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 Proceedings of International Conference on Recent Advances in Mechanics and Materials (ICRAMM-2016)
December 17-18, 2016, VSSUT Burla, (Paper No. RR03)

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE ON THE SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT: AN OVERVIEW

Mainak Choudhury, Student, School of Civil Engineering, KIIT University, m.chow1993@gmail.com

Sajal Verma, Student, School of Civil Engineering, KIIT University, sajal.verma6@gmail.com
Purnachandra Saha, Senior Associate Professor, School of Civil Engineering, KIIT University, dr.purnasaha@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Earthquake is one of the most devastating natural calamities which causes sudden shaking of the earth surface.
It not only causes damage to buildings and other structures but also affects the surrounding environment and our lifestyle
significantly. An earthquake can trigger many sudden changes in the environment which can be classified as primary (e.g.
subsidence, surface faulting) and secondary effects (displaced rocks, tsunami, ground cracks, liquefactions, landslides). These
effects are known as earthquake environmental effects (EEE). The scales which use these effects of an earthquake as a
parameter for assessment are known as Earthquake Intensity Scales. These scales quantify an earthquake based on the
observed effects on the surroundings. All such scales come along with different guidelines and parameters. In this paper, a
review has been made on the different parameters of EEE like ground cracking, liquefaction, landslides etc. and use of three
different XII degree intensity scales (ESI 2007, EMS-98 and MM) for the assessment of an earthquake. A comparison of the
use of these scales in different earthquakes has also been made. The ESI 2007 focusses more extensively on ground damages
than EMS-98 and MM but it is only effective for sparsely populated areas. In case of areas having considerable human
population and manmade structures, use of EMS-98 and MM can be preferred over ESI 2007.
Keywords: Earthquake Environmental Effects (EEE), Environmental Seismic Intensity (ESI), International Union for
Quaternary Research (INQUA), European macroseismic scale (EMS), Modified Mercalli scale (MM) Primary and
Secondary Effects of earthquake, seismic hazard.

Some examples of these effects are surface faulting,

1 INTRODUCTION
An earthquake is a detectable shaking of the Earth surface,
due to the abrupt release of energy in the crust of the earth
which generates seismic waves. During the course of history
we have been witness to several fierce earthquakes which
have destroyed entire cities and caused a large scale of havoc
in our surrounding environment. The seismic activity of a
particular area, can be known by analyzing the earthquakes
occurred there over a time period, the frequency, size and
types of earthquakes are taken into consideration.
An earthquake cause several impacts on the natural
environment which are known as Earthquake environmental
effects (EEE) [1]. Besides EEEs earthquakes also causes
casualties and damage of manmade structures. The scales
which consider these effects for the assessment of an
earthquake are known as Earthquake Intensity scales [2]. All
such scales use different parameters for intensity assessment.
Recently several intensity scales have been used for
earthquake assessment three such scales namely ESI 2007,
EMS-98 and MM are discussed in this paper and a brief
comparison of these scales has also been given.
2 EARTHQUAKE ENVIRONMENT EFFECTS
(EEES)
The effects caused by an earthquake the surrounding
environment are known as Earthquake environmental effects
(EEEs). In other words, EEEs are the processes brought forth
by an Earthquake in our surrounding environment [3, 5].
subsidence, tectonic uplift, liquefaction of soil, landslides etc.
These effects can be directly connected to the earthquake or
can be incited by the shaking of ground. EEEs can be
observed in areas near the epicenter of the earthquake or
areas far away from the epicenter. EEEs affect manmade
structures in addition to leaving its impressions on the
environment [4]. During big earthquakes EEEs act as a major
source of hazard. EEEs are increasingly being used as an
equipment for measuring the intensity of an earthquake [6].
Effects of earthquakes can be categorized as primary and
secondary. Primary effects occur as a direct result of the
earthquake, whereas secondary effects are incited or induced
by the primary effects [4].
Primary effects are manifested at earth’s surface due to the
interferences at the tectonic source capable of generating an
earthquake. They can consist of surface faulting or uplift,
subsidence or any other ground surface activity due to
earthquake generated tectonic deformation. Secondary effects
are incited by the shaking of ground, examples are
liquefaction, Tsunami, landslide, cracking of ground,
displaced rocks, destruction of trees etc [5, 7, 8].
2.1 Primary effects
Primary effects take place as a direct consequence of the
earthquake. The happening of the primary effects also depend
on the size of the earthquake and the stress environment. Two
earthquakes which dissipate same amount of energy but have
different stress environments and focal depths are able to
produce dissimilar environmental effects, so the local
intensity values of both the earthquakes can also vary. This
variance of intensities becomes more prominent in case of
Mainak Choudhury / Sajal Verma & Purnachandra Saha
earthquakes having shallow focal depths (less than 4 km) and
low magnitudes, e.g. areas near volcanic hotspots. Due to this
reason some macroseismic intensity scales such as ESI-2007,
consider a lower intensity value (VII) for earthquakes having
shallow depths and a higher intensity value (VIII or more) for
earthquakes in volcanic areas or having higher focal depths
[4, 6, 9].
2.1.1 Subsidence
The movement of the earth surface from a higher to a lower
position with respect to a particular datum such as the mean
sea level is known as subsidence of earth’s crust. The
opposite of subsidence is uplift, both subsidence and uplift
are a matter of research for geologists, engineers and
surveyors. Subsidence is measured in units of length [10, 23,
24].
Observations from some earthquakes suggest that soil
subsidence can also be triggered by liquefaction of sand
which can create serious problems. For example in the 1964
Niigata earthquake, an area along a length of about 0.64 km
along the Akashi Avenue had subsided as an effect of
liquefaction. This area went under water by about 600 mm
for a month due to flooding by Tsunami [14]. In 1990 Luzon
Earthquake the drainage systems were flooded in the city of
Dagupan, due to accumulation of sands generated from the
liquefaction of the stretches near Pantal river [15]. Also it
should be taken into account that soils once liquefied have
the danger of re-liquefaction. Wakamatsu (2011) observed
that in March 11, Tohoku earthquake sand deposits which
were liquefied in previous earthquakes were re- liquefied in
areas of Urayasu city, Kanto and Tohuku [16].
Subsidence maps obtained from LiDAR (Light Detection and
Ranging) data can be utilized for depict the soil subsidence of
a particular area [17, 18, 19]. A Light Detection and Ranging
(LiDAR) system can be utilized for obtaining accurate
elevation data and topographic details. It is composed of a
laser scanning device, Global Positioning system (GPS),
Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) and a reference station on
earth for necessary corrections in GPS positioning errors
[20]. Konagai et al. (2013) made use of raster photos changed
over from LiDAR data, before and after the occurrence of
2011 Japan earthquake for detection of soil subsidence [21].
Earthquake triggered subsidence and uplift can affect the
configuration of rocks, landforms and development of
coastlines in tectonically active areas and hence altering the
coastal configuration [22]. An earthquake in the area of the
Gulf of Atalanti, central Greece, 1894 is reported to have
caused major changes in coastal configuration like near shore
slumping, tsunami-induced flooding and coastal subsidence
[23]. Evelpidou et al. (2012) carried out a geomorphological
survey beneath the water along 6 island’s coasts and observed
a submergence of 300 mm to 400 mm which occurred as a
consequence of the 1956 Amorgos earthquake [24].
2.1.2 Surface Faulting
Surface faulting or surface rupture is a displacement which
reaches the earth surface due to the motion of a fault inside
the earth, during an earthquake. This phenomenon commonly
occurs in shallow earthquakes (depth below 20 km) [11, 25].
The effects of earthquake on the environment like surface
faulting, ground cracks, landslides etc. can be utilized to
specify the epicentral area of the earthquake, intensity of
damage and assessment by comparison with historical data
[13].
2.2 Secondary Effects
The effects which occur in the natural environment as a result
of the primary effects are known as Secondary Effects.
2.2.1 Liquefaction
Liquefaction of soil is process in which saturated, partially
saturated and cohesion-less soils loses strength and stiffness
in response to ground shaking due to earthquake or other
quick loading, resulting in a fluid like behaviour of the soil.
In this process the pore water pressure in the interior of soil
increases and hence effective stress caused by dynamic
loading decreases. Effective stress becomes negligible when
pore pressure equals total stress causing the suspending of
soil particles in water, which leads to liquefaction [12, 26, 29,
30].
Some factors which effect liquefaction of soil are described.
2.2.1.1 Seismic Conditions
The distance of a particular area from the epicenter of the
earthquake effects the intensity of ground motions and also
the cyclic loading transferred to the soil. The risk of
liquefaction was found to increase with the increase of cyclic
loading.
2.2.1.2 Pressure on Soil
Soils having high overlying earth pressure such as areas with
buildings, roads or any other loading were found to be less
prone to liquefaction then open areas such as crop fields or
beaches with shallow alluvial deposits [26].
2.2.1.3 Arrangement and Density of Soil Particles
A loose or porous layer has lesser liquefaction resistance than
closely packed soil [27]. Liquefaction resisting strength is
more for denser soils [28].
2.2.1.4 Ground Water Level
Supply of ground water is a necessary factor for increasing
pore pressure of soil, which in turn causes liquefaction.
An Earthquake of magnitude 9 on the Moment Magnitude
Scale (MMS or Mw) occurred in Kanto and Tohoku regions
of Japan and had caused a wide scale of damage due to
liquefaction. The long duration of cyclic loading intensified
the liquefaction damage. The areas having low overlaying
earth pressure such as newly soil filled areas, shallow alluvial
deposited areas and reclaimed zones had more damage due to
liquefaction. In case of reclaimed land, the age of fill,
material for fill and the ground improvement techniques used
for stabilization of soil significantly affected the liquefaction
damage. Damage of manmade structures included leaning of
structures such as traffic signal posts, formation of gaps
between footpath and adjacent structure etc. [29]. In 2010
 Effects of Earthquake on The Surrounding Environment: An Overview
Chile was stuck by an earthquake of magnitude Mw=8.8,
which was followed by a tsunami and a long cycle of
aftershocks. Structures such as roads, railway installations,
ports, crop fields, dams, irrigation canals were affected by
liquefaction induced damage [30].
2.2.2 Tsunami
A Tsunami is a series of huge waves surged from an ocean or
any other water body which forces its way into the land
causing widespread havoc and destruction. The height of the
waves may reach over 30 m. The tsunami waves are different
from ordinary tidal waves, tidal waves are caused by
gravitational force of the sun, moon or other planets or due to
wind but Tsunamis are caused due to a large instantaneous
displacement of the sea level caused due to primary effects of
an earthquake like subsidence or uplift or subsidence of the
sea bed. Other reasons for generation of tsunami can be
impact by meteorite, underwater volcanic activity [31].
An earthquake of Mw= 9.1, had stuck Sumatra-Andaman
region in 2004, the earthquake had triggered a dangerous
tsunami which afflicted heavy casualties in India, Sri Lanka,
Indonesia and Thailand. In addition to damages caused in the
natural environment, huge amount of public and private
property was destroyed [32]. The height of the Tsunami
waves is a major criteria which affects the destruction
potential of a tsunami. The height of Tsunami waves can be
found by enquiry from eyewitnesses, video surveillance,
satellite imaging, evidences obtained from water marks or
broken branches of trees etc. [33].
Fig. 1 Houses of residents at Hambantota, located about 100
meters from the coast destroyed due to a Tsunami generated
due to the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake [32].
For the purpose of obtaining data for height of Tsunami
waves and assess the damage caused by tsunami, field visits
can be conducted. A team of investigators can visit the
tsunami affected areas and collect data relating to the time of
occurrence, total area affected degree of damage, wave height
etc. [34]. The effects of tsunami can be diverse at different
places. During the 2011 Tohoku earthquake a devastating
Tsunami had hit Miyagi Prefecture. Along the coast the
drainage channels were more affected due to the structure
formed by the flow of water from land to the sea. It was also
observed that noncontinuous coast protection structures were
subjected to severe damage [35]. In areas where the coast is
surrounded by forest or vegetation, it can be observed that the
tsunami waves rush more rapidly through a forest gap than
the encircling areas, which causes more devastation in areas
with forest gaps [36].
2.2.3 Landslides
A landslide or landslip is a mass movement of rocks, debris
or top layer of soil down a slope which is aided by the action
of gravity. Landslides can be triggered by an earthquake or
other causes like volcanic eruption, changes in ground water
table disturbance caused by human activities [37, 38].
While collecting information related to the impact of a
landslide on the environment, it is also necessary to find out
the exact location of occurrence of the landslide, epicenter,
magnitude of the earthquake and the possible types of errors
involved [39]. An earthquake can trigger a single a single
landslide or many landslides [38]. Earthquakes are a major
triggering factor in the generation of landslides, in fact the
havoc an destruction caused by landslides and other
secondary effects sometimes exceeds the damage caused by
ground shaking. Due to this different models and methods
have been developed for landslide risk assessment.
Newmark’s dynamic displacement model can be used for
assessing slope stability when subjected to an earthquake.
The model represents a part of a slope under stress as a
sliding block along a sloped surface [40].
(1)
Movement of mass along slope will occur when critical
acceleration of the slope, ac gets exceeded by the inertial
force acting on the sliding block. In equation 1, ac = the
required acceleration for overcoming the frictional resistance
of the landslide block and start sliding, g= acceleration due to
gravity, ά = thrust angle of slope material, α = slope angle,
FSstat = static factor of safety [41].
(2)
Where,
= effective cohesion
= effective friction angle
= material unit weight
= unit weight of water
m = represents the fractional depth of the water table with
respect to the total slide depth
z = stands for the slope-normal thickness of the failure slab
= slope angle
3 EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY SCALES
The intensity scales used for evaluation of an earthquake do
not take into account the amount of energy released rather
they consider observed effects on the environment.
Mainak Choudhury / Sajal Verma & Purnachandra Saha
3.1 Environmental Seismic Intensity Scale
The Environmental Seismic Intensity scale (ESI 2007) is a
twelve degree macroseismic intensity scale used for assessing
seismic events based on the effects of earthquake on the
natural environment or EEEs. INQUA EEE scale is an earlier
version of ESI 2007. It is developed by International Union
for Quaternary Research (INQUA). Intensity of an
earthquake can be found out using this method after a post-
earthquake survey.
The area affected by EEEs and the magnitude of the
environmental effects affect the intensity degrees. However
this method is found to be more suitable for areas having low
human population or abandoned areas. The basic framework
of ESI 2007 is similar to other XII degree scales like MCS,
MSK etc. [9]. Ahmad et al. (2007) assessed 2007 Baramulla,
Kashmir earthquake and assigned a variable intensity of VI to
X in ESI 2007 scale. EEEs like surface faulting, landslides,
liquefactions and ground cracks were considered in the
assessment [42]. The estimates based on INQUA EEE scale
are found to be agreeable when compared with other XII
degree scales like Mercalli scale [43]. Tatevossian (2007)
assessed epicentral intensity using INQUA scale of 1887
Verny earthquake by studying the secondary EEEs, materials
were obtained from the earthquake site for this purpose. This
method was found to be effective in determining epicentral
intensity [44].
3.2 European Macroseismic Scale
The European macroseismic scale (EMS) is a XII degree
seismic intensity scale utilized in countries of Europe. The
most updated version of the scale is known as EMS-98. This
method has an elaborate manual containing guidelines,
application examples, charts, figures and tables. This method
was applied for the evaluation of 1998 Krn Mountains
earthquake of Mw =5.6 and an intensity of VII- VII (Slightly
damaging to damaging) was assigned [45]. The EEEs were
evaluated by field surveys, study of aerial images and by
analysis of macroseismic data. Rockfalls were a major EEE
for intensity assessment along with landslides, ground cracks
and liquefaction [46].
3.3 Mercalli Intensity Scale
The Mercalli intensity scale is used for the seismic intensity
assessment of an earthquake by using EEEs, effects on
human population and artificial structures. The intensity
value measured is directly proportional to the distance from
the epicenter (higher intensities for sites close to the
epicenter). It is also a XII degree scale (I implies effect not
felt and XII implies extreme destruction) [47]. The scale is
also known as Modified Mercalli scale (MM) and Modified
Mercalli Intensity scale (MMI). The reliability of intensity
assessment using MM scale can be improved by considering
threshold intensity values to some parameters like V to X for
damage of chimneys in populated areas, III for stopping of
clocks and displacement of liquids etc. [48].
4 COMPARISON BETWEEN ESI 2007, EMS 98
AND MM SCALES
4.1 1999 Athens Earthquake
EEEs like landslides, surface faulting, hydrological
anomalies and other factors like human casualties, structural
damage were considered for intensity assessment. The
earthquake was of magnitude 5.9 in surface wave magnitude
scale (Ms). The cycle of seismic events in the area sustained
for two months.
The intensity value assigned by INQUA scale were lower
than that assessed by MM scale. The probable reason for this
underestimation could be that very few ground damages
occurred during the earthquake, which are extensively
considered in INQUA scale [49, 50, 51, 52].
Table 1. Comparison of intensity values assigned by INQUA
scale and MM scale for the Athens Earthquake [49, 53].
Location Intensity ( in Intensity ( in
INQUA scale) MM scale)
Fili V VIII
It can be observed that for Fili region higher intensity value
has been given by MM scale.
4.2 1998 Elia Earthquake
The earthquake had magnitude Ms =9. The intensity value
assigned by INQUA scale were higher than that assessed by
MM scale. The probable reason could be that more ground
damages like liquefaction, ground cracks, rock falls were
observed which is broadly considered in case of assessment
by INQUA scale [49].
Table 2. Comparison of intensity values assigned by INQUA
scale and MM scale for the Elia Earthquake [49, 53].
Location Intensity ( in Intensity ( in
INQUA scale) MM scale)
Killini VII VII
Kastro VII VIII
In the two compared areas we find that the intensity values
are almost same.
4.3 2003 Lefkada earthquake
The 2003 Lefkada earthquake occurred with a magnitude Mw
(moment magnitude scale) =6.2 on the northwestern region
of the island [54]. Papathanassiou and Pavlides (2007)
studied the effects of this earthquake and evaluated its
intensity according to INQUA scale, EMS scale and MM
scale [50]. In table 3, EMS-MM scale means the intensity
valued obtained by using the parameters of both EMS and
MM scales.
 Effects of Earthquake on The Surrounding Environment: An Overview
Table 3. Comparison of intensity values assigned by INQUA
scale and EMS-MM scale for the 2003 Lefkada earthquake
[50, 55].
Location Intensity ( in Intensity ( in
INQUA scale) EMS-MM scale)
Ag. VII-VIII VII+
Nikitas
Nydri VI-VII V destruction and havoc. The effects of earthquake on the
Lygia VII V+
Kalamitsi VII V effects are a direct result of the earthquake and secondary
It can be observed from table 3 that the assigned intensities
based on EMS-MM scale are lower than those obtained by
INQUA scale. EMS and MM scales underestimate the effects
of ground damage like liquefaction, rockfall, ground cracks
as compared to the INQUA scale where ground failure
parameters are extensively used for intensity assessment.
5 DISCUSSION
An earthquake leaves severe consequences on the natural
environment, these effects of earthquake on the environment
are called Earthquake Environmental effects or EEE. By
studying these effects we can get the knowledge about the
actual amount of damage in a particular area by an
earthquake or a cycle of seismic activities. Some scales are
used for the assessment of an earthquake, there are broadly
two types of such scales, magnitude scales and intensity
scales. The former one that is magnitude scales gives a
quantification of the energy released during an earthquake
whereas intensity scales do not entirely depend upon
magnitude of the earthquake rather EEEs and other effects on
human life and manmade structures are also taken into
consideration. An earthquake of the same magnitude may not
cause lesser damage in one area and more in other, depending
on several factors like topography, presence of artificial
structures, human population, ecosystem of the area and
several other factors. In such a case an intensity scale can be
used for the proper assessment of the earthquake. In this
paper an overview is given on the use of three types of
intensity scales namely ESI 2007, EMS-98 and MM. All the
three scales are 12 degree scales. The use of three scales were
then compared by studying three earthquakes which were
1999 Athens Earthquake, 1998 Elia Earthquake and 2003
Lefkada earthquake. It was found that the ESI 2007 focuses
more extensively on ground damages as compared to MM
scale and EMS-98 scale. Whereas the MM scale incudes
some parameters for assessment which ESI 2007 scale does
not consider like damage of artificial structures, distance
from epicenter of earthquake etc. In case of a sparsely
populated area in which the ground failures due to an
earthquake are more prominent, intensity evaluation by ESI
2007 was found to be more suitable but in case of an area
having considerable human population and where ground
damages are lesser in number, use of MM scale and EMS-98
scale can be preferred. In other words use of ESI 2007 scale
can only be suitable for uninhibited areas or areas having low
population and in case of areas having dense human
population and artificial structure use of MM scale and EMS-
98 scale can be preferred over the ESI 2007 scale.
6 CONCLUSION
Earthquakes are a natural phenomenon which causes
natural environment are known as EEE. EEE can be further
classified as primary effects and secondary effects. Primary
effects are caused due to the primary effects. The scales
which use EEE and other effects on the surroundings to
quantify an earthquake are known as earthquake intensity
scales. In this paper three intensity scales namely ESI 2007,
EMS-98 and MM are discussed and compared. ESI 2007
scale focusses more extensively on EEE related to ground
damage than EMS-98 and MM scales. MM scale considers
some parameters such as damage to manmade structures
which the ESI 2007 scale do not consider. For densely
populated areas having a large number of manmade
structures use of EMS-98 scale and MM scale can be
preferred over ESI 2007 scale.
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