approach’ which encourages:
● Simpler, self-explaining roads (with less reliance on traffic signs).
● Designing roads that encourage / enforce safe speeds (the safe speed being the one that
guarantees the safety of the most vulnerable road user).
● Forgiving roadsides (the ‘Clear Zone’ idea about unobstructed, traversable space beyond
the edge of the travelled way for recovery of errant vehicles).
● The World Bank’s Sustainable safe Road Design Manual also discusses.
● Functionality – developing a hierarchy of mono-functional roads (e.g. truck,
distributor and access).
● Homogeneity – avoiding differences in speed, direction of travel, and mass of
vehicles (with segregation of incompatible road users).
● Predictability – ensuring that roads are easy to understand and there are not nasty
surprises (as for ‘self-explaining’ roads).

The characteristics listed below are controls in optimizing or improving the design of the various
highway and street functional classes.

1. Human Factors and Driver Performance

The suitability of a design rests as much on how effectively drivers are able to use the highway
as on any other criteria. Considerations include;
● Driver tasks that include vehicle control (such as simultaneous multiple tasks and
reaction time), guidance (such as road following, lane placement, car following, passing
maneuvers and response to traffic control devices) and navigation.
● Use of the facility by older drivers and older pedestrians.
● Errors due to driver deficiencies and situational demands.
● Speed.

Properly designed highways that provide positive guidance to drivers can operate at a high level
of efficiency and with relatively few crashes.

The World Health Organization recorded 1.35 million people died due to road traffic crashes.
More than 90% of this recorded fatal road crashes occur in low-and middle-income countries.
More so, 2019 statistics showed that the leading cause of death for children and young-adults
aged 5 to 29 years is road traffic injuries (WHO). The organization tackles road safety through
Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020.

In the Philippines, as of 2018 data, there are a total of 116,906 incidents of road traffic crashes in
Metro Manila alone. On average there were 334 reported accidents per day with one resulting in
fatality, 56 being non-fatal and 276 leading to damages to property (topgear.com). This leads to
the Philippine Road Safety Action Plan 2017-2022, a program developed by the Department of
Transportation adopting a vision of zero road traffic death, with an interim target to reduce road
death rate by at least 20% by 2022. The interventions are organized according to the Action Plan
of the Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020, focusing on the following: (1) road safety
management, (2) safe roads and mobility; (3) safe vehicles; (4) safe road users; and (5) post-
crash care.

2. Vehicles
Four general classes of design vehicles are (1) passenger cars, (2) buses, (3) trucks, and (4)
recreational vehicles. In the design of any highway facility, the designer should consider the
largest design vehicle that is likely to use that facility with considerable frequency or a design
vehicle with special characteristics appropriate to a particular location in determining the design
of such critical features as radii at intersections and radii of turning roadways (refer to Table
2.3.1 and Table 2.3.2). As a general rule;
● A passenger car may be selected when the main traffic generator is a parking lot.
● A two-axle single unit truck may be used for intersection design of residential streets and
park roads.
● A three-axle single-unit truck may be used for the design of collector streets
and other facilities where larger single-unit trucks are likely.
● A bus may be used in the design of highway intersections that are designated
bus routes and that have relatively few large trucks using them.

Table 2.3.1. Design Vehicle Dimension

Table 2.3.2. Minimum Turning Radii of Design Vehicles

 3. Traffic Characteristics
The design of a highway and its features should explicitly cover traffic volumes and traffic
characteristics. Traffic volumes obtained from field studies (such as hourly and daily traffic
volumes, type and weight of vehicles and traffic trends) can indicate the need for improvement
and directly influence the selection of geometric design features, such as number of lanes,
widths, alignments and grades. Relevant studies include average daily traffic (ADT), peak hour
traffic, directional distribution, composition of traffic, projection of future traffic demands, speed
and traffic flow relationships characterized by the volume flow rate in vehicles per hour, the
average speed in kilometers per hour, and the traffic density in vehicles per kilometer.

4. Physical Elements
These elements include highway capacity, access control and management, pedestrians, bicycle
facilities, safety and environment.
Knowledge of highway capacity is essential to properly fit a planned highway to traffic demands.
Access control to manage interference with through traffic is achieved through the regulation of
public access rights to and from properties abutting the highway facilities, and can comprise full
control, partial control, access management or driveway/entrance regulations.
Pedestrian facilities including sidewalks, crosswalks, traffic control features, curb cuts, ramps,
bus stops, loading areas, stairs, escalators and elevators warrant due attention in both rural and
urban areas.
Existing streets and highways provide most of the network used by bicycle travel, making
bicycle traffic an important element for consideration in highway design.
Because the number of crashes increases with the number of decisions that need to be made by
the driver, it is in the interest of safety that roadways should be designed to reduce the need for
driver decisions and to reduce unexpected situations.
 5. Economic Factors
Highway economics is concerned with the cost of a proposed improvement and the benefits
resulting from it.

The following are the design controls of highway construction

1. Anticipated Traffic Volume

The design of a highway or any part thereof should consider jointly all data relating to traffic
such as traffic volume, character of traffic and axle loading. Financing, quality of foundations,
availability of materials, cost of right-of-way, and other factors have important bearing on the
design. However, traffic volume indicates the service for which the improvement is being made
and directly affects the geometric features of design such as width, alignment, grades, etc. It is no
more rational to design a highway without traffic information than it is to design a bridge without
the knowledge of weights and numbers of vehicles it is intended to support. Traffic information
serves to establish the ‘loads’ for geometric highway design.

A road should be designed so that it will accommodate or can be readily changed to

accommodate the number of vehicles which is estimated to pass it towards the end of its life.
This number is called the design volume. In estimating the design volume, the minimum life is
commonly assumed to be 10 to 15 years for a flexible pavement, and 20 years for a rigid
pavement. Traffic volumes are usually the annual average daily traffic (AADT), though at
critical points on a road, such as intersections, peak traffic figures are also taken into account.
The number of vehicles using a road in a given time determines the number of traffic lanes
required and indicates whether there is a need for auxiliary lanes for slow speed traffic and or
whether speed change lanes are required at intersections.
The design hourly volume (DHV) should be representative of the future year chosen for design.
It should be predicated on current traffic (existing and attracted) plus all traffic increases (normal
traffic growth, generated traffic and development traffic) that would occur during the period
between the current and the future year chosen for design. A period of 20 years is widely used as
a basis for design, for which the usual traffic increase on a highway improvement is in the range
of 50 to 150%. Where the highway is to be an expressway, traffic increase is likely to be higher,
in the range of 80 to 200%.

On minor, low volume roads, average daily traffic (ADT) normally is sufficient. On most
highways a DHV equal to the 30th highest hourly volume (abbreviated as ‘30 HV’) is usually
used for design. On highways with unusual or highly seasonal fluctuation in traffic flow, it may
be necessary to use a design hourly volume other than the 30 HV.

The design traffic data should include the following elements:

● ADT – current average daily traffic, year specified.
● ADT – future average daily traffic, year specified.
● DHV – future design hourly volume, two-way unless otherwise specified (DHV usually
equals 30 HV).
● K – Ratio of DHV to ADT; generally 12% to 18% for Rural and 8 to 12% for Urban.
● D – Directional distribution of DHV, one-way volume in predominant direction of travel
 expressed as percentage of total. D normally varies from about 50 to 80% of two-way
DHV, with an average of 67%.
● T – Trucks, exclusive of light delivery trucks, expressed as a percentage of DHV. As an
average on main rural highways, T is 7 to 9% of DHV and 13% of ADT; where weekend
peaks govern, the average may be 5% to 8% of DHV.

For important intersections, data should be obtained to show simultaneous traffic movement
during both the morning and evening peak hours.

2. Character of Traffic
All roads should be designed to accommodate trucks, buses, passenger vehicles, handcarts,
cyclists and pedestrians with safety and convenience. A thorough knowledge of the design
vehicle’s weight, dimensions, mobility and other characteristics is essential for good design.
The vehicle which should be used in design for normal operation is the largest one which
represents a significant percentage of the traffic for the design year. For design of most highways
accommodating truck traffic, one of the design semitrailer combinations should be used – refer
to Table 2.3.1 and Table 2.3.2. A design check should be made for the largest vehicle expected to
ensure that such a vehicle can negotiate the designated turns, particularly if pavements are
curbed. This is done using a swept path analysis using either turning circle templates or software.
Knowing the predominant character of traffic to use the highway, the required width of lane
could be determined. The total width of a highway is the sum of the widths of traffic lanes
required, dividing islands, curbs and gutter, shoulders and/or walkways, ditches or gutters, drains
and other special features.

3. Design Speed
The design speed is the speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features of a
highway that influence vehicle operation. It is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained
over a specified section of the highway when conditions are so favorable that the design features
of the highway govern. The choice of design is influenced principally by the character of terrain,
the extent of man-made features and economic considerations. Once selected, it sets the limits
for curvature, sight distance and other geometric features. In the design of a substantial length of
highway it is desirable, although it may not be feasible, to assume a constant design speed on
certain sections. Changes in terrain and other physical controls may dictate a change in design
speed on certain sections. If so, the introduction of a lower or higher design speed should not be
affected abruptly but over a sufficient distance to permit drivers to change speed gradually before
reaching the section of highway with the different design speed.
When available funds are limited, it is impractical to reduce design speed just to save
construction cost; rather the savings should be on other features.

4. Design Traffic (vehicles)

The operating characteristics of motor vehicles should be considered in analyzing a facility. The
major considerations are vehicle types and dimensions, turning radii and off-tracking, resistance
to motion, power requirements, acceleration performance, and deceleration performance. Motor
vehicles include passenger cars, trucks, vans, buses, recreational vehicles, and motorcycles.
These vehicles have unique weight, length, size, and operational characteristics. The forces that
must be overcome by motor vehicles if they are to move are rolling, air, grade, curve, and inertial
resistance. The weight/power ratios are useful for indicating the overall performance in
overcoming these forces.

5. Highway Capacity
Roadway conditions include geometric and other elements. In some cases, these influence the
capacity of a road; in others, they can affect a performance measure such as speed, but not the
capacity or maximum flow rate of the facility.

Roadway factors include the following:

● Number of lanes
● The type of facility and its development environment
● Lane widths
● Shoulder widths and lateral clearances
● Design speed
● Horizontal and vertical alignments
● Axle loads
● Availability of exclusive turn lanes at intersections

The horizontal and vertical alignment of a highway depends on the design speed and the
topography of the land on which it is constructed.

In general, the severity of the terrain reduces capacity and service flow rates. This is significant
for two-lane rural highways, where the severity of terrain not only can affect the operating
capabilities of individual vehicles in the traffic stream, but also can restrict opportunities for
passing slow-moving vehicles.

6. Classification of Highway
Certain characteristics distinguish multilane suburban and rural highways from expressways. For
example, vehicles may enter or leave multilane highways at intersections and driveways, and
they can encounter traffic signals.
Design standards for multilane highways tend to be lower than those for expressways, although a
multilane highway approaches expressway conditions as its access points and turning volumes
approach zero. Moreover, the visual setting and the developed frontage along multilane
highways have a greater impact on drivers than they do along expressways.
The multilane highway is similar to urban streets in many respects, although it lacks the
regularity of traffic signals and tends to have greater control on the number of access points per
kilometer. Also, its design standards are generally higher than those for urban streets. The speed
limits on multilane highways are often 10 to 20 kph higher than speed limits on urban streets.
Pedestrian activity, as well as parking, is minimal, unlike on urban streets.
Multilane highways differ substantially from two-lane highways, principally because a driver on
a multilane highway is able to pass slower-moving vehicles without using lanes designated for
oncoming traffic. Multilane highways also tend to be located near urban areas and often connect
urban areas; they usually have better design features than two-lane highways, including
horizontal and vertical curvature.
 7. Accident information
On all proposed projects, the accident history should be analyzed and potentially hazardous
features and locations identified to determine appropriate safety enhancement. A study of
accidents by location, type, severity, contributing circumstances, environmental conditions, and
time periods may suggest possible safety deficiencies.

Table 2.3.3 and Table 2.3.4 contain the minimum design standards for Philippine highways and
for tourism roads respectively.

Table 2.3.3. Minimum Design Standards for Highways except Tourism Roads

Table 2.3.4. Minimum Design Standards for Tourism Roads

End of Module Exercises

Go to our classroom and access the link for the assessment.

Module 3 Geometric Design for Highways and Railways

Introduction

Geometric design of highways and railways refers to their dimensional and spatial
characteristics. Highways and railways vary in shape, elevation, size, etc. depending on their
purpose and location. Geometry also defines the position of a highway with reference to the
objects around it.

Topic Outcomes

At the end of this module, the student will be able to:

1. Design and analyze a vertical curve

2. Design and analyze a horizontal curve
3. Consider the importance of balance between geometry and safety in designing highway
curves

This module will be divided into different topics to ensure that the outcomes will be attained:

1. Vertical alignment
2. Horizontal alignment
3. Super elevation

Topic 1: Vertical Alignment

Vertical alignment means the elevation of different points along a roadway. Elevations are designed to
provide an acceptable level of driver safety, driver comfort, and proper drainage. The main concern in
designing the vertical alignment of roads is by establishing a transition of roadway elevations between to
grades. This transition is achieved by means of a vertical curve.
Vertical curves are classified into crest vertical curves and sag vertical curves. Figure 3.1.1 shows the
two curves.

Figure 3.1.1. Crest and sag vertical curves (Image courtesy of F.L. Mannering, S. S. Washburn)

G1 = initial roadway grade in percent or m/m; referred to also as the initial tangent grade
G2 = final roadway grade in percent or m/m
A = absolute value of the difference in grades (initial minus final)
L = length of curve in meters measured in a constant elevation horizontal plane
PVC = point of the vertical curve (initial point of the curve)
PVI = point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and final grades)
*Note: in a symmetrical vertical curve, PVI is located at L/2
PVT = point of vertical tangent (final point of the curve)

It is important to know that in connecting roadway grades, a parabolic curve is found to be suitable
because it provides a constant change of slope. The general form of the parabolic equation is

y=ax 2+bx + c (Eq. 3.1.1)

where
y = roadway elevation at distance x from the beginning of the vertical curve (PVC), in meters
x = distance from the beginning of the curve, in meters
c = elevation of PVC (since at PVC, x = 0)
In defining b, we will be taking the first derivative of y, that is

(Eq. 3.1.2)

At PVC, x = 0 so

(Eq. 3.1.3)
In defining a, the second derivative of y will now be taken, that is

(Eq. 3.1.4)

The second derivative of a parabolic function can also be defined as the rate of change of slope of the
tangent line, so it can be written in terms of G1, G2, and L, that is

(Eq. 3.1.5)

Combining Eq. 3.1.4 and Eq. 3.1.5

(Eq. 3.1.6)

Example

A 200-m symmetrical vertical curve has to be designed such that its initial and final grades are -5% and
+4.5% respectively. If PVC is located at STA 1 + 11.5 with an elevation of 50m, determine the stationing
and elevation of PVI, PVT, and the lowest point of the curve. 1 station = 20 meters.

Given:
G1 = 2%
G2 = -1.5%
PVC @ STA 0 + 120
Elev PVC = 50m

Required:
Elevation and location of PVI
Elevation and location of PVT
Elevation and location of the lowest point

Solution:

Location of PVT: STA 11 + 11.5

Location of PVI: STA 6 + 11.5 (symmetrical)

y=a x2 +bx +c
Solving for a

Solving for b
b=G 1=−0.05

Substituting the values of a and b to the general formula

y=0.0002375 x 2−0.05 x +50

@PVT, where x = 200

y=49.50
Elev PVT = 49.50 m

@PVI, where x = 100

y=49.738
Elev PVI = 47.375 m

Since the grades are of different signs, the location of the lowest point is defined by x where dy/dx = 0

x=105.263

Lowest point is located at STA 6 + 16.763

@ x = 105.263, y = 47.3684
Elev Lowest Point = 47.368 m

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

In designing a highway curve, it is important to consider not only its geometry but also its safety.
Stopping Sight Distance can be defined as the minimum distance a vehicle can travel starting from the
driver seeing an obstruction, reacting to it, hitting the brakes, and the vehicle coming to a full stop. It is a
factor of the driver’s reaction time, vehicle’s speed, roadway grade, and road and tire friction. Eq. 3.1.7
shows the formula used to calculate SSD

(Eq. 3.1.7)

where,
SSD = stopping sight distance, in meters
v = vehicle’s speed, in meters per second
t = driver’s reaction time, in seconds
f = coefficient of friction
G = roadway grade
g = gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s2

Take note that the first term corresponds to the reaction distance and the second term corresponds to the
braking distance.

Example

A vehicle is travelling at 35 kilometers per hour. Its driver is about to hit a 2-meter high wall 30 meters
away if he did not react accordingly. Assuming the coefficient of friction between the road and tires is
0.35 and the driver steps on the brakes 2 seconds after seeing the obstruction, will he hit the wall? The
road is perfectly horizontal.

Given:
v = 35 kph = 9.72 m/s
t = 2 seconds
f = 0.35
G=0

Required:
If SSD > 30

Solution:
v2
SSD=vt+
2 g ( f ± G)

( 9.72 )2
SSD=(9.72)(2)+
2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.35 )

SSD=¿33.20

Since SSD = 33.20 m > 30 m, the driver will hit the wall.

SSD and Crest Vertical Curve

Figure 3.1.2. SSD and crest vertical curve (Image taken from ascelibrary.com)

The equations used in designing a crest vertical curve are as follows:

Assuming SSD < L

 (Eq. 3.1.8)

Assuming SSD > L

(Eq. 3.1.9)

where, Lm = minimum length of crest curve, in meters

S = stopping sight distance, in meters
H1 = driver’s eye level above roadway surface, in meters
H2 = height of obstruction above roadway surface, in meters
A = absolute value of the difference in grades, in percentage

Example

Determine the length of the vertical curve with a stopping sight distance of 230 meters. Its initial and final
grades are +1.75% and -2.05% respectively. The driver’s eye level above the roadway surface is 150
centimeters and the height of obstruction is 100 centimeters.

Given:
S = 230 m
G1 = +1.75%
G2 = -2.05%
H1 = 150 cm = 1.5 m
H2 = 100 cm = 1.0 m

Required:
L

Solution:
Solve for A
A=|−2.05−1.75|=3.80

Next, we assume that S < L

A S2
L= 2
200 ( √ H 1+ √ H 2 )
( 3.80 ) ( 2302 )
L= 2
200 ( √ 1.5+ √1.0 )
L=¿ 203.07

Since 230 > 203.07, our assumption was wrong. We now move on to the next equation where S >
L
 2
200 ( √ H 1+ √ H 2 )
L❑=2 S−
A
2
200 ( √ 1.5+ √ 1.0 )
L❑=2(230)−
3.80
L❑=¿ 199.5

The statement S > L holds true in this case, so the length of the vertical curve is 199.5m.

SSD and Sag Vertical Curve

Figure 3.1.3. SSD and sag vertical curve (Image taken from thetruthaboutcars.com)

The equations used in designing a sag vertical curve are as follows:

Assuming SSD < L

(Eq. 3.1.10)

Assuming SSD > L

(Eq. 3.1.11)

where, Lm = minimum length of sag curve, in meters

S = stopping sight distance, in meters
H = height of headlight above roadway, in meters
α = inclined angle of headlight beam, in degrees
A = absolute value of the difference in grades, in percentage

Example

A vertical curve is to be designed with a stopping sight distance of 310 m. Its initial and final
grades are -1.2% and +2.1% respectively. The average height of the headlights of the vehicles
that will pass through this road is 60 centimeters and α is set at 1°. Determine the length of the
curve.
Given:
SSD = 310 m
G1 = -3.2%
G2 = +2.1%
H = 60 cm = 0.6 m
α = 1°

Required:
L

Solution:
Solve for A
A=|2.1−(−3.2)|=5.3
Next, we assume that S < L
A S2
L❑=
200 ( H + Stanα )

(5.3 )( 310 )2
L❑=
200 ( 0.6+310 tan ( 1 ° ) )

L=423.66

The statement S < L holds true in this case, thus L = 423.66 m.

Topic 2: Horizontal Alignment

In its simplest description, horizontal alignment of a roadway is all about road corners/cornering.
Horizontal curves provide a directional transition between two straight sections of a roadway. The main
concern in designing a horizontal curve is considering the cornering capabilities of the vehicle.

In connecting two straight roads, the most common is using a simple circular curve. Other options may be
reverse curves, compound curves, and spiral curves. Reverse curves are just two simple circular curves
that turn in opposite directions. Compound curves are circular curves in succession. Spiral curves have
continuously changing radius.

Simple Circular Horizontal Curve

Figure 3.2.1 Elements of a simple circular curve (Image courtesy of F.L. Mannering & S.S. Washburn)

In designing a simple circular curve, the following factors are considered:

R = radius of the curve, usually measured to the centerline of the road, in meters
Δ = central angle of the curve, in degrees
T = tangent length, in meters
E = external distance, in meters
M = middle ordinate, in meters
PC = point of curve (beginning point of the horizontal curve)
PI = point of tangent intersection
PT = point of tangent (ending point of the horizontal curve)
L = length of curve, in meters

Another consideration is the degree of curve, D, which is the central angle subtended by one
station (20m).

The following equations are used in designing a simple circular curve:

Length of Tangent, T

(Eq. 3.2.1)

External Distance, E

(Eq. 3.2.2)

Middle Ordinate, M

(Eq. 3.2.3)
Length of Curve, L

(Eq. 3.2.4)

Degree of curve, D w/ 1 station = 20 meters

(Eq. 3.2.5)

Example

A horizontal curve is to be designed with PI located at STA 23 + 00. The radius of the curve is
500 meters and the length of its tangent is 100 m. Determine the location of PT, external
distance, middle ordinate, and degree of curve. 1 station = 20 meters

Given:
R = 500 meters
T = 100 meters
PI @ STA 23 + 00

Required:
Location of the PT, external distance, middle ordinate, degree of curve

Solution:
Use the formula for length of tangent to determine Δ

Δ
T =Rtan
2
Δ
100=500 tan
2
Δ=22.62 °

We can now solve for the length of the curve, L

πRΔ
L=
180
L=197.40 m

Location of PT is @ STA 32 + 17.40

Solving for external distance, E

Δ
E=Rsec −R
2
E = 9.90 m

Solving for middle ordinate, M

 Δ
M =R−Rcos
2
M = 9.71 m

Solving for the degree of the curve, D

20 Δ
D=
L
D = 0.90°

Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curves

Stopping sight distance is also considered in designing horizontal curves to provide safety.

Figure 3.2.2 SSD and simple circular horizontal curve (Image courtesy of F.L. Mannering & S.S. Washburn)

R = radius measured to the centerline of the road, in meters

Rv = radius to the vehicle’s path, usually measured to the center of the innermost lane, in
meters
Δ = central angle of the curve, in degrees
Δs = angle subtended by an arc equal in length to the SSD
L = length of curve, in meters
Ms = middle ordinate necessary to provide adequate SSD, in meters
SSD = stopping sight distance, in meters
PC = point of curve (beginning point of the horizontal curve)
PT = point of tangent (ending point of the horizontal curve)

The equations used in computing the relationship of horizontal curves and SSD are:

(Eq. 3.2.6)

or, rearranging the terms

(Eq. 3.2.7)
Using the equation of the middle ordinate (Eq. 3.2.3), we can come up with this formula for Ms:

(Eq. 3.2.8)

Example

A 2-lane road curve has a radius of 450 meters. If the required stopping sight distance is 210
meters, what is the allowable distance of an obstruction from the edge of the road? Each lane
has a width of 3 meters.

Given:
R = 450 m
SSD = 210 meters
lane width = 3 meters

Required:
Allowable distance of an obstruction from the edge of the road

Solution:
First, solve for Rv
R v =450−1.5
Rv = 448.5 m
Solving for Ms

90 ( 210 )
(
M s=448.5 1−cos [ π ( 448.5 ) ])
Ms = 12.23 m
dallow = 12.23 - 1.5
dallow = 10.73 meters

Topic 3: Superelevation

Banking Curve
Figure 3.2.1 Interaction of forces in a banking vehicle (Image courtesy of F.L. Mannering & S.S. Washburn)

Rv = radius of curvature of the vehicle’s path, in meters

α = angle of inclination, in degrees
e = vertical rise in meters per 100 m of horizontal distance, also called
superelevation, usually expressed in percentage
W = weight of the vehicle, in Newtons
Wn = weight of the vehicle normal to the road surface, in Newtons
Wp = weight of the vehicle parallel to the road surface, in Newtons
Ff = side frictional force, in Newtons
Fc = centripetal force, in Newtons
Fcp = centripetal force parallel to the road surface, in Newtons
Fcn = centripetal force normal to the road surface, in Newtons

Using the concepts of mechanics, one can come up with the following equation:

(Eq. 3.3.1)

where, fs = coefficient of side friction

g = gravitational constant 9.81 m/s2

Example

A roadway is designed to have a maximum speed of 75 kilometers per hour. One of its
horizontal curves is designed to be simple circular having a radius of 195 meters. What should
be the angle the roadway makes with the horizontal so that the vehicles will not overturn? The
coefficient of side friction is set at 0.15.
Given:
v = 75 kph = 20.83 m/s
Rv = 1050 meters
fs = 0.15

Required:
The angle the roadway makes with the horizontal
Solution:.
Solve for the value of superelevation, e

20.832
195=
9.81 ( 0.15+e )
e=0.0768 or 7.68%

The relationship of superelevation and the angle the roadway makes with the horizontal, θ, is
shown by the figure below

tanθ=e /100
tanθ=7.68 /100
θ = 4.39°
End of Module Exercises

Answer the following exercises and submit them in our classroom.

1. In order to create a transition between two roadways, a simple circular curve will not be enough.
Designing a compound curve is now being considered. See figure below:

You are provided the following information:

R1 = 630 m
I1 = 50°
R2 = 410 m
I2 = 35°
If PI is located at STA 520 + 12, what is the location of the PC? location of the PT?
Hints: Loc. PC = Loc PI - x - T1
Loc. PT = Loc PC + Lc1 + Lc2

2. A reversed curve is shown below. PRC is located at STA 427 + 09. The radius of the first curve is
750 meters and subtends an angle of 56°. The second curve has a radius of 520 meters with a
central angle of 37°. Determine the locations of PC and PT.
 3. You have been instructed to design a crest vertical curve that will connect a highway segment
with +3.2% grade to another segment with -1.1% grade. The stopping sight distance of the
highway is 345 meters if the elevation at the beginning of the curve is 75 meters, what will the
elevation be at L/2? What is the elevation at the highest point of the curve?

Bibliography
Mannering Fred, Washburn Scott,Kilaresky Walter. 2004. Principles of Highway Engineering &
TrafficAnalysis. Muze Inc.