1.

Hydraulic Turbines

1.1 General
Hydraulic turbines may be considered as hydraulic motors or prime movers of a water power
development, which convert water energy (hydropower) in to mechanical energy (shaft power). The shaft
power developed is used in running electricity generators directly coupled to the shaft of the turbine, thus
producing electrical power.

Figure 1.1: Energy head variation in turbine passages

1.2 Classification
All types of turbines basically fall in to two categories impulse and reaction turbines.

Impulse turbine: All the available potential energy is converted in to kinetic energy with the help of
contracting nozzle/s. The water after impinging on the curved vanes or bucket is discharged freely to the
downstream channel (eg. Pelton wheel)

Figure 1.2: Example of Pelton turbine arrangement (single nozzle)

Reaction turbines: In this type the water enters the turbine in a circumferential direction in to the
scroll case and moves into the runner through a series of guide vanes, called wicket gates. The available
energy partly converted to kinetic energy & substantial magnitude remains in the form of pressure energy
(e.g. Francis, Kaplan, Propeller, Bulb, etc)

Figure 1.3: Representation of flow pattern in Kaplan turbine

Turbines may also be classified according to the main direction of flow of water in the runner as
 Tangential flow turbine ( Pelton wheel)
 Radial flow turbine ( Francis)
 Mixed flow turbine (modern Francis )
 Axial flow turbine of fixed blade (Propeller) or movable blade (Kaplan or bulb) type.
Furthermore, turbines may be classified based on head, discharge, speed, specific speed.

1.3 Characteristics of Turbines

Specific speed: is useful parameter for the selection of turbine for a given condition: It is defined as the
speed at which a geometrically similar runner would rotate if it were so proportioned that it would
develop 1 Kw when operating under a head of 1m , and expressed as ( from dimensional analysis )
P
Ns  N
5
H 4
Where Ns = Specific speed
N = rotational speed (rpm)
P = Power developed (kw)
H = effective head (m)
Turbine or synchronous speed: Since turbine & generator are fixed, the rated speed of the turbine is the
same as synchronous speed of the generator. The speed N, for synchronous running is given by:
N  120 f
p
Where f = frequency cycle/sec (50-60 cycles/sec.)
p = number of poles (divisible by 4 for head up to 200 m)
(Divisible by 2 for head above 200 m)
The speed of a turbine is an important parameter of design. The higher the speed, the smaller the diameter
of the turbine runner & the cheaper the generator coupled to the turbine. High speed, however, makes a
turbine more susceptible to cavitation.
Speed factor or peripheral coefficient, : The ratio of the peripheral speed, u, of the bucket or vanes at
the nominal diameter, D, to the theoretical velocity of water under the effective head, H, acting on the
turbine is called the speed factor or peripheral coefficient, 
u r
 
2 gH 2 gH
2N
 and r  D / 2
But ω in rad/sec; 60
DN DN
 
Therefore, 60 2 gH 84.6 H Where, D and H in m; N in rpm
The following table suggests appropriate values of , which give the highest efficiencies for any turbine,
the head & specific speed ranges & the efficiencies of the three main types of turbine.
Type of runner  Ns H (m) Efficiency (%)
Impulse 8-17 85-90
0.43 – 0.48 17 >250 90
17-30 90-82
Francis 40-130 90-94
0.6 – 0.9 130-350 25-450 94
350-452 94-93
Propeller 1.4-2.0 380-600 <60 94
600-902 94-85
Thus in general:
 Pelton turbines are used for high heads & low discharges
 Francis types are used for medium & high head plants (has adjustable guide vanes but the runner is a
disc with fixed passage)
 Propeller & Kaplan (Kaplan has adjustable blades) types are used for low head plants with large
discharges.

Figure 1.4: Application of turbine based on head and specific speed

Runaway Speed: If the external load on the machine suddenly drops to zero (sudden rejection) and the
governing mechanism fails at the same time, the turbine will tend to race up to the maximum possible
speed, known as runaway speed. This limiting speed under no-load, maximum-flow must be considered
for safe design.
Type of runner Runaway speed Acceptable head variation (% of design head)
( % of normal speed )
Minimum Maximum
Impulse (Pelton) 170 - 190 65 125
Francis 200 - 220 50 150
Propeller 250 - 300 50 150

1.4 Procedure in Preliminary Selection of Turbines

1. From design Q and H, calculate approximate P that can be generated , P    Q H
f
N  120
2. From p calculate N (or assume) & compute Ns. From this, the type of turbine can be
suggested
DN
 
3. Calculate D from: 84.6 H
If D is found to be too large, either N can be increased or more units may be adopted. For approximate
calculations of runner diameter; the following empirical formula may be used (Mosony)
1
Q 3
D a  
N Where, D in m, Q in m3/s, N in rpm
a = 4.4 for Francis & Kaplan; a = 4.57 for Kaplan.
7.1 Q
D
N s  100 3 H 4 for Propeller, H in m,
1 1
Or
Nominal diameter, D, of Pelton wheel and dj is diameter of the jet:
H
D  38
N
Q
dj  0.542
H
D
m
Jet ratio given by d j , is important parameter in design of Pelton wheels.
Number of buckets, n b = 0.5 m + 15 (good for 6<m < 35)
It is not uncommon to use a number of multiple jet wheels mounted on the same shaft so as to develop the
required power. 92.00

91.00

90.00
Efficiency

89.00

88.00

Figure 1.5: Efficiency of a 6-jet Pelton turbine

with automatic selection of number of active 87.00

jets.
Hydraulic turbines (runner) are designed for optimum speed & maximum efficiency at design head. But
in reality, head and load conditions change during operation & it is extremely important to know the
performance of the unit at other heads. This is furnished by manufacturer’s curve.

Figure 1.6: Turbine efficiency versus relative discharge for different turbine type

1.5 Turbine Scroll Case

A scroll case is the conduit directing the water from the intake or penstock to the runner in reaction type
turbine installation (in case of impulse wheels a casing is usually provided only to prevent splashing of
water & lead water to the tail race). A spiral shaped scroll case of the correct geometry ensures even
distribution of water around the periphery of the runner with the minimum possible eddy formations.

a) Francis turbine with steel spiral case b) Propeller turbine with partial spiral
Figure 1.7: Recommended dimensions of scroll casings
These kinds of spiral case will generally used in medium and high head installations where discharge
requirement is low.

The design of the shape of the spiral case is governed by the flow requirements. Initial investigation
should be based on the following assumptions:
a) spiral case of constant height
b) an evenly distributed flow in to the turbine
c) no friction losses
Figure 1.8: Typical cross-sections of spiral case
Referring to Fig 1.8 (a) the discharge in section of spiral case defined by angle θ is
Q
q 
2 Where Q is the total discharge to the runner
gH
vt 
k k  30
r Where N (from the basic Euler equation for the power absorbed by the machine)

And the discharge through the strip dq is given by

R Q Q

k dr R
dq  vt h0 dr  ho dr  q k ho  or ln 
r r0 r 2 ro 2 k ho
This shows for given vortex strength, k, a definite relationship exist between Q & R.

The most economical design of a power station substructure and the narrowest spiral case can be obtained
by choosing a rectangular section adjoining the guide vanes (entrance ring) by step transition
(symmetrical or asymmetrical)
h  h0   (r  r0 ) h where   cot 1  cot  2
r1 R
Q

dr
H
dr
 h 
2k
0
r r
0 r1

Replacing and integrating

Q r   R
 h0   r0 ln 1   H 0  h0  H 0 ln 
2k  r0   r1 
 H  h0 
r1   0   r0
Knowing r1 from    , the value of R defining the shape of the spiral case can be determined.
The height H0 at any angle θ may be assumed to be linearly increasing from h0 at the nose towards the
entrance. Shape at various θ is determined by assuming existence of uniform velocity equal to entrance
Q i
v0  0.2 2 gH and qi 
velocity, 2
qi Q i
Ai   0.18
v0 H area of cross-section at angle θi
 1.6 Draft Tubes
A draft tube is a conduit discharging water from the turbine runner to the tailrace. It is employed in
conjunction with reaction type turbines, and has twofold purposes:
 To recover as much as possible of the velocity energy of the water leaving the runner, which
otherwise would have gone to waste as an exit loss, thus increasing the dynamic draft head.
 To utilize the vertical distance between the turbine exit and the tail-water level, called the static draft
head. In other words, to allow the turbine to be set at higher elevation without losing the advantage of
elevation difference.
The most common is elbow type which minimizes the depth of substructure compared to vertical cone; it
also has a desirable effect in directing the flow in the direction of the tail water.

Figure 1.9: Elbow-type draft tube

Figure 1.10: Straight conical draft tube

The straight conical draft tubes are the simplest in design and the most efficient type, but they are rarely
used in actual practice. This is because, for effective recovery of velocity head, the outlet section has to be
many times the inlet section of the draft tube. For smooth eddy-free flow (flow with no separation), the
angle of flare of the tube has to be limited to 4 to 8 degrees. Hence, a considerable long tube is necessary
to achieve the desired result. This increases the depth of excavation of the substructure, making it
uneconomical and unsuitable from cavitation view point.

The elbow-type draft tube is often adopted, because of the following advantages it offers over the conical
type:
 Minimizes the required depth of excavation
 Directs the flow in the direction of the tail-water flow
 Allows the provision of gate at the outlet of the tube which can facilitate the de-watering of the
turbine for repairs, if necessary.
However from constructional point of view, the elbow draft tube presents more problems. Further more,
the change of shape in the elbow naturally increases the turbulent losses in the draft tube.
Figure 1.11: Recommended dimensions of an elbow-type draft tube (after Mosonyi)
Elbow type divided in to 3 – parts: vertical, bend, and almost horizontal sections. Between 1 & 3 in
P1 v12 Pa v22
Ys      HL
Figure 1.10,  2g  2g
P1 Pa  v2 v2 
  Ys   1  2  H l 
Therefore,    2 g 2 g 
 v2 v2 
H d   d  1  2 
 2g 2g 
Where d = efficiency of the draft tube
In order to avoid cavitation at the exit from the runner the condition P1  Pv
 

1.7 Cavitations in Turbine & Turbine Setting

Cavitation results pitting, vibration & reduction in efficiency & is certainly undesirable. Cavitations may
be avoided by suitably designing, installing, and operating the turbine in such a way that the pressures
with in the units are above the vapor pressure of water.
Referring Figures 1.10, Ys is the most critical factor in the installation of reaction turbines.
 H a  H v  Ys 
   
 H 
σ = Cavitation coefficient or Plant Sigma
Ha - Hv = Hb = barometric pressure (10.1 at see level)
H = effective head.

Ys, max = Hb - σ c H (Thoma’s formula, bottom of turbine setting)

If Ys is negative runners must be below TWL. Where σ c is the minimum (critical) value of  at which
cavitation occur.
Francis runners Propeller runners
Ns 75 150 225 300 375 600 750
σc 0.025 0.10 0.23 0.40 0.64 0.8 1.5
The above may be approximated by
2
 Ns 
 c  0.0432 
 100  For Francis
3
 Ns 
 c  0.28  0.0024 
 100 
For propeller
The preliminary calculation for the elevation of the distributor above the TWL, Yt is
Yt  Ys  0.025 DN s0.34 For Francis
Yt  Ys  0.025D For propeller
Where D is the nominal diameter of the runner

1.8 Generators and Turbine Controls

Generators transform mechanical energy into electrical energy. Although most early hydroelectric
systems were of the direct current variety to match early commercial electrical systems, nowadays only
three-phase alternating current generators are used in normal practice. Depending on the characteristics of
the network supplied, the producer can choose between.

Synchronous generators equipped with a DC excitation system (rotating or static) associated with a
voltage regulator, to provide voltage, frequency and phase angle control before the generator is connected
to the grid and supply the reactive energy required by the power system when the generator is tied into the
grid. Synchronous generators can run isolated from the grid and produce power since excitation is not
grid-dependent

Asynchronous generators are simple squirrel-cage induction motors with no possibility of voltage
regulation and running at a speed directly related to system frequency. They draw their excitation current
from the grid, absorbing reactive energy by their own magnetism. Adding a bank of capacitors can
compensate for the absorbed reactive energy. They cannot generate when disconnected from the grid
because are incapable of providing their own excitation current.

Synchronous generators are more expensive than asynchronous generators and are used in power systems
where the output of the generator represents a substantial proportion of the power system load.
Asynchronous generators are cheaper and are used in large grids where their output is an insignificant
proportion of the power system load. Their efficiency is 2 to 4 per cent lower than the efficiency of
synchronous generators over the entire operating range. In general, when the power exceeds 5000 kVA a
synchronous generator is installed.

Recently, variable-speed constant-frequency systems (VSG), in which turbine speed is permitted to

fluctuate widely, while the voltage and frequency are kept constant and undistorted, have entered the
market. This system can even ‘’synchronize’’ the unit to the grid before it starts rotating. The key to the
system is the use of a series resonant converter in conjunction with a double feed machine. Unfortunately
its cost price is still rather high and the maximum available power too low.

The working voltage of the generator varies with its power. The standard generation voltages are 380 V or
430 V up to 1400 kVA and at 6000/6600 for bigger installed power. Generation at 380 V or 430 V allows
the use of standard distributor transformers as outlet transformers and the use of the generated current to
feed into the plant power system. Generating at medium voltage requires an independent transformer
MT/LT to supply the plant services.
Turbines are designed for a certain net head and discharge. Any deviation from these parameters must be
compensated for, by opening or closing control devices such as the wicket-vanes or gate valves to keep
constant, either the outlet power, the level of the water surface in the intake or the turbine discharge. In
schemes connected to an isolated net, the parameter to be controlled is the runner speed, which controls
the frequency. The generator becomes overloaded and the turbine slows-down. In this case there are
basically two approaches to control the runner speed: either by controlling the water flow to the turbine or
by keeping the water flow constant and adjusting the electric load by an electric ballast load connected to
the generator terminals.

In the first approach, speed (frequency) regulation is normally accomplished through flow control; once a
gate opening is calculated, the actuator gives the necessary instruction to the servomotor, which results in
an extension or retraction of the servo’s rod. To ensure that the rod actually reaches the calculated
position, feedback is provided to the electronic actuator. These devices are called speed governors.

In the second approach it is assumed that, at full load, constant head and flow, the turbine will operate at
design speed, so maintaining full load from the generator; this will run at a constant speed. If the load
decreases the turbine will tend to increase its speed. An electronic sensor, measuring the frequency,
detects the deviation and a reliable and inexpensive electronic load governor, switches on preset
resistances and so maintains the system frequency accurately.

The controllers that follow the first approach do not have any power limit. The Electronic Load
Governors, working according to the second approach rarely exceeds 100 kW capacities.

1.9 Turbine Control

Governors
A governor is a combination of devices and mechanisms, which detect speed deviation and convert it into
a change in servomotor position. A speed-sensing and amplified to excite an actuator, hydraulic or
electric, that controls the water flow to the turbine. In a Francis turbine, where to reduce the water flow
you need to rotate the wicket-gates a powerful governor is required to overcome the hydraulic and
frictional forces and to maintain the wicket-gates in a partially closed position or to close them
completely.

Several types of governors are available varying from purely mechanical to mechanical-hydraulic to
electro-hydraulic. The purely mechanical governor is used with fairly small turbines, because its control
valve is easy to operate and does not require a big effort. These governors use a fly ball mass mechanism
driven by the turbine shaft. The output from this device .the fly ball axis descends or ascends according to
the turbine speed- directly drive the valve located at the entrance to the turbine.

The most commonly-used type is the oil-pressure governor that also uses a fly ball mechanism lighter and
more precise than that used in a purely mechanical governor. When the turbine is overloaded, the fly balls
slowdown, the balls drop, and the sleeve of the pilot valve rise to open access to the upper chamber of the
servomotor. The oil under pressure enters the upper chamber of the servomotor to rotate the wicket-gates
mechanism and increase the flow, and consequently the rotational speed and the frequency.
Figure 1.13: Oil-pressure governor

In an electro-hydraulic governor a sensor located on the generator shaft continuously senses the turbine
speed. The input is fed into a summing junction, where it is compared to a speed reference. If the speed
sensor signal differs from the reference signal, it emits an error signal (positive or negative) that, once
amplified, is sent to the servomotor so this can act in the required sense. In general the actuator is
powered by a hydraulic power unit consisting of a sump for oil storage, an electric motor operated pump
to supply high pressure oil to the system, an accumulator where the oil under pressure is stored, oil
control valves and a hydraulic cylinder. All these regulation systems, as have been described, operate by
continuously adjusting back and forth the wicket-gates position. To provide quick and stable adjustment
of the wicket-gates, and/or of the runner blades, with the least amount of over or under speed deviations
during system changes a further device is needed. In oil pressure governors this is achieved by interposing
a ‘’dash pot’’ that delays the opening of the pilot valve. In electro-hydraulic governors the degree of
sophistication is much greater, so that the adjustment can be proportional, integral and derivative (PID)
giving a minimum variation in the controlling process.

An asynchronous generator connected to a large net, from which it takes its reactive power to generate its
own magnetism, does not need any controller, because its frequency is controlled by the mains.
Notwithstanding this, when the generator is disconnected from the mains the turbine accelerates up to
runaway speed with inherent danger for the generator and the speed increaser, if one is used. In such a
case it is necessary to interrupt the water flow, rapidly enough to prevent the turbine accelerating, but at
the same time minimizing any water hammer effect in the penstock.

To ensure the control of the turbine speed by regulating the water flow, certain inertia of the rotating
components is required. Additional inertia can be provided by a flywheel on the turbine or generator
shaft. When the main switch disconnects the generator the power excess accelerates the flywheel; later,
when the switch reconnects the load, the deceleration of this inertia flywheel supplies additional power
that helps to minimize speed variation.