EDUC 70:

FACILITATING LEARNER-
CENTERED TEACHING
PREFACE
This module, as its title suggests, introduced to prospective, as well as practicing

teachers, the concerns, issues, and theoretical knowledge they need to know for them

to effectively carry out their main role of facilitating learning. It deals with topics and

concerns that are close to day-to-day experiences of teachers and learners.

This module was developed to cater secondary education students of Cavite State

University – Carmona campus. It is to be used particularly for the course EDUC 70 –

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching. It is an activity-based module.

May this module contribute to the development of Future Educators in our country.

Z.L.M.
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

MS. ZYRILL L. MACHA, LPT

Good day, my dear students. I am Zyrill L. Macha, a Licensed Professional Teacher. I

finished my degree of Bachelor of Secondary Education major in Mathematics at Cavite State

University – Carmona Campus.

https://www.facebook.com/zyrilllevardomacha/

+63 928 155 9034

zyrill.macha@cvsu.edu.ph
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Course/Title Page
II. Preface
III. About the Author
IV. Table of Contents
V. Instruction to the Learners
VI. Pre-Test
VII. Section 1: Understanding Learning
i. Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
a. The Nature of Learning
b. Nature of Theories of Learning
c. Defining “Learner-Centered”
d. Theories of Learning
e. Activity #1: Assessing Theories of Learning
ii. Child, Adolescent, and Adult Learning
a. Principles of Cognitive Development
b. Child Learning
c. Adolescent Learning
d. Adult Learning
e. Activity #2: Child, Adolescent, and Adult Learning
iii. Declarative, Procedural, and Functional Knowledge
a. Categories of Knowledge
b. Educational Implications of Knowledge Acquisition
c. Activity #3: Strategies to Improve the Quality of Knowledge
VIII. Section 2: Dimensions of Learner-Centered Learning
i. Developmental and Socio-Cultural Dimensions of Learning
a. Defining Key Terms Related to Social Constructivism
b. The Social-Constructivist View of Learning
c. The Situated Learning Theory
d. Activity #4: Teaching Methodologies
 ii. Social Interactions, Interpersonal Relations, And Communication in
the Learning Process
a. Social Interactions
b. Interpersonal Relations
c. Communication
d. The School/Classroom as a Social Entity
e. Activity #5: Apply
IX. Section 3: Individual Differences in Learning
i. Concepts of Individual Differences in Learning
a. Intelligence and Individual Differences
b. Concepts about Intelligence
c. Theories about Intelligence
1. Faculty Theory
2. One-factor or Uni-factor Theory
3. Charles Spearman’s Two-factor Theory
4. Edward Thorndikes’ Multi-factor Theory
5. Louis L. Thurnstone’s Primary Mental Abilities/Group Factor
Theory
6. Joy Paul Guilford’s Model of the Structure of Intellect
7. Philip E. Vernon’s Hierarchal Theory
8. Cattel-Horn Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence Theory
9. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory
10. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
11. David Perkins’ Analysis of Research Studies on the
Measurement of IQ and Programs Developing Better IQ
12. Jean Piaget’s Theory of Intellectual Development
d. Activity #6: Theory of Intelligence
X. Post-Test
XI. Answer Key
XII. References
INSTRUCTION TO THE LEARNERS
1. At the beginning of each module, you should take the pre-test to find out in which
area of this module you have difficulties.
2. Activities are given to some selected topics. You will see in here if you understood
the topic. Try to answer all the activities thoroughly and completely. Follow the
instructions given in each activity carefully.
3. If you are not sure with your answers, try to review the lecture part.
4. Consult your teacher only when you have difficulties with the module which you
cannot solve by yourself.
5. After the completion of this module, answer the Post-test.
6. If you do not reach the standard score for the post test, you will have to go through
the module again.
PRE-TEST
Multiple Choice: Select the letter of the best answer.
1. One of eight abilities or intelligences according to Howard Gardner is naturalistic
intelligence. What activity would best develop this intelligence?
a. Listening to an alphabet song to learn the letter b sound.
b. Going to the mountain to learn different species of plants.
c. Doing exercises in identifying the different animals of the feline family.
d. Using a model to learn about the digestive system.
2. Jean Piaget’s theory of intellectual development asserts that the development of
intelligence through stages. Which of the following can one perform if his
intellectual development is at the highest?
a. He can solve complex word problem in mathematics.
b. He can tell the smell of roses.
c. He can spell words like “pretty” but doesn’t understand its meaning.
d. He can multiply two 2-digit numbers.
3. “Learner-centered” means:
a. Providing the positive learning environment for students of all ages.
b. Focusing learning activities on the students.
c. Engaging students in classroom activities.
d. Preparing learning materials suited for K-12 students.
4. Which is NOT about learning style?
a. One can have a mix of learning styles.
b. Variations in learning style within a person is influenced by different factors.
c. An individual has one fixed learning style/
d. All learning styles promote learning.
5. Metacognition is influenced by several factors except one:
a. Age
b. Intelligence
c. Education Level
d. Inquiry Method
SECTION 1

UNDERSTANDING LEARNING
Section Intended Learning Outcome (SILO)
Demonstrate understanding of learner-centered theories of learning and the
types of learning.

There are three chapters related to the study and understanding of learning.
Supportive to these are the learning outcomes along the following topics:

a. Analysis of learner-centered theories of learning.

b. Comparison of child, adolescent, and adult learning.
c. Categorizing knowledge according to type: declarative, procedural, and
functional.

CHAPTER 1: LEARNER-CENTERED THEORIES OF LEARNING

Introduction
The term "learning" and all other concepts related to it, expectedly form a major
part of the experiences for you who are studying to become teachers. As such, it is
important for you to understand the nature of learning, because you play a major role in
the students learning. Knowing and understanding learning-related concepts will enable
you to better develop teaching methodologies and other interventions meant to improve,
enhance, and facilitate learning.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Analyze learner-centered theories of learning.

LEARNING POINT: THE NATURE OF LEARNING

✓ Learning is generally defined as any change in the behavior of the learner, the
change can be deliberate or unintentional, for better or for worse, correct or incorrect
and conscious or unconscious (Mayer, 2011; and Schunk, 2012 in Woolfolk, 2013).
✓ Learning is a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences
and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one's knowledge, skills, values,
attitudes, behavior and world views ("Education, n. d.).
✓ Burns (1995) defined learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior with
behavior including both observable activity and internal processes such as thinking,
attitudes, and emotions.
✓ Santrock (2012, p. 217) defined learning as a relatively permanent influence on
behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills that comes about through experience.
The definition of learning covers the following elements:
a. It is a long-term change (though it does not necessarily last forever).
b. The change is brought about by experience.
c. It does not include changes that are physiological like maturation, mental illness
fatigue, hunger or the like.
d. It involves mental representation or association, presumably, it has its basis in
the brain.
✓ Woolfolk (2016) asserts that "learning occurs when experience (including practice)
causes a relatively permanent change in an individual's knowledge, behavior or
potential for behavior.
✓ For Ormrod (2015), "Learning is a long-term change in mental representations or
associations as a result of experience.
✓ Learning is also defined as "any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs
as a result of practice and experience.”
From the definitions, learning has three important elements:
a) a change in behavior, better or worse;
b) change takes place through practice or experience, (not changes due to growth or
maturation); and,
c) behavior change must be relatively permanent and last for a fairly long time.
Types of Learning
There are types of learning resulting from engagement or participation in classroom
activities. These types of learning are basic ingredients to success in school. These are
what schools desire of students to develop.
a. Motor Learning. It is a form of learning for one to maintain and go through daily life
activities as for example, walking, running, driving, and the like. These activities involve
motor coordination
b. Verbal Learning. It involves the use of spoken language as well as the
communication devices used. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds are tools
used in such activities.
c. Concept Learning. A form of learning which requires the use of higher-order mental
processes like thinking, reasoning, and analyzing. It involves two processes: abstraction
and generalization.
d. Discrimination Learning. It is learning to differentiate between stimuli and
responding appropriately to cheese stimuli. An example is being able to distinguish the
sound of horns of different vehicles like bus, car, and ambulance
e. Learning of Principles. It is learning principles related to science, mathematics,
grammar and the like Principles show the relationship between two or more concepts,
some examples of which are formulas, laws associations, correlations, and the like.
f. Problem Solving. This is a higher-order thinking process. This learning requires the
use of cognitive abilities such as thinking, reasoning observation, imagination, and
generalization.
g. Attitude Learning. Attitude is a predisposition which determines and predicts
behavior learned attitudes influence one's behavior toward people, objects, things or
ideas ("Learning: Meaning. Nature, Types and Theories of Learning n. d.)

LEARNING POINT: NATURE OF THEORIES OF LEARNING

A learning theory is an organized set of principles explaining how individuals
acquire, retain, and recall knowledge. Learning theories try to explain how people learn
and why they learn. They also try to explain the phenomenon of learning - its nature,
and the conditions under which learning best occurs. The explanations are, however,
considered as tentative Be as it may, these statements are not the result of guesswork.
Instead, they are well studied or seriously thought out, and in many cases, the result of
scientific study These theories especially guide teachers to have a better understanding
of how learning occurs and how learners learn ('Educational Learning and Learning
Theories, 'n d.).
The term "learning" may mean differently to different people and used differently
by different theorists. As theories of learning evolved over time, definitions of learning
shifted from changes that occur in the mind or behavior of an individual, to changes in
participation in gang activities with other individuals, to changes in a person's identity
within group. (Theories of Learning' n. d.)
LEARNING POINT: DEFINING “LEARNER-CENTERED”
Learner-centered is the perspective that focuses on individual learners – their
heredity, experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interest, capacities, and
needs, with a focus on learning – the best available knowledge about learning and how
it occurs, and about teaching practices that are most effective in promoting the highest
levels of motivation, learning, and achievement for all learners.
These are the main ideas of these principles:
a. They pertain to the learner and the learning process.
b. They focus on psychological factors primarily internal and under the control of the
learner.
c. They deal with external or contextual factors that interact with the internal factors.
d. They are seen as an organized set of principles; no principle to be viewed in
isolation.
 e. The principles are classified under cognitive, metacognitive, motivational,
affective, developmental, social, and individual difference factors related to
learning.
f. These principles apply not only to all learners but to everybody involved in the
educational system.
Listed below are the learner-centered psychological principles which provide the bases
for understanding better the learner, and what learning is and should be (Workgroup of
the American Psychological Association Board of Educational Affairs, 1997 cited in
Santrock, 2011).
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the Learning Process. Learning of complex subject matter is most
effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information
and experience.
2. Goals of the Learning Process. The successful learner, over time, with support
and guidance can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of Knowledge. The learner can relate new information in
meaningful ways.
4. Strategic Thinking. The learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex goals.
5. Thinking About Thinking. Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring
mental operations facilities creative and critical thinking.
6. Context of Learning. Learning is influenced by environmental factors including
culture, technology, and instructional practices.
Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and Emotional Influences in Learning. What and how much is
learned is influenced by the learner’s level of motivation. Motivation to learn is in
turn influenced by the learner’s emotional states, beliefs, interests, goals and
habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn. Learning is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty
and difficulty, relevant to personal interest, and providing for personal choice and
control.
9. Effects of Motivation on Effort. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills
requires extended learner effort guided practice. Without this motivation
willingness to exert effort is unlikely, unless coerced.
Development and Social Factors
10. Influences on Learning. As individuals develop, they encounter different
opportunities and experiences, as well as constraints for learning. Learning is most
effective when differential within and across physical, intellectual, emotional and
social domains is taken into account.
 11. Social Influences on Learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and communication with others.
Individual Difference Factors
12. Individual Difference in Learning. Learners have different strategies,
approaches and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and
heredity.
13. Learning and Diversity. Learning is most effective differences in learner’s
linguistic, social, and cultural backgrounds are taken into account.
14. Standards and Assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging
standards and assessing the learner and learning progress – including diagnostic
and outcome assessment are integral parts of the learning process.
✓ Santrock (2011) identifies some learner-centered instructional strategies which
address learner’s needs. They are:
1. Problem-Based Learning
This strategy emphasizes real-life problem-solving. It exposes learners to
authentic life problem that they meet in their daily lives.
2. Essentials Question
Essentials questions are asked of learners, which perplex them. This is
followed by other questions, which motivate the students to explore the questions
and look for answers.
3. Discovery Learning
This approach is in contrast to direct-instruction approach.

LEARNING POINT: THEORIES OF LEARNING

Earlier on, the nature of theories of learning has been discussed. It must be noted
that there are many theories of learning as a result of continuous study and research, in
search for the truth. It is the dynamic nature of theories that enable us to understand
better a complex phenomenon, as learning.
Behaviorism
✓ Behaviorism is a world view that assumes the learner is essentially passive,
responding to environmental stimuli.
✓ This perspective emerged in the early 1900s through the research efforts of Ivan
Pavlov and Edward Thorndike who made more objective studies about learning
as opposed to the studies on learning which relied heavily on introspection.
✓ The learner stars off with a clean slate (i.e., tabula rasa) and behavior is learned
or shaped through positive reinforcement.
 ✓ Behaviorism is a world view that operates on the principle of “stimulus-response”
(S-R).
✓ Learning is promoted by environmental factors like reinforcement, feedback,
practice or repetition (“Behaviorism,” n. d.).
✓ Following are the basic assumptions of behaviorism, which many behaviorists
share (Ormrod, 2015, pp.52-53).
a. Principles of learnings should apply equally to different behaviors and to a variety
of animal species.
b. Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of study is on
the stimuli and responses.
c. Internal processes tend to be excluded or minimized in theoretical explanations.
d. Learning involves a behavior change.
e. Organisms are born as blank slates.
f. Learning is largely the result of environmental events.
g. The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious (or concise).
✓ The areas of application of theories under behaviorism are listed below: (Ormrod,
2015 and Kelly, September, 2012)
a. Drill/Rote work
b. Repetitive practice
c. Giving bonus points
d. Giving participation points
e. Verbal reinforcement
f. Establishing rules
g. Giving of rewards
h. Applying punishment
i. Giving feedback
j. Positive reinforcement
k. Token reinforcers
l. Negative reinforcement
Cognitivism or Cognitive Constructivism
✓ The cognitive revolution in the late 1950s to 1960s replaced behaviorism as the
dominant paradigm for learning.
✓ The human mind is seen as a “black box” and it is necessary to open it for a better
understanding of how people learn.
✓ Mental processes such as memory, knowing, problem-solving reasoning and other
such processes need to be explored.
✓ Cognitivism requires active participation in order to learn and actions are seen as
a result of thinking.
✓ Knowledge can be seen as schemata
✓ Learning is thought of as an internal process rather than simply dealing with or
responding to external stimuli.
 ✓ Learning involves the reorganization of experiences, either by attaining new
insights or changing old ones.
✓ Thus, learning is a change in knowledge which is stored in memory and not just a
change in behavior (Kelly, September 2012).
✓ Example and application of the cognitive learning theory (Kelly, September 2012).
a. Classifying or chunking information
b. Linking concepts (associate new content with something known)
c. Providing structure (organization lectures in efficient and meaningful ways)
d. Real world examples
e. Discussions
f. Problem-solving
g. Analogies
h. Imagery/providing pictures
i. Mnemonics
Social Constructivism
✓ As a worldwide or paradigm that emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, it posits the
learning is an active constructive process. The learner himself constructs
knowledge.
✓ People actively construct or create their own representation of objectives reality.
✓ Learning is seen as an active contextualized process of constructing knowledge
instead of simply acquiring it.
✓ The theory is about preparing the individual to solve problems. Thus, the
individual needs to have a wide and significant base of knowledge upon which to
create and interpret ideas.
✓ Following are some application of social constructivism (Kelly, September 2012)
a. Case Studies
b. Research Projects
c. Problem Solving
d. Brainstorming
e. Collaborative Learning/Group Work
f. Discovery Learning
g. Simulation
✓ The application of social constructivism show that class activities which require
the participation and contributions of many learners in a task enables learning to
occur.
The table below presents some salient points about the above-mentioned theories of
learning considered as basic to the further study of learning.
BEHAVIORIS COGNITIVE SOCIAL
M CONSTRUCTIVISM CONSTRUCTIVI
SM
 View of Knowledge Knowledge systems of Knowledge is
Knowledg is a cognitive structures are constructed
e repertoire of actively constructed by within social
behavior learners based on contexts
responses to cognitive structures. through
environment interactions with
al stimuli. a knowledge
community.
View of Passive Active assimilation and Integration of
Learning absorption accommodation of new students into a
of a information to existing knowledge
predefined cognitive structures. community.
body of Discovery by learners. Collaborative
knowledge assimilation and
by the accommodation
learner. of new
Promoted by information.
repetition
and positive
reinforcemen
t.
View of Extrinsic, Intrinsic, learners set their Intrinsic and
Motivation involving own goals and motivate extrinsic.
positive and themselves to learn. Learning goals
negative motivate and
reinforcemen motives are
t. determined both
by learners and
extrinsic
rewards
provided by the
knowledge
community.
Implicatio Correct Teacher facilities learning Collaborative
ns for behavioral by providing an learning is
Teaching responses environment that facilitated and
are promotes discovery and guided by the
transmitted assimilation/accommodati teacher Group
by teachers on. work.
and
absorbed by
students.

Thus far, the theories of learning presented above are considered as forerunners
of the study of learning theories. Each theory projects its own points and tries to
relate specific factors along a particular perspective to learning. It would be good,
 however, to look at the other theories of learning that consequently evolved
following the basic theories (“Strengthening Education,” n. d.)

1. Social Learning Theory

✓ This theory was espoused by Albert Bandura who works with both
cognitive and behaviorist frameworks that embrace attention, memory,
and motivation.
✓ This theory suggest that people learn within a social context and that
learning is facilitated through concepts like modeling, observational
learning, and imitation.
✓ The importance of positive role modeling on learning is well-established.
Implications of Social Learning on the Practice of Education
a. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing people.
b. Describing consequences of behavior can effectively increase appropriate
behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones.
c. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. It can
provide a faster, more efficient means of teaching new behavior.
d. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care not to
model inappropriate behaviors.
e. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models to break down
traditional stereotypes.
2. Socio-constructivism
✓ In the late 20th century, the constructive view of learning was further
changed by the perspective of “situated cognition and learning.”
✓ It emphasized the significant role of context particularly social interaction
is learning
✓ Criticism against the information-processing between constructivist
approach to cognition and learning became stronger as the pioneer work
of Leo Vygotsky as well as anthropological and ethnographic research
by scholars like Barbara Rogoff and Jean Lave came to the fore and
gathered support.
✓ In the new view, cognition and learning are understood as interaction
between the individual and a situation; knowledge is considered as
situated and is a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it
is formed and utilized.
✓ This gave way to the new metaphor, for learning as “participation and
social negotiation.”
Implications of Socio-Constructivism on the Practice of Education
a. Teachers should create opportunities for students to engage in group work or
cooperative learning.
 b. In group or cooperative work, should makes sure that each learner is able to
make his contribution to accomplish the task.
c. The topics or subject matter should contain local instructional materials which
are familiar to the learners. This is for more meaningful learning.
d. Local resources should be used as jump off point for group discussions, and
problem-solving tasks.
3. Experiential Learning
✓ Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist
theories of learning but situate experience at the core of the learning
process.
✓ They aim to understand the manner in which experiences, whether
first-or secondhand motivate learners and promote their learning.
✓ Carl Rogers is an influential proponent of these theories suggesting
that experiential learning is “self-initiated” learning as people have a
natural inclination to learn; and they learn if they are fully involved in
the learning process. Rogers put forward the following insights: a)
learning can only be facilitated; b) learners become more rigid under
threat; c) significant learning occurs in an environment where threat
to the learner is reduced to a minimum; d) learning is most likely to
occur and to last if it is self-initiated.
Implications of Experiential Learning to the Practice Education
a. Teachers should be keen and sensitive to the history and experiences of the
learners, which could serve as inputs for related lessons.
b. Teachers should make sure that they have a feel of the experiences of the
students.
c. Teachers should apply strategies meant to facilitate and guide students’
learning.
4. Multiple Intelligence (MI)
✓ This theory challenges the assumptions in many learning theories that
learning is a universal human process that all individuals experience
according to the same principles.
✓ Howard Gardner’s theory of intelligence challenges the understanding
that intelligence is dominated by a single general ability.
✓ He argues that intelligence actually consist of many distinct
intelligences: logico-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily-
kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal ability, and naturalistic
ability.
5. Situated Learning Theory and Community of Practice
✓ They draw from many of the learning ideas earlier presented.
✓ These concepts were developed by Jean Lave and Ettiene Wenger.
✓ Situated learning recognizes that there is no learning that is not situated.
 ✓ It emphasized the relational and negotiated character if knowledge and
learning as well as the engaged nature of learning activity for the
individuals involved.
✓ Interactions taking place within a community of practice, i.e.
cooperation, problem solving building trust, understanding and relations-
have the potential to foster community social capital that enhance the
community members’ well-being

According to McCarthy (1981, 1987) the concept of communicate of practice is

based on the following assumptions:
a. Learning is fundamentally a social phenomenon.
b. Knowledge is integrated in the life of communities that share values, beliefs,
language and ways of doing things.
c. The process of learning and membership in a community of practice are
inseparable.
d. Knowledge is inseparable from practice.
e. Empowerment or the ability to contribute to a community creates the potential
for learning.
6. 21st Century Learning Skills
✓ The study of exploration of 21st century learning or skills emerged from
the concerns about transforming the goals and daily practice of learning
to meet the new demands of the 21st century characterized as
knowledge and technology-driven.
✓ These are skills necessary for students to master for them to experience
schools and life success in increasingly digital and connected age.
ACTIVITY #1: Assessing Theories of Learning
Name: __________________________________ Date: __________________
A. Name two highlights of social constructivism.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

B. Describe two examples of classroom activities that are in keeping with social

learning theory.

Example 1:

Example 2:

C. Name two important reasons why students should learn and develop 21 st century

skills.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

D. Given all the theories presented and learned in this chapter, what gives them the
characteristics of being learner-centered?

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 2 – CHILD, ADOLESCENT, AND ADULT LEARNING
Introduction
✓ Several factors both internal and external to the individual relate to the kind, or
even rate of learning.
✓ One of these factors is age, which in fact is tied to developmental levels.
✓ Human development goes development goes through stages, each having
unique characteristics.
✓ As such, it is expected that patterns of growth and development differ from one
developmental stage to the other.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Compare child, adolescent, and adult learning.

LEARNING POINT: PRINCIPLES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. Development proceeds in an orderly and predictable pattern. Development
occurs through developmental milestones, defined as developmentally more
advanced behavior, which appear in a predictable manner.
2. There are periods of rapid growth spurts in between periods of slower
growth. It means development is not constant.
3. Different individuals at different rates. Most often, average age for the entire
development period is used to describe learners.
4. Development is continually affected by both nature (heredity) and nurture
(environment) (Hurst, n.d).
LEARNING POINT: YOUNG LEARNERS (CHILDREN)
Following are the characteristics of young learners.
1. They can learn through talking about themselves, families, and their lives.
2. They are curious to learn and discover new concepts on their own.
3. They like to use their imagination and discover things.
4. They naturally need touch, see, hear and interact to learn
5. Their attentions span is very short; thus, they need engaging and entertaining
activity so as not to lose their interest.
6. They like to cooperate and work in groups.
7. They need support and encouragement while learning.
8. They need to work with their students individually because they need to be
guided (Differences of Young, Adolescent and Adult Learners,” 2018).
LEARNING POINT: ADOLOSCENT LEARNING
Following are the characteristics of adolescent learners.
 1. They are in search for personal identity.
2. They are in need of activities that meet their needs and learning expectations.
3. They become disruptive when they lost interest in the lesson or if they feel bored.
4. They need help and support from the teacher and to be provided with
constructive feedback.
5. They can draw upon a variety of resources in the learning environment including
personal experience, the local community, and their internet.
6. They need the teachers to build bridges between the syllabus and their world of
interest and experiences.
7. They can learn abstract issues and do challenging activities.
8. Their personal initiative and energy are moved into action through meaningful
involvement with relevant and current content (“Differences of Young, Adolescent
and Adult Learners,” 2018)
LEARNING POINT: ADULT LEARNING
Malcolm Knowles is a theorist on adult learning and who popularized the concept
of andragogy. This term means the art and science of helping adults learn,
contrasting it with pedagogy which is the art and science of teaching children. He did
research on adult learning. Based on his findings, following are posited about adult
learners’ characteristics along five areas:
1. Self-concept. Adults move from dependency to increasing self-directedness as
they mature.
2. Adult learner experiences. They draw on accumulated experiences as their
resource for learning.
3. Readiness to learn. They are ready to learn when they assume new social life
or life roles.
4. Orientation to learning. They are problem-centered and they want to apply new
learnings immediately.
5. Motivation to learn. They are motivated to learn by internal rather than by
external factors (Teaching Excellence in Adult Literacy, 2011)
What makes adult learners different from adolescent and young learners?
1. Adults are more disciplined than adolescents.
2. They have a clear understanding of their learning objectives.
3. They need to be involved in choosing what and how to learn.
4. They prefer to rely on themselves and work on their own pace.
5. They come on the classroom with a wide range of knowledge, expectations, and
experiences.
6. They are able to do a wide range of activities.
7. Adults learn at various rates and in different ways according to their intellectual
ability educational level, personality and cognitive learning styles.
 8. They come into the classroom with diverse experiences, opinions, thoughts, and
beliefs which need to be respected (“Differences of Young, Adolescent and Adult
Learners, 2018).
The following table shows the differences between adult and adolescent learning in
terms of characteristics of the learning experiences.
Pedagogy (Adolescent) Andragogy (Adult)
Teacher-structured Learner-structured
Minimal control by the learner Minimal control by the teacher
Focus on training for events to come Focus on assimilation of learning from
past experiences
Encourage convergent thinking Encourages divergent thinking
Focus on memory Focus on thinking/doing
Content supplied by teacher/class Content supplied partially by students
materials
Based on specified content standards Outcome evolve as learning progresses

Educational Implications for Teaching Adult Learners

On the basis of the characteristics of adults, following are some implications for
teaching this group of learners, and suggestion given by Malcolm Knowles.
a. Set a cooperative climate for learning in the classroom.
b. Assess the learner’s specific needs and interest because these are the more
important things he wants to learn.
c. Develop learning objectives based on the learner’s needs, interest and skills
level.
d. Design sequential activities to achieve the objectives.
e. Work collaboratively with the learner to select methods, materials and resources
for instruction.
f. Evaluate the quality of the learning experience and make adjustments as
needed, while assessing needs for further learning.
g. The experiences provided them should be problem-centered rather than content
oriented (Kearsley, 2010; Knowles, n. d.)
h. They have to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instructions.
ACTIVITY #2: Child, Adolescent, and Adult Learning
Name: __________________________________ Date: __________________
Conduct a simple interview with a child, adolescent, and an adult. “Where do you
want to live, in the city? Or in the barrio? State your reasons for your answer.” Take
notes of their answers. Encourage each one to talk about or explain his/her answer in
greater detail.
Child

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Adolescent

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Adult

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CHAPTER 3: DECLARATIVE, PROCEDURAL, AND FUNCTIONAL KNOWLEDGE

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Categorize knowledge according to type: declarative, procedural, and functional
knowledge.

LEARNING POINT: CATEGORIES OF KNOWLEDGE

Acquisition of knowledge is one of the outcomes of the learning process. The
other outcomes have something to do with acquisition and development of skills,
attitudes, values, and a lot more. Among these, however, knowledge is basic. One has
to have knowledge, as for example, before he can develop certain attitudes or skills.
Declarative Knowledge
Declarative knowledge is the information acquired that one can speak about. It is
that which we know (“Declarative Learning,” n.d). It is the information that one can
“declare.” The capital of a country is a declarative piece of information. They are facts
and events that can be explicitly stored and consciously recalled or declared
(Zimmerman, 2014).
Declarative knowledge is a product of declarative learning. it is that skill that we
use to acquire new information. Declarative learning is associated with tasks that
require greater amount of attention as what happens in school.
As a process, declarative learning occurs consciously and most often through
memorization. As such, it is language-based and is dependent on memory. It is the
means through which much new information is acquired, both in education and for
personal improvement. What students know is declarative learning.
In education, declarative knowledge strategies are those that can help the
learner construct meaning. (Harris, n.d.) by linking new learning with existing
knowledge, as for example, stating instructional purposes, and/or previewing lessons,
organization and chunking information into recognizable patterns, or coming up with
mnemonic devices and elaborating to fill knowledge gaps with the help of inference.
There are three subtypes of declarative knowledge cognition (Harris, n.d.).
a. Labels and names (pairing information)
b. Facts and lies (describing relationship)
c. Organization discourse (thread of meaning running throughout)
Procedural Knowledge
As opposed to declarative knowledge, it refers to what one can do and what one
is able to do. An example of procedural knowledge is knowing how to ride a bike. Other
concepts related to procedural learning include automatic or habitual learning referred
to as motor learning and/or procedural learning (“Declarative Learning,” n.d.).
Procedural knowledge may not have a language component; can be performed without
conscious thought or attention given to the process; sometimes learned implicitly rather
than explicitly (“Declarative Learning” n. d.).
Functional Knowledge
It is any piece of stored information that can be adapted and applied to different
circumstances, or are transferable to different setting. Functionality of that knowledge is
the key. Functional learning is how people acquire and categories data often referred to
as “schema” by cognitive theories.
Other Ways of Classifying Knowledge
Following are other ways of classifying knowledge.
a. Episode Knowledge
Refers to biological memory reflecting not only what happened but also
where and when it happened.
b. Semantic Knowledge
Deals with memories and information but not tied to personal biographies.
It is organized knowledge about facts, concepts, generalizations, and their
associations.
Anderson & Krathwohl (2001) claim that there are three subtypes of
semantic knowledge.
a. Declarative. Statement of truth that deals with what we know about the
world.
b. Procedural. Knowledge of about how things are done.
c. Conditional. If declarative knowledge account for what, if procedural
knowledge accounts for how, conditional knowledge accounts for
knowing when.
Declarative Knowledge is organized according to various levels:
a. Descriptions
b. Time elements
c. Process
d. Causal relationship
e. Episodes
f. Generalization
g. Principles
h. Concepts
Dimension of Knowledge
Following are the dimensions of knowledge as identified by Anderson & Kratwohl
(2001)
 a. Conceptual Knowledge. Knowledge of classification, principles,
generalizations, theories, models situations pertinent to a particular discipline.
b. Metacognitive Knowledge. Awareness of one’s own cognition and
particular cognitive processes.
c. Factual. Knowledge basic to specific disciplines like science or math.
LEARNING POINT: EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE
ACQUISITION
As earlier mentioned, appropriate interventions or activities given to students, as
well as appropriate methodologies will help improve the quality of the knowledge
acquired by students. Santrock (2011) claimed that mental process of experts can help
the teacher guide the students into becoming more effective learners. The question is,
“What is it exactly that the experts do?” Studies have shown that experts are better than
novices along the following.
a. Detecting features and meaningful patterns of information
b. Accumulating more content knowledge and organizing it in a manner that
indicates understanding of the topic
c. Retrieving important aspects of knowledge with little effort
d. Adapting an approach to new situations
e. Using effective strategies
Knowing the above approaches that experts use in dealing with knowledge information,
teacher would be able to determine appropriate strategies to help students also apply
these approaches that experts use.
a. Detecting Features and Meaningful Patterns of Organization. Experts are
better able to detect important features of problems and context not noticed by
novices.
b. Organization and Depth of information. Experts’ knowledge is organized
around the important ideas or concepts.
c. Fluent Retrieval. Experts along a certain area, are able to retrieve information
fluently or without much effort.
d. Adaptive Expertise. Experts are able to approach unique or new situations in a
flexible manner and are not limited to the “old” approach they usually use.
e. Strategies. Experts use effective strategies in understanding information in their
area of expertise and in advancing it. Acclimation is the initial stage of expertise
in a particular domain (science, mathematics).
f. Spreading Out and Consolidating Learning. teachers should always talk to
students on the importance to reviewing and monitoring regularly what they have
learned;
g. Asking Themselves Question. Teachers should encourage students to ask
themselves question.
h. Taking Good Notes. This refers to taking good notes while reading a text or
from a lecture.
 • Summarizing: Have children listen first, then deduce the main idea.
• Outlining: This requires writing down the main topic and then the sub-
topics.
• Using concept maps: They visually portray information in spider-like
format.
i. Using a Study System. This refers to a system that students should adapt for
studying.
Certain types of teaching methods or techniques are appropriate to best develop
particular types of knowledge and outcomes. It therefore requires the teacher to know
exactly what kind of learning students need to develop.
a. For developing declarative knowledge, the appropriate methods would be to
provide activities on organizing, listing and elaborating to facilities learning.
b. For developing concept learning, application of learning is the most
appropriate.
c. For learning procedures, the application of procedural methods to reach the
final product is a good approach.
d. For learning of principles, cause and effects strategies are effective to teach
principles
ACTIVITY #3: Strategies to Improve the Quality of Knowledge
Name: __________________________________ Date: __________________

There are ways or strategies by which students can improve the quality of
knowledge that they have developed and acquired. Can you suggest one strategy of the
method (apart from those mentioned in this chapter) to improve the quality of the
knowledge that you have acquired?
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SECTION 2

DIMENSIONS OF LEARNER-CENTERED LEARNING

Section Intended Learning Outcome (SILO)
Relate the dimensions of learning in selecting effective strategies and
methodologies.

CHAPTER 4: DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIO-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF

LEARNING

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Analyze the developmental and socio-cultural dimensions of learning.

LEARNING POINT: DEFINING KEY TERMS RELATED TO SOCIAL

CONSTRUCTIVISM
• Context. The surrounding circumstances, or conditions or the environment upon
which learning occurs in them.
• Community of Practice. A group of people who share common interest or goals,
and regularly interact and coordinate their efforts, in pursuit of their interests and
goals.
• Authenticity. Closeness or resemblance to real-life situations and real-world tasks
and problems.
• Scaffolding. It is the help and support provided by an expert to a person or
student while in the process of learning.
• Culture. Refers to characteristics of the individual or society or of some subgroup
within a society.
• Social Constructivism. Refers to the emphasis on the social context of learning
and the idea that knowledge is mutually built and constructed.
LEARNING POINT: THE SOCIAL-CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING
• Lev Vygotsky, a developmental psychologist has laid some of the groundwork for
contextual theories by espousing that society and culture provide many concepts
and strategies that children can use in thinking about and solving everyday
problems.
• Vygotsky’s theory later came to be known as socio-cultural theory of learning.
• Following are the key ideas and concepts in Vygotsky’s theory (Ormrod, 2015):
1. Some cognitive processes are seen in a variety of species, but some are
unique to human beings.
 2. Through both informal conversations and formal schooling, adults convey
to children the ways in which the culture interprets and responds to the
world.
3. Every culture not only teachers its members how to interpret their
experiences, but also passes along the physical cognitive tools that make
daily living more effective and efficient.
4. Thought and language become increasingly interdependent the first few
years of life.
5. Complex mental processes emerge out of social activities; as children
develop, they gradually internalize the processes they use in social
context and begin to use them independently.
6. Children appropriate their culture’s tools in their own idiosyncratic manner.
7. Children can accomplish more difficult task if they are assisted by people
more advanced and competent than they are.
8. Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth. The process of
helping and supporting learners perform to the maximum is called
“scaffolding.”
9. Play allows children to cognitively “stretch” themselves. Play serves as the
children training ground for adulthood.
• Interaction with adults will help the child make sense of the world through
discussion of a phenomenon or event which both of them are experiencing. This
encourages the child to think about the particular phenomenon, attach labels to
it, or even recall the principles underlying it. This type of learning is mediated
learning experience.
• Scaffolding is a supportive technique, carried out by experts or competent
people which helps students of any age to perform and accomplish challenging
tasks even if at that time, they cannot yet perform these tasks independently – in
Vygotsky’s terms, even if such tasks are within their zone of proximal
development. Following are some forms of scaffolding (Ormrod, 2015):
a. Modeling the correct way of performing a task.
b. Dividing a big or complex task into smaller and simpler activities.
c. Setting guidelines for accomplishing a task.
d. Providing technology aids to make the task easier.
e. Keeping students’ attention focused on critical aspects of the task.
f. Asking questions that get the students focus on the task.
g. Giving frequent feedback about how student is progressing.
• Participation and gradual entry into adult activities increase the probability that
children will engage in behaviors and thinking skills within their zone of proximal
development.
• Apprenticeship is actually a guided participation where a novice works with an
expert mentor for a certain period to learn how to perform complex tasks in a
particular domain. Apprenticeship can show novices how experts typically think
about a task or activity. This is known as cognitive apprenticeship. All kinds of
 apprenticeships have the following features: (Collins, 2006 & 1989; in Ormrod,
2015):
a. Modeling. The mentor performs the task at the same time thinking aloud or
talking about the process while the learner listens.
b. Coaching. The mentor frequently gives suggestions, hints, and feedback as
learner performs the task.
c. Scaffolding. The mentor provides different forms of support for the learner,
like simplifying the task, breaking a task into smaller and more manageable
units, or providing less complicated equipment.
d. Articulation. The learning explains what he is doing and why, allowing the
mentor to examine or analyze the learner’s knowledge, reasoning, and
problem-solving strategies.
e. Reflection. The mentor asks the learner to compare his performance with that
if experts, or with a model of how the task should be done.
f. Increasing Complexity and Diversity of Tasks. With increasing learner’s
proficiency, the mentor presents more complex, challenging and varied tasks
to accomplish.
g. Exploration. The mentor encourages the learner to frame questions and
problems on his own and in doing so refine and expand his acquired skills.
• Acquisition of teaching skills is also one benefit gained from the use of socio-
constructivist approach to learning.
• Dynamic assessment often reveals more objective evaluation of children’s
cognitive capabilities, than general assessments do.
• There are certain teaching methodologies, approaches, and techniques that the
teacher can use – methods that are in keeping Vygotsky’s socio-constructivist
view of learning.
a. Peer Tutoring. This involves allowing students to act as tutors and tutee.
Time should be spent on training tutors.
b. Cooperative Learning. This is giving opportunity for students to work in
small groups and help each other learn.
c. Group Discussion. A problem-solving task may be assigned to a group and
the group can develop its own structure on how to go about solving the
problem.
LEARNING POINT: THE SITUATED LEARNING THEORY
• Situated cognition or situated learning is a theory that suggests learning is
“naturally tied to authentic, activity, context and culture” (Brown, Collins &
Duguid, 1989).
• A sociologist and learning theorist Jean Lave, is one of the notable proponents of
situated learning theory. Following are the highlights or the main ideas of the
situated learning theory that she advanced (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989, Vol
89, pp.32-42.)
a. Knowledge is socially-constructed.
b. Knowledge evolves naturally as a result of individuals participating in and
negotiating their way through new situation.
c. Knowing, learning and cognition are socially-constructed, that are seen or
expressed in actions of people and people interacting.
d. Construction of meaning is tied to specific contexts and purposes.
e. Learning is fundamentally social and inseparable from practice it is supposed
to develop.
f. Learning is situated within authentic activity, context, and culture.
g. Situated cognition is a way of naming the kind of learning that takes place in
and through common practices among group people with similar goals and
interests.
h. Learning is in part about increased participation and that it is legitimate to
participate in different ways.
i. Culture models are not held by individuals but live in the practices of a
community, and how people engage with each other, as well as any tools
they use, and the specific cultural context.
j. Designing learning experiences form situated learning perspectives start with
some assumptions that learning is grounded in the actions of everyday
situations.
1. Knowledge is product of making and creating meanings, and cannot be
separated from its context.
2. Learning is a continuous, life-long process from acting within and
reacting to situations.
3. The tools or learning and their usage reflect the particular accumulated
insights of communities of practice.
4. Learning is a process of enculturation.
ACTIVITY #4: Teaching Methodologies
Name: __________________________________ Date: __________________
Assume you are a teacher. Write an essay on the topic: “What teaching methodologies
can I use to improve the performance of my students.” Apply the ideas and concepts
about the socio-cultural dimensions of learning.
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CHAPTER 5: SOCIAL INTERACTIONS, INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS, AND
COMMUNICATION IN THE LEARNING PROCESS

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Relate social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication in the learning
process.

LEARNING POINT: Social Interactions

• Social Interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals.
• Social interactions refer to how people act, and how they react to people around
them.
• Ervin Goffman, a sociologist, identified five types of social interactions namely:
exchange, competition, cooperation, conflict, and coercion (“Social Interactions”,
n. d.).
1. Exchange is a social process whereby social behavior is exchanged for some
type of reward of equal or greater value.
2. Competition is a social process by which two or more people attempt to attain
one goal.
3. Cooperation is a process by which people work together to attain a common
goal.
4. Conflict happens when there is disagreed or dissent on certain points among
group members.
5. Coercion is the process of persuading someone to do something or to
cooperate, using force, threat, or intimidation.
Interpersonal Relation
• Interpersonal relation has something to do with close, deep, or strong association
or acquaintance between two or more people that may range in duration from
brief to enduring.
• The types of interpersonal relationships are friendship, love, platonic relationship,
family relationship, and work relationship.
1. Friendship is an unconditional interpersonal relationship which individuals
enter into by their choice or will.
2. Love is a relationship characterized by love, intimacy, trust and respect
between individuals and might end up in marriage.
3. Platonic is a relationship between individuals but without feelings of desire to
each other.
4. Family refers to relationship between individuals related to each other by
blood or marriage.
5. Work relationship refers to the kind of relationship, of individuals who work for
the same organization.
Communication
• Communication refers to the exchange in meanings between individuals through
a common system of symbols, signs, behaviors.
• Communication is a two-way process of reaching understanding in which
participants not only exchange information, news, ideas or feelings but also
create and share meaning.
THE SCHOOL/CLASSROOM AS A SOCIAL ENTITY
• The school is a social entity comprising many individuals and groups, mainly,
students and teachers.
• The classroom or the school is an important institution from which the child
learns his first lessons in socialization.
• Social approval inside the classroom should also be felt by all students.
• A social climate in the classroom that is negative can bring about fear, anxiety,
restlessness.
• Teachers play an important role in students’ achievement.
• Wentzel (2009) found that students’ motivation is optimized when teachers
provide them with challenging tasks in a mastery-oriented environment that
includes good emotional and cognitive support, meaningful and interesting
material to learn and master, and sufficient support for autonomy and initiative.
• Higher levels of motivation are related to higher performance or achievement.
• Negative interactions may be due to the kind of communication taking place
between teachers and students.
• The kind of interaction with peers is a factor to students’ motivation, which is
important for learning to happen.
• It is this important that the social climate of the classroom or the school be
characterized by warmth brought about by positive interactions, good
communication, and good relationships between and among students and
teachers.
ACTIVITY #5: Apply
Name: __________________________________ Date: __________________
Below are critical incidents that would most likely occur inside the classroom. As
a future teacher, indicate what you are going to do, if the situations below happen in
your classroom.
1. The teacher asked a student to stand and answer a question, but the student
cannot answer the question.
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2. The teacher noticed that Paul was shy and would not want to answer the
teacher’s questions nor participant in class activities.
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3. The teacher noticed that three of his students were “isolates” and wouldn’t
want to participate in problem solving task.
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SECTION 3

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING

Section Intended Learning Outcome (SILO)
Design learning activities to address the diverse needs of learners.

CHAPTER 6: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Analyze concepts of individual differences in learning according to different theories of
intelligence; structural and process.

LEARNING POINT: INTELLIGENCE AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

• Intelligence is a significant source of variation among individuals.
• Individuals differences in intelligence bear on differences in other areas, like
emotional intelligence academic performance, learning styles and the like.
• Individuals differences provide the rationale why we study behavior, and why the
study of learning is challenging and interesting.
LEARNING POINT: CONCEPTS ABOUT INTELLIGENCE
• Understanding the nature of intelligence is a complex endeavor. The earlier
theories about the nature of intelligence involved any or more of the following
themes: (Woolfolk, 2013, p.119).
a. the capacity to learn
b. the total knowledge a person has acquired
c. ability to adapt to new situations and the environment in general
• Intelligence is such a complex concept and there has been much argument and
debate about it.
• Research findings show that there are moderate to high correlations among
different mental test and because of this, some psychologist believe that
intelligence is a basic ability that affects performance in all cognitively-oriented
tasks (Woolfolk, 2013, p. 119).
• Be as it may, there are certain behaviors which will indicate and lead one to
believe that a person is “intelligent.” And based on studies, following are the
components of what many experts and theorists understand intelligence to be
(Ormrod, 2015).
a. It is adaptive.
b. It is related to learning ability.
c. If involves use of prior knowledge to understand and analyze new situations
effectively.
 d. It involves the complex interaction and coordination of many different mental
processes.
e. It may be seen in different arenas.
f. It is “culture-specific.”
• Sternberg (1986) contends that where are two general classifications of the
definition of intelligence – the operational and the “real” definition. Operations
definition defines what intelligence is through the measure or the test that was
used. Real intelligence looks into the “true” nature of that characteristics being
defined. According to them, intelligence is the combination of the ability to:
a. Learn.
b. Recognize Problems.
c. Solve Problems.
• First, intelligence has to do with ability to solve problems.
• Second, one’s intelligence is also the product of experience and culture.
LEARNING POINT: THEORIES ABOUT INTELLIGENCE
• A theory is a tentative statement that tries to explain phenomenon, which in the
case, is the nature of intelligence.
I. FACULTY THEORY
• It is the oldest theory regarding the nature of learning.
• It espouses that the mind is made up of different faculties, like reasoning,
memory, discrimination, imagination, and the likes.
II. ONE-FACTOR OR UNI-FACTOR THEORY
• This theory asserts that all abilities are reduced to a single capacity of
general intelligence or “common sense”.
• It assumes that the different abilities are correlated and that they share
many things in common.
III. CHARLES SPEARMAN’S TWO- FACTOR THEORY
• This theory asserts that intellectual abilities comprise two factors – one
general ability or the g factor; and the specific abilities; also known as the
s factor.
• The g factor is a universal inborn ability, while the s factor is acquired from
the environment.
IV. EDWARDS THORNDIKE’S MULTI-FACTOR THEORY
• This theory asserts that there is no such thing as general ability. It says
that each mental ability requires an aggregate of different sets of abilities.
Following are the attributes of intelligence:
a. Level - It is the level of difficulty of the task that can be solved.
b. Range – Refers to a number of tasks at any given degree or level of
difficulties.
c. Area – The total number of situations at each level to which the
individuals is able to respond.
 d. Speed – The rapidity at which the individual respond to the situation or
stimulus.
V. LOUIS L. THURSTONE’S PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES/GROUP FARCTOR
THEORY
• This theory asserts that intelligent activities are not an expression of many
highly specific factors as espoused by Thorndike nor is it the expression of
a general factor that pervades all mental abilities as asserted by
Spearman.
• The Seven primary factors are:
1. Number Factor (N) – Ability to do numerical calculations rapidly and
accurately/ ability to solve mathematical problems.
2. Verbal Factors (V) – Ability to do tasks involving verbal
comprehension/ability to define and understand words.
3. Space Factor (S) – Ability to manipulate imaginary objects in space
(spatial visualization)/ability to visualize relationships.
4. Memory Factor (M) – Ability to memorize material quickly and recall
(associative memory).
5. Word Fluency Factor – Ability to think of isolated words at a rapid
rate/to produce words correctly.
6. Reasoning Factor (F) – Ability to discover or find a rule or principle
governing a series or group of materials.
7. Perception – Ability to see differences and similarities among objects.
VI. JOY PAUL GUILDFORD’S MODEL OF THE STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT
• Guilford proposed a 3-dimensional structure of intellect. According to Guilford,
every intellectual task can be classified according to combination of any of the
following:
a. Content – content has five categories namely visual, auditory,
symbolic, semantic, and behavioral.
b. Mental operations – has six categories namely cognition, memory
(retention and memory recording), divergent production, and
evaluation.
c. Products resulting from operation – the six categories are units,
classes, relations, systems transformations, and implications.

VII. PHILIP E. VERNON’S HIERARCHICAL THEORY

• This theory tries to bridge the gap between Spearman’s and Thurstone’s theories
which view intelligence as occurring on the extremes.
• Vernon contends that intelligence can be described as comprising abilities at
varying levels of generality, as follows:
a. the highest level: “g” (general intelligence) factor with the largest source of
variance between individuals (Spearman)
b. the next level: major group factors like verbal-numerical-educational ability
c. the next level: the minor group factors are deduced from major group factors
 d. the bottom level: “s” (specific) factors or Spearman

VIII. CATTELL-HORN FLUID AND CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE THEORY

• The fluid aspects assert that intelligence is a basic capacity due to inherited
genes and the crystallized theory is the capacity resulting from experiences,
learning, and environment.
• Hunt (1995, in Theories of Intelligence, n.d.) contends that human intellectual
competence is divided into three dimensions which he derived from the works of
Cattel in 1971 and Horn. They are:
a. Fluid Intelligence. It is the mental efficiency and reasoning ability associated
with brain development.
b. Crystallized Intelligence. Ability to bring previously acquired often culturally-
defined problem solving methods to bear on the current problem.
c. Visual-Spatial Reasoning. A somewhat specialized ability to use visual
images and visual relationships in problem-solving.
IX. HOWARD GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY
• Gardner identified eight components of intelligence (Chapman, 1996 & Lazier,
2000).

Intelligence Components Description of that Example of Occupation

Bodily/Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Interpersonal
Verbal/Linguistic
Logical/Mathematics
Intelligence Using that Intelligence
The ability to use one’s Dancers, athletes, acrobats
physical body well
The ability to sense Salespersons, PR persons,
another people’s feeling politicians
and be in tune with
them
The ability to know and Psychologists, therapists,
have a deep counselors/wise elders’
understanding of one’s monks/
own mind and body,
and be aware of one’s
own desires, feelings
and motives
The ability to Poets, writers, orators
communicate well,
orally and in writing,
perhaps in many
languages
The ability to learn Mathematics, engineers
science and

Musical/Rhythmic
Naturalistic
Visual/Spatial Ability
mathematics; the ability
to handle complex
logical arguments
The ability to learn, Musicians, composers
perform and compose
music
The ability to know and Biologist, naturalists
understand different
species (recognize
patterns in nature)
The ability to know Surgeons, sailors and
where one is relative to fishermen charting the sea
fixed locations; ability to without navigational aids.
accomplish tasks
requiring 3-dimensional
visualization; ability to
imagine and manipulate
visual objects in one’s
mind

X. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

• Sternberg considers intelligence as a mental activity directed towards purposive
adaption to selection, and shaping of real-world environment relevant to one’s
life.
• Sternberg asserts that intelligent behavior is an interplay of three factors, namely:
a. environmental context in which the behavior occurs
b. the way in which previous experiences are brought to bear on a
particular class
c. cognitive process required by the task
• While other researchers have identified different components of intelligence,
Sternberg focused only on three, domains, namely: (“Theories of Intelligence,”
n.d., Ormrod, 2015)
1. Practical Intelligence. Ability to do well in formal and informal
educational settings, adapting to and shaping one’s environment;
street smarts.
2. Experiential Intelligence. Ability to deal with novel situations, ability to
think in novel ways, ability to effectively automate ways of dealing with
novel situations so these are easily handled in the future.
3. Componential Intelligence. Ability to process information effectively.
XI. DAVID PERKINS’ ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH STUDIES ON THE MEASURMENT
OF IQ AND PROGRAMS FOR DEVELOPING BETTER IO
 • Perkins (1995, in “Theories of Intelligence,” n. d.) strongly support Gardner’s
theory of multiple intelligences. He came up with the assertion that intelligence
has three major components or dimensions.
1. Neural Intelligence. This is attributed to the efficiency and precision of
one’s neurological system.
2. Experiential Intelligence. Refers one’s accumulated knowledge and
experience in different areas.
3. Reflective intelligence. Refers to one’s broad-based strategies for
learning, for attacking problems, and for approaching intellectually-
challenging tasks.
XII. JEAN PIAGET’S THEORY OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT
• This theory asserts that the developing child builds intellectual structures or
schemas, mental maps of networked concepts for understanding and responding
to physical experiences in the environment.
• Following are Piaget’s stages of intellectual development:
1. Sensorimotor Stage (approx. 0 to 2 years): The child learns through
reflexes, sense and movement.
2. Preoperational Stage (approx. 2-7 years): At this stage, the child
begins to develop language and begins to use symbols to represent
objects.
3. Concrete Operations Stage (7-11): As physical experience
accumulates; the child starts to build logical structures that explain his
physical experiences.
4. Formal Operations Stage (11-15): By this time, the individual has
developed mental structures that enable him to do abstract reasoning.
ACTIVITY #6: Theories of Intelligence
Name: __________________________________ Date:
__________________
Group yourselves by 3’s. Discuss one of the theories of intelligence which you
consider very important for teachers to know about and understand. Go by these guide
questions.
1. What are the reasons why you think the theory you have selected is
important for teachers to know and understand? (If you want to know more
about the theory you have selected, you may read other books or websites).
_____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Examine the intelligence theory more closely. Cite the ways you think the
theory will be helpful in your teaching especially methods and techniques
you will be using, as well as the instructional materials you will use.
_____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
 POST-TEST
I. Multiple Choice: Select the letter of the best answer.
1. Jean Piaget’s theory of intellectual development asserts that the development of
intelligence through stages. Which of the following can one perform if his
intellectual development is at the highest?
a. He can solve complex word problem in mathematics.
b. He can tell the smell of roses.
c. He can spell words like “pretty” but doesn’t understand its meaning.
d. He can multiply two 2-digit numbers.
2. “Learner-centered” means:
a. Providing the positive learning environment for students of all ages.
b. Focusing learning activities on the students.
c. Engaging students in classroom activities.
d. Preparing learning materials suited for K-12 students.
3. One of eight abilities or intelligences according to Howard Gardner is naturalistic
intelligence. What activity would best develop this intelligence?
a. Listening to an alphabet song to learn the letter b sound.
b. Going to the mountain to learn different species of plants.
c. Doing exercises in identifying the different animals of the feline family.
d. Using a model to learn about the digestive system.
4. Metacognition is influenced by several factors except one:
a. Age
b. Intelligence
c. Education Level
d. Inquiry Method
5. Which is NOT about learning style?
a. One can have a mix of learning styles.
b. Variations in learning style within a person is influenced by different factors.
c. An individual has one fixed learning style.
d. All learning styles promote learning.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. What is your idea about the following:
a. Zone of Proximal Development
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
b. Procedural Knowledge
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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ANSWER KEY
1. A
2. A
3. B
4. D
5. C
REFERENCE
Brawner, D. G., & Leus, M. J. (2018). Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching. Adriana

Publishing Co., Inc.