Practical 2

Role of imagery in memory

Aim- To study the role of imagery in memory.

Basic concepts-
1. Types of imagery
Auditory imagery- Auditory imagery is a form of mental imagery that is used to organize
and analyze sounds when there is no external auditory stimulus present. This form of
imagery is broken up into a couple of auditory modalities such as verbal imagery or
musical imagery. This modality of mental imagery differs from other sensory images such
as motor imagery or visual imagery. The vividness and detail of auditory imagery can
vary from person to person depending on their background and condition of their brain.
Through all of the research developed to understand auditory imagery behavioral
neuroscientists have found that the auditory images developed in subjects' minds are
generated in real time and consist of fairly precise information about quantifiable auditory
properties as well as melodic and harmonic relationships. These studies have been able to
recently gain confirmation and recognition due to the arrival of Positron emission
tomography and fMRI scans that can confirm a physiological and psychological
correlation.
Olfactory imagery- This form of imagery calls to our sense of smell. For example, “She
walked into the abandoned home and caught the scent of mothballs. The pungent odor
immediately transported her back to her grandmother's attic, riddled with tattered leather
jackets and walls of cardboard boxes.”

Tactile imagery- The tactile imagery appeals to our sense of touch by describing
something the protagonist feels on their body. It may include the feel of different physical
sensations, temperatures, and textures.

Kinesthetic imagery- Dynamic kinesthetic imagery is the cognitive creation of the feeling
of movements while physically moving. For example, a figure skater may imagine the
feeling of routine elements while walking through the pattern, or a skier may imagine the
feel of the course while standing, shifting weight, and moving the shoulders.

2. Images- Images are pictures in the head. They may be very dynamic and constructive
with high level elasticity. We can imagine moving objects, changing events or
situations that we have never actually seen or experienced. Imagery is also a major
reason that we can remember our past and anticipate our future. Some sort of imagery
code is almost certain at the base of earliest instances of memory for children such as
when an infant moves his ar4ms to say bye to another adult, upon doing this act a
child's mind must contain some mental representation of an adult making such a
 motion to indicate that he/she is leaving. Unlike the visual image a mental image is
not produced by stimulation of the eyes or other senses. We can save mental images
of even slight like walking into the class or objects such as cover of our fav music
album or films. So mental objects or events that we actually experience are part of our
imagery. They can also present events and objects that we can purely imagine.

3. Characteristics of mental images- (Coston 1980) Claims that information is stored

in analogous codes which is a representation that closely resembles the physical
objects. So, images are a component of recall process. In memory images persons and
objects are located, recalled and reproduced in their original setting. Image is retrieved
through sketchy or incomplete information of past experience in the absence of
original stimulus. They are feeble reproduction or pale copies of earlier
representations. They are less clear less detailed and less static. There is an
extraordinary imagery in eidetic memory which is usually almost photographic and
detailed imaging. while describing it the person appears to be actually seeing the
vision.

4. Theories of imagery
Dual coding hypothesis- Dual-coding theory, a theory of cognition, was hypothesized by
Allan Paivio of the University of Western Ontario in 1971. In developing this theory,
Paivio used the idea that the formation of mental images aids learning.[1] According to
Paivio, there are two ways a person could expand on learned material: verbal associations
and visual imagery. Dual-coding theory postulates that both visual and verbal information
is used to represent information.[2] Visual and verbal information are processed
differently and along distinct channels in the human mind, creating separate
representations for information processed in each channel. The mental codes
corresponding to these representations are used to organize incoming information that can
be acted upon, stored, and retrieved for subsequent use. Both visual and verbal codes can
be used when recalling information
A model hypothesis- It is also known as conceptual propagational view, this was given by
Anderson Bower (1973). He suggested that people store information in analogous ways
and not as mental images and verbal symbols but as a system of abstract propagations and
relationships

Conceptual peg hypothesis- It was given by Paivio (1971) in a paired association task a
stimulus word functions as conceptual peg from which we retrieve a complex image form
by combining the imageral components coming from both the terms. Recall of the
response members are generally facilitated provided combined imagery has been
successfully retrieved. Imagery value of each member determines the complexity of
image but the image evoking power of the stimulus member has a certain primacy i.e.,
images are more easily elicited in case of concreate words than in case of abstract words
(or thought or ideas). And hence former are in better position to serve as pegs. In 1965
Paivio showed in a study that in paired associate task learning was most efficient than S-
R terms than when they were abstract words. With one term concrete and other abstract
participants performed better when stimulus was a concrete word.
Imagery and paired associate learning- In a paired associate learning, pairs of items are
presented and recall is tested by presenting one of the items to the subject and requiring
the recall of the other. This task preferentially appropriates the linking of images to
associate the stimulus and response items. Bower (1971) showed that instruction to
visualise the name items in a paired association task led to 50% of improvement in recall
when it was interactive than when no such instructions were given. In another Bower
(1970) presented the group of subjects with words dividing pairs of concrete nouns and
formed images of the two items in non-interacting manner. The controlled group was told
to repeat word pairs whereas the second experimental groups were told to integrate the
word pairs while learning. It was seen that integration via images led to better memory in
paired association task.

5. Application of imagery-
COGNITIVE MAPS- These are the ways we see imagery. We have visual representation
of familiar places and we use these to find our way around and give someone else
direction these cognitive maps are not merely internalized arial photos. The general
access of orientation is imp in cognitive maps. Most common type of access in GRID
system (city blocks, North east west direction etc.). Some geographical areas especially
coastal or mountain regions use cliff access. Cognitive maps are mobile in quality. They
are not static images.
Imagery can be used for problem solving as a means for assessing and testing possible
solutions and restructuring a problem. This occurs in ill-defined real-world problems such
as figuring out how to arrange furniture in your living room to increasing the available
seating to facilitate conversation. It is easier to rearrange furniture through visual imagery
first before doing so in reality. It is also easier to decide things like what needs to be
prepared for the party and in what proportion. Imagery maybe useful in problem solving
in ways beyond such purposive imagery. Shephard 1978 reported several examples of
scientific and literally discovery made through the use of visual imagery. For Example
Kekune used visual imagery for drawing atoms and liking them together to form
structures like benzene.
Imagery can be used to perform different types of operations. One of the most studied
operations is mental rotation of figures as letters and 3D block designs. In one study the
subjects are a piece of 3D block pattern and judged another pattern on the basis of the
rotation of the first pattern. The time it took to identify the correct match was the linear
function of the number of degrees of rotation separating the two figures.
Hence images can be generated and manipulated mentally. Imagery can also be used to
store information into the memory.

6. Bizarreness of imagery- Mental imagery is used extensively by musicians as well as

by athletes in sport. As performers, musicians and athletes strive to achieve
excellence. Preparation is an essential precursor to performance and the use of mental
imagery is a common method of achieving this state. In the sport psychology
 literature, an applied model of imagery use has been proposed, the model suggests
that the sport situation (i.e., training, competing, rehabilitation) will dictate the
function of imagery used (e.g., arousal regulation, skill rehearsal), and this in turn will
impact the outcome (e.g., feelings of efficacy, technique). Relevant mental imagery
research in sport and music is reviewed, making links across the disciplines in an
attempt to inform research and practice. The applied model of imagery use in sport
guides the development of a similar applied model of imagery use in music.

Review of literature

• Annabelle Nelson and Bisi Lalemi (1991) conducted a study to know whether training
in imagery would increase Tohono O'odham children's performance on the Torrance
Test of Creative Thinking. It was found out that the average composite TTCT score
for the control group was 53, and the average score for the experimental group was
67. So, the imagery training was effective in increasing the children's creativity
scores, implying it could be an effective instructional strategy to increase children's
problem-solving ability in academic settings.

• Nicolas Robin, Guillaume R. Coudevylle, Olivier Hue and Stephane Sinnapahstudy

(2017) examined how a tropical climate (i.e., hot and wet climatic environment) could
affect mental rotation according to imagery ability. The participants performed 2 test
sessions in a tropical climate (TC), then in air conditioning (AC), in a randomized
order. It was found out that the results of this study are consistent with the idea that
TC can negatively affect mental rotation, motor imagery, and imagery ability.

• Nicolas Robin, Laurent Dominique, Lucette Toussaint, Yannick Blandin, Aymeric

Guillot, and Michel Le Her (2007) conducted a study to see the effect of motor
imagery training on service return accuracy in tennis. On the basis of MIQ,
participants were divided into 3 groups (good imagers, poor imagers and control
group). The results showed that the motor imagery improved the service return of
participants in good imagers group than the one in poor imagers.

• Arbuthnott, K. D. in 2005 conducted a study to see the effect of repeated imagery on

memory. Two experiments examined whether repeatedly imagining the same scenario
influences the likelihood of such errors. After three repetitions, imagery ratings were
equal to those for memories. However, repetition also increased recognition and
source accuracy for both autobiographical memories and imagery, indicating that
repetition may have contrasting effects when one is using heuristic versus systematic
source monitoring processes. These results suggest that psychotherapists should not
repeat imagery scenarios for legally-relevant issues, unless systematic source
judgment processes can be assured, to protect clients from potential memory errors
associated with therapeutic imagery.

Design of study
There were two conditions under which the study was conducted: Control and Experimental.
The subjects under control condition were shown List A while the subjects under
experimental condition were shown List B. The study conducted was a within subject study
wherein same sets of participants were subjected to both the conditions. Paired associate
learning was used in the study. 4 pair of words were there in each category and in total there
were 16 words. 3 trials were given to the subject to recall the words after giving proper
instructions. No instruction was given in control condition. While in experimental condition,
subjects were asked to associate bizarre image with the words provided. Then results were
recorded by asking the subject to recall the second word in each pair.
Table 1: SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE STUDY
Control condition Experimental condition
List A List B
No of categories C-C, C-A, A-C, A-A C-C, C-A, A-C, A-A
No of word per categories 4 4
Total number of words 16 16
Imagery instruction No instruction Bizarre instruction
Trials 3 3
Criteria of learning Paired association learning Paired association learning

Variables of the study

• Independent variable- In the experiment, independent variables are list of words and
instructions given to the subject.
• Dependent variable- In the experiment, the dependent variable is recall of the words.
• Control variables- In the experiment, control variables are size of words (5-9 letters);
Number of words; Presentation of words- Font size (44), Font style (arial), Time
interval (4 sec); Concreteness (mean of 1 and C between 0-3) of words; Number of
trials; Environmental factors- Temperature, noise; Age of the subject (18-25 years)
• Organismic variable- In the experiment, organismic variables are anxiety, lack of
attention (distraction), motivation.

CONDITION:
Experimental condition- bizarre imagery instruction is given Control
condition- No instructions is given.
HYPOTHESIS:
Hypothesis 1- Learning will be faster for C-C word pair combination as compared to A-A
word pair.
Hypothesis 2- Learning will be faster for experimental condition as compared to the control
condition.
PRELIMINARIES:

• Name- Abhay tyagi

• Age- 21
• Gender- Male
• Educational qualification- 3rd year (graduation)
• Place of conduction- Google meet
• Date and time of conduction- 20th February 2022; 3:00pm

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

• List A and B
• Pen/ pencil
• Paper
• Laptop
• Graph
ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIALS:
The study was done in a virtual mode using google meet. The meeting was already scheduled
so as to save time in future. The response sheet was prepared beforehand to record the results.
The slides were already opened in a separate tab. It was ensured that there was good internet
connection on both the ends. After joining the meet, the participant was asked to turn on his
mic and camera. And then the screen was presented.
RAPPORT FORMATION:
After the participant joined the meeting and turned on his camera, he was welcomed with a
big smile. My screen was presented with a welcome note. The participant was asked about
their age, educational qualification. I did a bit of conversation with them about general
things, so that they become settled. After the participant felt at ease, he was asked if he was
ready for the test to begin. After an affirmative answer from him, he was briefed about the
process of the conduction and was ensured that he won’t be judged on the basis of results.
Also, he was told that thus identity won’t be revealed, if he doesn’t wish to. After clearing all
of his doubts, the instructions were given to him.
INSTRUCTIONS:
Instruction for list A- ‘Now I will be showing you a list of word pairs for a brief period of
time on this screen. As you see each word there, please read it out aloud.’
Instruction for list A1- ‘Now I will be showing you the left side word of each word pair
which you have previously seen. Try to recall the right-hand side word of the word there.
(Pointing to the word on the screen)
Instruction for list B- ‘Now I will present you with another list of word pairs. In your mind
try to form bizarre imagery between the word pair in your mind.’ For example- for pair
animal-democracy imagine an animal talking about democracy.
Instruction for list B1- ‘Now I will be showing you the left side word of each word pair
which you have previously seen. Try to recall the right-hand side word of the word there.
(Pointing to the word on the screen)

CONSENT FORM
I, KANAK SHUKLA, am conducting research on the factors affecting memory.

I will be giving you instructions to respond to the questions. The data is being
collected for non-commercial research purposes; your identity won’t be
disclosed even in publication. When not in use the data will be kept under lock
and key. As a participant you can get free access to all the literature that
involves your responses. If there is any query, please feel free to ask me. Here
set of words will be presented and you have to recall the second word in the
pair.
I, ABHAY TYAGI give my consent to participate in the study and give my
responses to the survey after understanding fully about the research as explained
to me by the researcher without any force or coercion.
I understand that the information provided by me in this regard will remain
confidential. I also understand that I have the freedom to discontinue from
participating in the study if I feel uncomfortable at any point of time or desire to
do so.
I give my consent to the use of the information provided by me for academic/
research/ teaching/ publication purposes

Signature of research participant Signature of researcher

ADMINISTRATION:
For administration of the experiment, laptop, 2 PowerPoint presentations, the record table etc
were kept ready beforehand. After briefing the subject about the instructions, the PowerPoint
presentation for List A was presented. The subject read aloud each word-pair (available for 4
seconds). After that List Al was showed wherein the tried to recall the right-side word of
each pair when only the left side appeared. The responses were then recorded. 3 trials were
conducting for both list A and A1 and accordingly, responses were recorded.
After the completion of first list, a break of 10 minutes was given to the subject to relax.
After that the experiment resumed. The subject was then given instructions about the second
list and was asked to form a bizarre image of the word pair shown. Afterwards, list b was
presented and the subject read aloud each word pair forming a bizarre image integrating the
two words. Then list Bl was presented and the subject was asked to recall the right-side of the
word pair while only the left-side was presented. The responses were then recorded for all the
3 trials. After the conduction of the experiment, the subject was asked to write introspective
report and then was asked to leave the meeting. The results were then concluded.

RESPONSE SHEET-

LIST A
S.NO. CATEGO WORD PAIR TRIAL TRIAL TRIAL CORREC % OF
RY 1 2 3 T CORREC
RECALL T
RECALLS
1 C-C Doll-Dress ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 100%
2 C-C ButterflyFlower ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 100%

3 C-C Earth-Forest ✓ ✓ 2 66.6%

4 C-C Apple- Horse ✓ ✓ 2 66.6%
5 C-A Lecturer- 0 0%
Unreality
6 C-A King- ✓ ✓ 2 66.6%
Attitude
7 C-A Camp- Idea ✓ ✓ 2 66.6%
8 C-A Candy-Belief ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 100%
9 A-C Disclosure- ✓ ✓ 2 66.6%
College
10 A-C Increment- ✓ ✓ 2 66.6%
Ticket
11 A-C Situation- cat 0 0%
12 A-C Aptitude- ✓ ✓ 2 66.6%
Leader
13 A-A Ability- 0 0%
Position
14 A-A Amount- ✓ ✓ 2 66.6%
answer
15 A-A Deduction- ✓ ✓ 2 66.6%
Competence
16 A-A Comparison- ✓ 1 33.3%
Democracy

LIST B
S.NO CATEGOR WORD TRIA TRIA TRIA CORREC % OF
. Y PAIR L1 L2 L3 T CORREC
RECALL T
RECALLS
1 C-C Book-boy ✓ ✓. ✓ 3 100%
2 C-C Elephanttoy ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 100%

3 C-C Garden- frog ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 100%

4 C-C Table-paper ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 100%

5 C-A Jail- attribute ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 100%

6 C-A Brainincident ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 100%

7 C-A Breezeessence ✓ ✓ 2 66.6%

8 C-A Judge- ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 100%

facility
9 A-C Criteriongift 0 0%

10 A-C Soul- 0 0%
hillside
11 A-C Ratingpython ✓ ✓ 2 66.6%

12 A-C Disposition - 0 0%
clock
13 A-A Distinctionego ✓ ✓ 2 66.6%
14 A-A Excusecontext ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 100%

15 A-A Beliefconcept ✓ ✓ 2 66.6%

16 A-A Idea-fault ✓ ✓ 2 66.6%

CALCULATION TABLE-

Categori List A List B Combined

es
C-C (100+100+66.6+66.6)/4= (100+100+100+100)/4=100 (83.3+100)/4=91.65
83.3
C-A (0+66.6+66.6+100)/4=58 (100+100+66.6+100)/4=91. (58.3+91.65)/4=74.
.3 65 97
A-C (66.6+66.6+0+66.6)/4= (0+0+66.6+0)/4=16.65 (49.95+16.65)/4=33
49.95 .3
A-A (0+66.6+66.6+33.3)/4=4 (66.6+100+66.6+66.6)/4=7 (41.62+74.95)/4=58
1.62 4.95 .28

120

100
OBSERVERS REPORT-

My participant was very confident since the beginning of the practical. I gave him the
instructions and he performed well. Whenever he made a mistake, He immediately corrected
it. He was very curious to know why I was conducting this test on him and what are the
results. A very friendly boy who performed the experiment with utmost dedication and
sincerity.

INTROSPECTIVE REPORT -

DISCUSSION-
The aim was to study the role of imagery in memory. The study conducted was a subject
wherein same set of participants were subjected to both the conditions i.e., control and
experimental.
The subject under control condition were shown list A while subject under the experimental
condition were shown list B. Paired associate learning was used in the study. The results
were recorded by asking the subject to recall the second word in each pair.
Hypothesis 1- states that learning will be faster for CC word pair combination as compared to
AA word pair combination. From the results it was observed that from the CC category the
participant scored 83.3 in list A and 100 in list B. while for the A-A category, the participant
scored 41.62 in list A and 74.95 in list B.
The combined score for C-C category (91.65) is more than that of A-A category (58.28).
Thus, the hypothesis is verified. This is also daviot in the dual coding hypothesis given by
Allen Panio according to which concrete information is typically remembered better than
abstract information. For example, the participant might have found it easier to remember
word pairs like book- boy, elephant- toy rather than excuse- context or belief- concept. The
participant quoted that "introspective report". While the AA words were presented. It might
mean that it was difficult for the participant to memorize the words because the participants
did not know the meaning of the words or could not form the image of words. According to
pavio, as concrete words are easy to remember the presence of two concrete word pair will
create a stronger impact on memory. This means that scores CC category will be greater
than that of CA and AC category.
Hypothesis 2- This is also daviot in the dual coding hypothesis given by Allen Panio
according to which concrete information is typically remembered better than abstract
information. For example the participant might have found it easier to remember word pairs
like book- boy, elephant- toy rather than excuse- context or belief- concept.
The participant quoted that "introspective report". While the AA words were presented. It
might mean that it was difficult for the participant to memorize the words because the
participants did not know the meaning of the words or could not form the image of words.
According to pavio, as concrete words are easy to remember the presence of two concrete
word pair will create a stronger impact on memory. This means that scores CC category will
be greater than that of CA and AC category.

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS-

In the findings, sample size can be increased and then the hypothesis can be verified.
Additional e research variables like gender, memory and intelligence of the participant can be
used in providing more. understanding about the role of bizarre image in memory.
The study was conducted on a single individual can at home so sorting control variables
might have been varied. In order to get more conclusive results, the researcher needs to
conduct the experiment on larger sample size in more controlled set up.

CONCLUSION-
Hence, it can be concluded that the first hypothesis (learning will be faster for the CC word
pair combination compared to AA word pair combination) is verified. Also, the second
hypothesis (that is learning will be faster for experimental condition as compared to control
condition) proves to be verified.

REFERENCES-
Nelson, A., & Lalemi, B. (1991). The Role of Imagery Training on Tohono O'odham
Children's Creativity Scores. Journal of American Indian Education, 30(3), 24-32. Retrieved
January 3, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/24397982

Robin, N., Coudevylle, G. R., Hue, O., & Sinnapah, S. (2017). Effects of Tropical Climate on
Mental Rotation: The Role of Imagery Ability. The American Journal of Psychology, 130(4),
455. doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.130.4.0455

Robin, N., Dominique, L., Toussaint, L., Blandin, Y., Guillot, A., & Her, M. L., (2007).
Effect of motor imagery training on service return accuracy in tennis: The role of imagery
ability. International Journal of sport and psychology. 5:2, 175-186
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2007.9671818
Arbuthnott, K. D. (2005). The effect of repeated imagery on memory. Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 19(7), 843-866. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1126