Final Project by MFC

APPROVAL
This project has been approved and accepted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the award of a Bachelor of technology (B.TECH) Degree in Civil Engineering.
Mrs. ESSIMI Annette

(Supervisor) Signature Date
Mrs. TCHIKDJE Prudence

(Head of department of B-Tech) Signature Date
PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 1

DEDICATION
THIS PIECE OF
WORK IS
DEDICATED TO
MY LOVELY ONES

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Before any development of this professional experience, it seems appropriate to begin
this report with thanks, to those who taught us a lot and even to those who were kind
enough to make this professional experience a profitable moment. This report is the
result and the effort of several persons, which with their absence could not be
possible.
In addition, we thank:
This work will not be a success without the commitment of Mrs. ESSIMI
Annette for her assistance and guide.
To my parents Mr. FOSSOUO KAMGA and WETE Adeline for their moral
and financial support.
To all those who gave us precious support throughout our training and have not
been mentioned here, we would like to send them our sincere thanks.
Besides everyone found expression of our deep gratitude here.

ABSTRACT
RESUMEABSTRACT
The research aim expresses the intention or an aspiration of the research study, it
summarizes in a single sentence what you hope to achieve at the end of a research
project. Any student who is completing B-TECH (Bachelor of technology) is expected
to produce and submit an end of year report in order to deepen their knowledge and
better understand the professional world. Roads play a very important part in any
nation’s infrastructure. Their construction and maintenance, and the vehicles that
travel over them, consume large amounts of energy. Concrete roads are durable and
safe. They are considerably less prone to wear and tear defects like rutting, cracking,
stripping and potholes that can occur with flexible pavement surfaces. To make our
project feasible, we first did site investigation

RESUME

TABLE OF CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...................................................................................................................3
ABSTRACT.........................................................................................................................................4
RESUMEABSTRACT........................................................................................................................4
RESUME..............................................................................................................................................5
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................8
MOTIVATIONS OF THE TOPIC.................................................................................................9
PROBLEM STATEMENT...........................................................................................................10
OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT.............................................................................................11
CHAPTER I : LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................12
SECTION 1: HISTORY OF PAVEMENT..................................................................................12
A. ROMAN ROADS...............................................................................................................12
B. TELFORD..........................................................................................................................14
C. MACADAM.......................................................................................................................14
 PAVEMENT DEFINITION:................................................................................................15
 TYPES OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURES...........................................................................16
SECTION 2: HISTORY OF CONCRETE ROAD.....................................................................20
CHAPTER II : MATERIALS AND METHODS............................................................................20
SECTION 3: HISTORY OF BITUMINOUS ROAD..................................................................22
Patented roadways.....................................................................................................................22
Changing techniques in the production and construction......................................................23
 ROAD PAVEMENT STRUCTURES..................................................................................24
CHAPTER II: DESIGN OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURES...........................................................26
I. DESIGN OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURES:.......................................................................26
II. DESIGN PARAMETERS.................................................................................................28
III. DESIGN METHODS.........................................................................................................30
IV. DESIGN OF PAVEMENT THICKNESSES...................................................................37
CHAPTER III : MATERIALS AND METHODS..........................................................................38

SECTION 1: METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................38
III.2 IDENTIFICATION TESTS.................................................................................................39
III.2.2. GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS (NF P 94-056)......................................................................40
III.2.3. ATTERBERG LIMITS (NF P 94-051)............................................................................41
III.2.4. SPECIFIC DENSITY WITH THE USE OF PYCNOMETER (NF P 94-054).............43
III.2.5. MODIFIED PROCTOR (NF P 94-093)...........................................................................44
III.2.6. CBR AFTER IMMERSION (NF P 94-078)....................................................................46
CHAPTER IV : RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS..........................................................................48
SECTION 2: ECONOMIC ANALYSIS......................................................................................49
SECTION 3: MANUALS USED..................................................................................................51
I. Work Tools.........................................................................................................................51
II. Software used.................................................................................................................52

INTRODUCTION
Development of a country depends on the connectivity of various places with

adequate road network. Roads are the major channel of transportation for carrying
goods and passengers. They play a significant role in improving the socio-economic
standards of a region. Roads constitute the most important mode of communication in
areas where railways have not developed much and form the basic infrastructure for
the development and economic growth of the country. The benefits from the
investment in road sector are indirect, long-term and not immediately visible. Roads
are important assets for any nation. However, merely creating these assets is not
enough, it has to be planned carefully and a pavement, which is not designed properly,
deteriorates fast.
Pavement or road is an open, generally public way for the passage of vehicles, people,
and animals. Pavement is finished with a hard smooth surface. It helped make them
durable and able to withstand traffic and the environment. They have a life span of
between 15 – 30 years. A concrete pavement is an extruded slab of concrete made
from cement, aggregate, sand, and water. As concrete technology has advanced,
blended cements or the addition of secondary cementitious materials has been used to
enhance concrete properties. To handle heavy loads, reinforcing materials including
steel and plastic fibers have been used to increase both durability and strength.
Aggregates are no longer just rock, but may be natural stone, fabricated materials, or
recycled concrete materials. Concrete pavements have changed these just a few ways
over the years. Jointed concrete pavements are the ones mostly used for highways,
airports, and many streets and roads.

MOTIVATIONS OF THE TOPIC
The points below are what motivated us to work on this topic;

We want to reduce the traffic problems in our country there by the construction
of roads that will facilitate the traffic, durability and ease circulation.
Due to the emergence of 2035, we want to contribute to the development of our
country hence the need of innovation.

PROBLEM STATEMENT
Why is it that roads in Cameroon are mostly made up of asphalt concrete?

Which at times does not last for long. While we can have a concrete road
that is more resistance than bitumen. We notice that concrete road resist
most in swampy areas, which is one of it characteristics.
Asphalt is a material whose performance varies with temperature, high
temperature gradient coupled with dense traffic can easily leads to ruts and
permanent deformation.
Asphalt is mostly imported and the cost of maintenance of asphalt roads are
generally very high.
On the other hand, concrete is a rigid material with high modulus of
elasticity which if well placed can guarantee durability of pavement
structure.
In addition, the process of maintaining rigid pavements is simple and its
materials are readily available (presence of gravel quarry and cement
factories).

OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT
1. MAIN OBJECTIVE:
Our main objective is to do a comparative analysis between concrete road and
bituminous road.
2. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:
Improve the conditions of safety and comfort on this road section.

Produce information about the difference in concrete road and bituminous road
such as the slope and the materials used.

CHAPTER I : LITERATURE REVIEW
SECTION 1: HISTORY OF PAVEMENT
A brief view of how pavement design, construction and performance has evolved
should help provide perspective on present and possible, future practice. This short
view into the past will start with the Romans, and then moved on to the Macadam and
Telford era, then into the first 150 years of asphalt and Portland cement concrete
pavement. The evolution of pavement design will emphasize the U.S.A and U.K and a
bit more than for other parts of the world.
A. ROMAN ROADS
In fairness, the Carthaginians are generally credited with being the first to construct
and maintain a road system. The romans eventually decided that their neighbors
across the Mediterranean were a bit of a threat to the empire destroying Carthage (the
Carthage ruins are located in Tunisia (Northern Africa) next door to Algeria (on the
left) and Libya (on the right- so to speak).) It is suggested that the Romans took up the
practice of a military road system from the Carthaginians. It is estimated that the
Romans built about 87,000 km of roads within their empire (about equal to the length
of the U.S.Interstate system).
Apparently, there is no record of “traditional” roads in the U.K. prior to the Romans.
For the most part, the main Roman roads in the U.K. (total of about 4100 km) were for
military purposes in that they connected camps which were about 30 km apart (or
about one day’s march). Since the primary purpose of these roads was for foot
soldiers, the roads were straight, but virtually without regard to grade. They generated
high noise levels, were rough and labor intensive (slave and “statue” labor often used).
The Roman design for their primary U.K. roads generally consisted of four layers (top
to bottom) as follows:
Summa Crusta (surfacing): Smooth, polygonal blocks bedded in underlying layer.
Nucleus: A kind of base layer composed of gravel and sand with lime cement.

Rudus: The third layer was composed of rubble masonry and smaller stones set in
lime mortar.
Statumen: Two or three courses of flat stones set in lime mortar.
The total thickness was as much as 0.9 m and road widths of 4.3 m or less. An
illustration of the Roman pavement structure near Radstock, England, is shown as
figure 1. Roman roads in some countries have been up to 2.4 m thick. These structures
had crowned (sloped) surfaces to enhance drainage and often incorporated ditches
and/or underground drains. As one might expect, Roman road building was varied to
suit local conditions and materials- not unlike today actually. Road design and
construction languished for about 1,200 years thereafter.
Fig 1: cross sectional of ancient Roman road Fig 2: ancient Roman road
Roman road construction was not expensive. Updated construction estimates of the
Appian Way in Italy are about Rs.124, 000,000 per km. the oldest known road in the
U.K is near the River Brue in southwestern England. Actually, the “road” is a 6,000-
year-old walkway, which was discovered in 1970 in a peat bog. The construction of
the road coincides with the arrival of the first farmers in the U.K. about 4,000 B.C.
B. TELFORD
Thomas Telford served his apprenticeship as a building mason. Because of his, he
extended his masonry knowledge to bridge building. During lean times, he carved
gravestones and other ornamental work (about 1780). Eventually Telford became the
“Surveyor of Public Works” for the county of Salop, thus turning his attention more to
roads. Telford attempted, where possible, to build roads on relatively flat grades (no
more than 1 in 30) in order to reduce the number of horses needed to haul cargo.
Further, the pavement section was about 350 to 450 mm in depth and generally
specified in three layers. The bottom layer was comprised of large stones (100 mm)
wide and 75 to 180 mm in depth). Figure 3 shows cross section of Telford.
Figure 3: Cross section of Telford.
It is this specific layer, which makes the Telford design unique (Baker, 1903). On top
of this were placed two layers of stones of 65 mm maximum size (about 150 to 250
mm total thickness) followed by a wearing course of gravel about 40 mm thick (refer
to figure 2). It was estimated that this system would support a load corresponding to
88 N/mm (500 Ib per in.of width).
C. MACADAM
John Macadam (born 1756) observed that most of the “paved” U.K. roads in early
1800s were composed of rounded gravel (Smiles, 1904). He knew that angular
aggregate over a well-compacted subgrade would perform substantially better. He
used a sloped subgrade surface to improve drainage (unlike Telford who used a flat
subgrade surface) on which he placed angular aggregate (hand-broken, maximum size
75 mm) in two layers for a total depth of about200 mm (Gillette, 1906). On top of this,
the wearing course was placed (about 50mm thick with aggregate size of 25 mm)
(Collins, 1936). Macadam’s reason for the 25 mm maximum aggregate size was to
provide a “smooth” ride for wagon wheels. Thus, the total depth of a typical Macadam
pavement was about 250 mm (refer to figure 3). An interesting quote attributed to
Macadam about allowable maximum aggregate sizes was that “no stone larger than
will enter a man’s mouth should go into a road” (Gillette, 1906). The largest

permissible load for this type of design was estimated to be 158 N/mm (900 Ib per in.
width). Figure 4 shows cross section of Macadam.
Figure 4: Cross section of Macadam

In 1815, Macadam was appointed “surveyor-general” of the Bristol roads and was
now able to use his design on numerous projects. It proved successful enough that the
term “macadamized” became a term for this type of pavement design and
construction. The term “macadam” is also used to indicate “broken stone” pavement.
By 1850, about 2,200 km of macadam type pavements were in use in the urban areas
of the UK. Macadam realized that the layers of broken stone would eventually become
“bound” together with fines generated by traffic. With the introduction of the rock
crusher, large mounds of stone dust and screenings were generated. This resulted in
the use of such fines resulting in the more traditional dense graded base materials,
which in turn produced pavement thicknesses as thin as 100 to 150 mm. the first
Macadam pavement in the U.S. was constructed in Maryland in 1823.
 PAVEMENT DEFINITION:
Pavement is the actual travel surface especially made durable and serviceable to
withstand the traffic load commuting upon it. Pavement grants friction for the vehicles
thus providing comfort to the driver and transfers the traffic load from the upper
surface to the natural soil. In earlier times before the vehicular traffic became most
regular, cobblestone paths were much familiar for animal carts and on foot traffic
load.

Pavements are primarily to be used by vehicles and pedestrians. Storm water drainage
and environmental conditions are a major concern the designing of a pavement. The
first of the constructed roads date back 4000 BC and consisted of stone paved streets
or timber roads. The roads of the earlier times depended solely on stone, gravel and
sand for construction and water was used as a binding agent to level and give a
finished look to the surface. All hard road pavements usually fall into two broad
categories namely
 TYPES OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURES
There are three types of pavements based on design considerations that is flexible
pavement and rigid pavement. It is important to know about them, details of these two
are presented below:
a) Flexible pavements:
Flexible pavement can be defined as the one consisting of a mixture of asphaltic or
bituminous material and aggregates placed on the bed of compacted granular material
of appropriate quality in layers over the subgrade, the bituminous material is more of
the asphalt whose viscous nature allows significant plastic deformation. Most asphalt
surface are built on gravel base although some full depth asphalt surface are built
directly on the subgrade. Water bound macadam roads and stabilized soil roads with
or without asphaltic toppings are examples of flexible pavements. Depending on the
temperature at which it is applied asphalt is categorized as hot mix asphalt HMA
warm mix asphalt or cold mix asphalt. Flexible pavement is so named as the pavement
surface reflects the total deflection of all subsequent layers due to the traffic load
acting upon it.
The design of flexible pavement is based on the principle that for a load of any
magnitude, the intensity of a load diminishes as the load is transmitted downwards
from the surface by virtue of spreading over an increasingly larger area, by carrying it
deep enough into the ground through successive layers of granular material. Types of
flexible pavements are conventional flexible pavement and full-depth asphalt
pavements.

Figure 5: Flexible pavement cross-section
Thus for flexible pavement, there can be grading in the quality of materials with high
degree of strength is used at or near the surface. Thus, the strength of subgrade
primarily influences the thickness of the flexible pavement.
b) Rigid pavements:
A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced concrete slabs.
Grouted concrete roads are in the category of semi-rigid pavements. Rigid pavements
should be analyzed by the plate theory, instead of the layered theory. Plate theory is a
simplified version of the layered theory that assumes the concrete slab to be a medium
thick plate with a plane before bending which remains a plane after bending. Rigid
pavements are placed either directly on the prepared sub-grade or on a single layer of
granular or stabilized material. Because there is only one layer of material under the
concrete and above the sub-grade, some call it a base course, others a sub-base.
The design of rigid pavement is based on providing a structural cement concrete slab
of sufficient strength to resist the loads from traffic. The rigid pavement has rigidity
and high modulus of elasticity to distribute the load over a relatively wide area of soil.
Rigid pavements types can be classified into four; Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement
(JPCP), Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP), Continuous Reinforced
Concrete Pavement (CRCP) and Pre-stressed Concrete Pavement (PCP). Except for
PCP with lateral pre-stressing, a longitudinal joint should be installed between two
traffic lanes to prevent longitudinal cracking.

Figure 6: rigid pavement cross-section
Joints: they include two types in rigid pavements
- Expansion joints: expansion joints consist of a performed joint filler, generally

1 in. thick, that compresses and allows the pavement to expand. The joints are
placed at the locations noted on the plans. The joint filler is required to be
shaped to the sub-grade, parallel to the surface, and the full width of the
pavement. The edges of the expansion joint are to be finished.
- Contraction joint: typically, a contraction joint is a sawed transverse joint

normally placed every 18 ft to control cracking due to pavement contraction
caused by shrinkage and temperature fluctuations. The plans for the particular
contract are required to be checked to verify the proper joint placement. The
minimum/maximum joint spacing is reviewed with the Area Engineer or
District Construction Engineer so that joints may be established in the initial
pours that will complement adjacent pavements.

Figure 7: joints
Minor variations in subgrade strength have little influence on the structural capacity of
a rigid pavement. In the design of a rigid pavement, the flexural strength of concrete is
the major factor and not the strength of subgrade. Due to this property of pavement,
when the subgrade deflects beneath the rigid pavement, the concrete slab is able to
bridge over the localized failure and areas of inadequate support from subgrade
because of slab action.
c) Semi-rigid pavements: they have a bituminous surface layer resting on a base

made of materials treated with hydraulic binders arranged in one layer (base) or
two layers (base and foundation).

SECTION 2: HISTORY OF CONCRETE ROAD
Concrete pavement design in the United States started with the first concrete street
built in 1892. An older Portland Cement Concrete street. This is actually the Sunset
Highway in Washington, paved in 1919.
In turn of this century (1900), cements were categorized as “organic” or “artificial”.
Natural cements were created directly from specific rock. Artificial cement was
created from proportioned ingredients and became famous as “Portland” (named after
the pure limestone found on Portland Bill, which is a little projection of property into
the English Channel near Weymouth in the southern U.K. shore). The first authentic
Portland cement has been produced in the U.K. roughly 1824 (really, Joseph Aspdin, a
bricklayer in Leeds patented Portland cement in 1824, U.K) and in the U.S. roughly
1865 (in Tillson, 1900).
Interestingly, Portland cement concrete (PCC) was not utilized as a sidewalk-wearing
course considerably until later about 1910 (Agg, 1940); nonetheless, it had been
frequently employed as a “stiff” foundation to encourage other wearing courses like
wooden blocks, bricks, cobble stones, etc.. One likely reason for this is the absence of
a consistent specification for its early cements. Tillson in 1900 summarized over 109
distinct specifications on Portland cement fineness. Add to this confusion the fact that
organic cements were widely utilized too (roughly 60 percent of total cement
consumption in 1898). Further, the PCC hand mixing was still typical in 1900, which
definitely restricted productivity and precise proportioning. From 1900 (as mentioned
by Tillson), it had been standard to volumetrically proportion PCC as a 1:2:4 or 1:2:5
(cement: sand: coarse aggregate).
A quotation from Baker (1903) is of interest:
“This kind of street surface is not likely to come in overall usage owing to its price
and slipperiness when laid as are sidewalks, and its price and lack of durability when
laid like the foundation of a sidewalk.”
Hubbard (1910) sheds additional light on using PCC as a surfacing layer:
“If motor traffic alone were to be considered, a street built entirely of cement concrete
might prove the most satisfactory and most economical form for your future. For
mixed traffic (horses and motor vehicles), nevertheless, such a street is by no means
ideal as well as in spite of the increase in motor vehicles, the amount of horse drawn
vehicles will not appear to be decreasing…”
A 1916 report from Agg and McCullough to the lowa State Highway Commission
further illustrates a number of those issues, which held back the use of PCC as a
wearing course. These include: A quotation in the Agg and McCullough report is
useful: “Expansion and contraction might cause longitudinal fractures but normally,

for the ordinary width sidewalk, positioned on a subgrade, the liability of this trigger,
is distant.”
Failure to achieve adequate strength gain prior to opening roads to traffic.
A poll reported by Agg and McCullough (1940) of the 50 countries and municipalities
presumably is representative of early 1900s practice. A number of these surveys
include:
Transverse joint spacing: approximately 50 percent of those agencies utilized spacing
of either 24.9 feet (7.6 m) or 29.9 feet (9.1 m). The shortest spacing has been 20.0 feet
(6.1 m) and the maximum 100.1 feet (30.5 m).
Concrete pavement technology has been changing, continually evolving to meet
current and future needs. These advances happen on many different fronts and are the
result of contributions by people and organizations (industry, the public sector, and
academia), all working to provide the best choices to meet construction, rehabilitation,
and restoration/preservation.
Look at just a few of the underlying concrete pavement technologies that have
emerged since that first concrete pavement was placed more than a century ago. For
quick reference, be sure to check out how these technologies fit with various
construction strategies and different applications.

SECTION 3: HISTORY OF BITUMINOUS ROAD
The first bituminous mixtures produced in the United States were used for sidewalks,
crosswalks, and even roads starting in late 1860s. In 1870, a Belgian chemist named
Edmund J. DeSmedt laid the first true asphalt pavement in this country, a sand mix in
front of the City Hall in Newark, New Jersey. DeSmedt’s design was patented after a
natural asphalt pavement placed on a French highway in 1852.
DeSmedt went on to pave Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, DC, a project that
included 54,000 sq. yds. Paved with sheet asphalt from Trinidad Lake Asphalt. The
durability of this pavement proved that the quality of the asphalt found in the
Americas was as good as that imported from Europe.
Patented roadways
Builders, quick to see the advantages of asphalt, tried to stake out claims to the
material. “Looking back from today’s marketplace, where Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) is
compared and classified only by its technical qualifications, it is difficult to
comprehend that until 70 years ago, competing proprietary brands of HMA were
peddled, touted, and huckstered with all the enthusiasm that now is used to advertise
soft drinks,” writes Gillespie.
Nathan B. Abbott of Brooklyn, New York filed the first such patent in 1871. In 1900,
Frederick J. Warren filed a patent for “Bitulithic” pavement, a mixture of bitumen and
aggregate; despite vigorous efforts by the Warren Brothers Company to defend its
patent (and the name of the material), “bitulithic” was often used to describe any
asphalt pavement. Other trade names for asphalt mixes included Wilite, Romanite,
National Pavement, Imperial, Indurite, and Macasphalt. Many of these patented mixes
were successful and technically innovative.
The fierce competition among asphalt producers, however, allowed cities to require
more stringent requirements for their asphalt roadways. In 1896, for example, New
York City adopted asphalt paving in place of brick, granite, and wood block.
However, it also required 15-year warranties, which did not recognize pavement
failures caused by factors beyond the asphalt contractor’s control, bankrupted many
builders. The result was fewer and higher bids for asphalt pavements.
The patents for “bitulithic” pavement expired in 1920, and subsequent improvements
in pavements by Federal and state engineers forced most of the remaining patented
pavements from the market.

Changing techniques in the production and construction
Until about 1900, almost all asphalt used in the U.S came from the natural sources of
Lake Trinidad and Bermudez Lake in Venezuela. Refined petroleum asphalt, used
initially as an additive to soften the natural asphalt for handling and placing, made an
appearance in the mid-1870s and slowly gained acceptance. By 1907, production of
refined asphalt had outstripped the use of natural asphalt.
Meanwhile, as the automobile grew in popularity, local and state governments were
besieged by requests for more and better roads. This demand led to innovations in
both the production and laying of asphalt. Roadway testing gradually became an
accepted practice thanks to the efforts of Logan Waller Page, who had studied the
procedures in France.
The earliest HMA production units consisted of shallow iron trays heated over open
coal fires. The operator dried the aggregate on the tray, poured hot asphalt on top, and
stirred the mixture by hand. The quality of the mix usually depended on the skill and
experience of the operator. The first mechanical mixers were used in Paris in 1854,
but they were crude and required four hours to produce just one batch of asphalt.
The Cummer Company opened the first central asphalt pavement production facilities
in the U.S in 1870; by the end of the century, builders on both sides of the Atlantic
were producing mixers and dryers in a variety of forms. While some asphalt producers
tried to develop portable machines, others turned to units mounted on railroad cars,
most production facilities were costly and cumbersome, limiting the areas in which
asphalt pavement was readily available.

 ROAD PAVEMENT STRUCTURES
1. Road pavement: set of superimposed layers of material resting on the road

platform, intended to distribute the forces due to the circulation of vehicles on
the natural ground.
Figure 8: schematic representation of a pavement structure

2. Upper part of earthworks: upper zone of about 1m thick of existing land (case
of cuttings) or added materials (case of backfill). It serves as a support for the
subgrade or in its absence, for the pavement layers.
3. Level of earthworks: surface of the upper part of the earthworks supporting the
subgrade (if present).
4. Form layer: layer located between the upper part of the earthworks and the
pavement layers, making it possible to homogenize the characteristics of the
support soil, to achieve and sustain the geometric, mechanical, hydraulic and
thermal performances taken as assumptions in the design and the sizing
calculation of the roadway. The sub-layer can be made of materials in place or
added, treated or untreated.
5. Pavement platform: surface of the subgrade supporting the pavement layers. In

the event that the subgrade is not present, the platform merges with the
earthwork level.
6. Flexible structures: structures comprising a cover of bituminous materials of

thickness less than or equal to 0.12m, sometimes reduced to a coating for roads

with very low traffic or to a flexible bituminous concrete, resting on one or
more layers of untreated granular materials.
7. Thick bituminous structures: structures composed of a surface layer and a base

layer of bituminous materials; the foundation layer can be bituminous materials
or untreated gravel. The total thickness of bituminous material is more than
0.12m.
8. Bed structures treated with hydraulic or semi-rigid binders: structures made up

of one or more layers of bituminous materials on a base made of materials
treated with hydraulic binders.
9. Mixed structures: structures composed of a wearing course and a base layer of

bituminous materials on a base layer of materials treated with hydraulic
binders. The ratio K of the thickness of bituminous materials to the total
pavement thickness is between 0.4 and 0.5.
10. Inverse structures: structures composed of bituminous layers, on an untreated

gravel layer with a thickness of between 0.10m and 0.12m, itself resting on a
foundation layer made of materials treated with hydraulic binders.
11. Cement concrete structures: structures with a cement concrete base layer of
more than 0.12m.
12. Urban roads: pavements forming an integral part of an agglomeration. Usually,

four indicative categories of lanes are used: service lanes with reduced traffic,
distribution lanes, main lanes, lanes reserved for public transport.
13. Interface: contact surface between two layers of pavement, of the same or
different nature. In the dimensioning method, the mechanical operation of the
interfaces can be glued, sliding or semi-glued type depending on the materials
in contact. The interfaces are also assumed to be closed, the interfaces are also
assumed to be closed, the consideration of other physical situations being
ensured by means of adjustment coefficients.
14. Interface pasted: the set of displacement is assumed to be continuous, it is the

same for the deformations in the plane of the interface.
15. Slippery interface: horizontal shear stresses are assumed to be zero. The
deformations in the plane of the interface are then discontinuous.
16. Semi-glued interface: calculation assumption corresponding to the half-sum of

the results obtained successively with glued interface and sliding interface.
CHAPTER II: DESIGN OF PAVEMENT
STRUCTURES
I. DESIGN OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURES:
The pavement structure is a stack of more or less thick materials, arranged in one or
more well-individualized layers each having a determined role. Its function is to resist
the mechanical actions of vehicles as long as possible, to attenuate the loads reaching
the adjacent layers, to protect the platform soil which is of low bearing capacity and
sometimes very sensitive to water. Depending on the mode of transmission of the
loads, they can be classified in an arbitrary way into three main categories:
Flexible structures: they have a certain deformation under load but a sufficient
thickness.
Rigid structures: Generally, thin, they are covered with a concrete slab giving
them a high modulus of elasticity.
There are also some which acquire their rigidity in the balance between the
improved cohesion of different layers and the importance of the thickness
overall body of the roadway. These are semi-rigid structures.
1. Flexible structures:
They are capable of deforming to a greater or lesser extent when passing rolling loads,
thus making it possible to locate the pressures induced in a small radius. To reduce the
maximum stresses reaching the ground support, it is therefore necessary to increase
the thickness of the roadway. Thus, flexible pavements are of great thickness arranged
in several layers of improved geotechnical quality from bottom to top.
Platform floor: The setting up constitutes the execution of the earthworks in
the soil. It is either the ground in place when the road is in cut, or the ground
brought up when it is in backfill. In general, we consider the layer to be 30cm
thick; it is improved when it is very compressible or weakly wearing.
The top layer: it is the filler material to be put in place to compensate for the
insufficiency of the natural soil. It also makes it possible to improve the
bearing capacity of the soil, to be considered in the design. It protects it against

the destructive action of large machines and facilitates the compaction of the
upper layers by providing them with a firm and non-deformable support.
The foundation layer: its main role is to reduce the loads that are transmitted to
the platform. It only supports vertical constraints; its implementation work is
less neat than the upper layers. However, it must be less deformable and more
resistant than the underlying layers. A common practice consists in making its
lower part not very permeable in order to evacuate water, which could have
infiltrated the base layer; this zone also prevents the capillary rise of water
from the platform.
Base coat: at its level, the forces due to the traffic are still very important, even
the effects of the environment are not entirely amortized; also, the materials
used must be of good geotechnical qualities i.e. a suitable grain size to avoid
segregation during the various manipulations. Good resistance to forces by
internal friction, for this, it must be formed of aggregates that are harder and
more resistant the greater the loads. The main role of this layer is to increase
the load bearing capacity of the structure because of the importance of its
thickness and the quality of the material sometimes improved. It contributes to
the flexural rigidity and overall resistance to fatigue, it helps to drain water and
resist erosion of all kinds.
Coating layer: it is a mixture of good quality aggregates and a hydrocarbon

binder. Strongly associated, these elements form a homogeneous, stable and
monolithic whole. The coating must have a good puncture and wear resistance
since it is in direct contact with the atmosphere and the stresses. It must be
solid, a little bit slippery and waterproof, for comfort of the user. There are two
types of coating: Surface coatings: in mono, or multilayer and Mixes.
2. Rigid structures:
Thanks to their great cohesion, these structures by their slab effect: they transmit loads
with a relatively large pressure surface. Thus the forces reaching the underlying layers
are weaker than the slab thickness which is high. They consist of a slab resting, either
directly on the natural soil or through a subgrade.
Natural soil: the platform floor, when called upon to support the slab, must be
protected from shrinkage or swelling movements. Likewise, embankments

liable to delayed settlement should be avoided, as well as heterogeneous layers
capable of differential settlement.
Foundation soil: the presence of the foundation makes it possible to increase

the bearing capacity of the structure. However, it is adopted for other reasons:
- Provide the slab with uniform bearing surface.
- Replace soft soils that are a very compressible or likely to swell.
- Prevent the rise of fine particles, which causes the pumping phenomenon at the
joints.
Coating: it is generally a concrete slab. This material is well known to

Cameroon from their experiences in construction. However, in certain
conditions its implementation can be very delicate and requires special
provisions so we can distinguish:
- Non-studded unreinforced concrete slabs, the loads of which are transferred
from one slab to another by intergranule friction or by interlocking at the
joints.
- Unreinforced concrete dowelled slabs, these studs are mild steel rods that
transfer loads.
- Reinforced concrete dowelled slabs; the presence of steel is not intended to
significantly increase the strength of the slab, but above all to prevent
cracks. Shrinkage reinforcements are most often made of welded mesh.
3. Semi-rigid structures: these are hybrid structures: there are very low-dose
concrete pavements, covered with hydrocarbon pavements or even flexible
pavements, some layers of which are stabilized with bitumen or cement. They
are more flexible than conventional concrete but less resistant. On the other
hand, they are based on sufficiently thick foundations.
II. DESIGN PARAMETERS
1. The traffic: traffic is an essential element in the design of pavements. In

considering traffic there are two different approaches:
The design load is that of the most stressed wheel which would tackle the
structure during its lifetime. It is obtained after a statistical analysis of the
traffic, integrating the economic factor. It is then increased to take into account
the dynamic effects.

The second approach is to determine the daily or cumulative output of vehicles.
This count must be accompanied by a weighing survey. This one making it
possible to determine the different types of vehicles making up the traffic and
the repetition of their axle loads. With each passage of vehicles, the weight of
the vehicles is transmitted to the road, in the form of pressure, through the tires.
Each passage of a vehicle on the road leads to a slight fatigue of the latter, in
terms of both structure and surface qualities. The accumulation of this
elementary damage leads to the gradual degradation of the whole. The sizing
calculation therefore involves the cumulative traffic circulating on the roadway
during the planned service period. Heavy goods vehicles are the only vehicles
taken into consideration to describe and quantify traffic in pavement design and
sizing operations. The class of traffic is expressed as an annual daily average
(ADA) in the year of entry into service, by direction of traffic and for the
widest track.
In all cases, heavy traffic must not escape the vigilance of the meter because it is more
detrimental to the roadways.
2. The design life: the life span of the pavement is the number of years between
the base year and the year during which the structure reaches its limit state
(complete failure). A structure, which have exceeded its life span chosen for
any project, is directly related to the investment strategies of the building
owners.
- Flexible pavement its design life is typically 15 – 20years.

- Rigid pavement its design life is typically 20 - 30+years.
3. The materials: the material to be used is an essential element in the pavement

structure. Even associated with the binder, its own strength largely influences
the performance. Its availability is a determining factor in the evaluation of
construction costs. All this information can be used as road material when it is
possible to characterize it well, to predict their behavior under dynamic loads.
The tests are as numerous as they varied. They are carried out either in the
laboratory or in situ and intended for the classification of the material, and the
evaluation of its mechanical resistance. No matter how homogeneous the soil
may be, the results are liable to vary. This dispersion may be related to the test
mode under the test conditions but especially to the very nature of the material,
in particular the formation soil that is in general heterogeneous. In order for the
designed road to last for long after its realization, it is essential to use a
considerable amount of quality materials. The aggregate materials used are

either rolled or crushed, and will be fixed with certain specifications relating to
their chemical, geometrical, mechanical and physical characteristics.
4. The environment: it is an important factor, the hydric state of the subsoil and
climatic data have an influence on the resistance, durability, deformability of
pavements and their support. The sizing must undergo a freeze/thaw check
according to the geotechnical location of the project and its exposure to winter
rigors.
III. DESIGN METHODS
We can distinguish three groups of sizing methods:

1. Empirical methods: this method rest essentially on experience, by comparing
the long-term behavior of different pavement (roadway) structures with diverse
conditions of traffic and climatic condition. They are based for the majority on
accelerated test and observations carried out on experimental roads, the design
parameters are then correlated in a statistical manner with the collected
information. They limit themselves to making a correspondence between a soil
characteristic, the traffic and a type of pavement. They are very simple to apply
but are only a rough approximation. Among this method, we have CBR and
RRL method.
The CBR method: O.J Porter of the California State Highway Department, in
USA, conceived this method in 1938. After 14 years of research on Californian
roads, he put forward an empirical relation between the soil’s CBR index and
the minimum thickness of the roadway to be constructed in order to prevent
rupture by excessive plastic deformation of the soil. A chart was then
established, which gives with respect to the soil bearing ratio (CBR), the
thickness necessary for the roadway structure for two categories of traffic
classes: medium and light traffic. Base on this chart, the engineering body of
the American army established, by theoretical extrapolation, its own charts of
which Peltier gave the general expression as:
100+150 √ P
e=
CBR+5
With
e = thickness of the roadway
CBR = bearing ratio in %
P = weight of the wheel in tons

American chart were now established given the thickness e of the roadway as a
function of the CBR and load P.
The RRL method: Until 1960, the chart of the engineering body of the
American army was been applied in England. The incidence of load repetition
was taken into account in an arbitrary manner by raising by 20% the weight of
the maximum wheel considered. From tests realized on British wheels, the
Road Research Laboratory (RRL) published new chart, which modified the
CBR method with the following hypotheses:
- The effect of load repetition on the thickness of the roadway obeyed a
logarithmic law
- The effect of vehicles whose total weight are less than 3 tons are
negligible
After this consideration, Peltier’s formula was modified to into account the real traffic.
e=
100+150 √ p (75+50 log ( 10N ))
CBR+5
N = Average daily number of vehicles of greater than 1500 Kg
P = Weight of the wheel in tons
The disadvantage of an empirical method is that it can be applied only to a given set
of environmental, material, and loading conditions. If these conditions are changed,
the design is no longer valid, and a new method must be developed through trial and
error to be conformant to the new conditions.
2. Semi empirical methods: it takes into account the observation of the

degradation of the existing pavement and sometimes the mechanical model of
the behavior of materials constituting the pavement structure after the passage
of a known number of trucks. They integrate the results of theoretical studies,
tests and observations made on already existing roads. They are more
widespread. Among this method, we have AASHTO and CEBTP.
The CEBTP method: Developed by engineers du Centre Expérimental de

recherches et d’Etudes du bâtiment et des TravauxPublique [CEBTP, 1984],
they are based from African experience on the use of the CBR method and
detail visual observation of their networks, technical information related to the
construction, age, the deformations of roadways and the nature of traffic. The
method takes into account two criteria’s:
- Traffic intensity and the load capacity of the sub-grade and gives the
thicknesses of the sub-base, base course and wearing course.

- Traffic intensity and the nature of materials for the different courses in
order to verify their specifications and the possibilities of usage.
It describes five traffic classes expressed as a cumulative number of passages of an
equivalent standard axle (13 tons) and again five classes of sub-grade.
Equivalent number of Traffic class Equivalent number of

trucks veh/day: (N)
˂ 5.105 T1 ˂ 300
From 5.105 to 1.5 106 T2 From 300 to 1000
From 1.5 106 to 4. 106 T3 From 1000 to 3000
From 4. 106 to 107 T4 From 3000 to 6000
From 107 to 2. 107 T5 From 6000 to 12000
Table 1: traffic classes as defined by the CEBTP for French African countries
(CEBTP 1984)
The AASHTO method : The American method of roadway design AASHTO
(American Association of State Highways and transport Officials) is based on
an empirical analysis of the AASHO Road test realized at the end of the 1950s
on more 500 test section of the roadway [M Diak 2007]. They are usually
expressed with the formula:
log [ ∆ pSI ]
4,2−1,5
log W 18=Z R × S o +9,36 log ( SN + 1 )−0,2+
1094
0,4+ ¿
¿¿
The role of the equation is to establish a relation between structural characteristics and
the evolution with time of the level of quality of the roadway; PSI (Present
serviceability Index). It expresses the lifespan of the application of a reference axle
W 18 with the lost in quality defined by ( ∆ pSI ). The input parameters of the equation
are :
 The structural number (SN) which represent structural thickness of the roadway
 The resilient modulus M R of the subgrade
Due to the complexity in the behavior of roadways, a dispersion corresponding to the
error So on the real lifespan is considered. To take into account this error, the equation
is calculated according to the probabilistic mode and utilizes a multiple of this error,
which depends on the degree of the risk, which the user is ready to accept.

3. Theoretical methods: they are based on stress analysis by elasticity theory.
Indeed the structure is considered as a statically loaded body, in which stresses
develop. It is a question of finding the value of these forces at the key points,
and then compare them with the admissible stresses for a given state of fault. In
the case of flexible pavements, Boussinesq has already solved the problem by
considering a homogeneous medium; isotropic, elastic stressed by a point load
or uniformly distributed.
Figure 9: distribution of stresses and strains under an axisymmetric load (Huang

1993)

However, this model is far from reflecting the reality because of the complexity
of the soil structure. Even in the case of granular structures, where it represents
a good approximation, is it that, the pavement structures are arranged in
multilayers having different modulus of elasticity. In addition, many
researchers have looked into multilayer systems and provided charts or tables
and better still computer programs. Allowing calculating:
- Fz the vertical stress on the earthwork ground.
- Fr the tensile stress in the coating.
- W deflection at the road surface.
Regarding rigid structures, the solution of thin slabs judicious to the Navier
hypothesis, resting on an elastic foundation was already known. For thick
slabs, Westergaard examined three load cases: load placed at the corner of
the slab, load placed in the middle of the slab and load placed at the extreme
of the slab.
P=K×W
P = vertical stress on the ground
W = vertical displacement of the plate
K = coefficient of proportionality is called the reaction modulus

Figure 10: diagram of force distribution, Westergaard hypothesis
Others authors, in particular Hogg and Burmister, respectively treated the

plates and slabs supported on a Boussinesq medium.
Hogg’s bilayer model (1938): Hogg gives the stresses and strains of a plate
resting on a semi-undefined elastic mass of the Boussinesq type. He uses the
elasticity theory and Navier’s assumptions for thin plates to solve his equations.
As in the case of the model of Westergaard, one determines the bending
moments of the plate as well as the stresses of traction from vertical
displacements (w).
Figure 11: diagram of force distribution, Hogg hypothesis

Multilayer Burmister model (1943): it approaches and treats the general
problem of an n-layer structure resting on a semi-undefined elastic mass. The
main features of the model are as follows:
- layers are treated as elastic structures (and not as plates),
- interfaces between layers can be glued or peeled,
- the case of complex loads (twinning, tandem or tridem axles, etc.) can
be dealt by adding the effects of elementary charges,
- its main limitation is that, as in Hogg’s model, the layers are infinite in
plan,
- in the case of concrete slas, it is particularly necessary to supplement it
with a finite element model to assess the consequences of edge or slab
angle loads.
Figure 12: multilayer Burmister model
4. Mechanistic-Empirical methods: these methods partially use an analytical

approach, which is supplemented by empirical data. There are generally two
stages:
Determination of stresses in a superstructure under the effect of a defined
traffic load
Relation of these stresses with certain deterioration of the roadways.

The mechanical-empirical method of pavement design is based on the mechanics of
materials that relates an input, such as a wheel load, to an output or pavement
response, such as stress or strain. The response values are used to predict distress from
laboratory test and field-performance data. Dependence on observed performance is
necessary because theory alone has not proven sufficient to design pavements
realistically.
Kerkhoven and Dormon (1953) first suggested the use of vertical compressive strain
on the surface of subgrade as a failure criterion to reduce permanent deformation: Saal
and Pell (1960) recommended the use of horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of
asphalt layer to minimize fatigue cracking. Dormon and Metcalf (1965) first presented
the use of the above concepts for pavement design in the United States. The use of
vertical compressive strain to control permanent deformation is based on the fact that
plastic strains are proportional to elastic strains in paving materials. Thus, by limiting
the elastic strains on the subgrade, the elastic strains in other components above the
subgrade will also be controlled; hence, the magnitude of permanent deformation on
the pavement surface will be controlled in turn.
IV. DESIGN OF PAVEMENT THICKNESSES
1. The case of flexible pavements:
The CEBTP Guide: based on the African experience, the Experimental Center
for Research and Studies of Building and Public Works (CEBTP) in France,
proposes a table giving the thickness of pavements and the type of coating
according to traffic and CBR. This experiment considered of a general study of
the behavior and reinforcement of 7000 km of asphalt pavements in Tropical
Africa, since 1969. The input parameters are:
- Traffic
- The nature of the soil of the structure
- CBR
Traffic is defined according to the degree of precision of the available data by:
- Daily traffic, all vehicle categories combined.
- Cumulative heavy vehicle traffic (vehicle with a payload equal to 3T).
- The cumulative traffic according to the axle equivalents, taken from AASHTO
tests

CHAPTER III : MATERIALS AND
METHODS
SECTION 1: METHODOLOGY
This section will represent the set of step that we will implement to carry out the study
of this project. The simplest comparison is the quantified one. Therefore, we tried to
back up our remarks by the economic study of certain particular sections. In practice,
new road construction cannot be done without an economic analysis of the placed to
be served to define its level of service. We assumed this phase had already been
completed, and considered the traffic. After having defined what we mean by rigid
structure and flexible structure, we studied their different constituent elements, and
then analyzed their behavior under traffic. However, as the construction of a road is
very often guided by the availability and the nature of the materials, as well as the
environment, one cannot be omitted from these. In addition, we have estimated a
simple analogy certain factors relating to the climatic context within the framework of
the dimensioning. In this part, we have reviewed various methods to retain only those,
which seem to us better adapted to the environmental conditions, an economic
analysis allowed us to compare the construction costs, having no information about
the maintenance costs in Cameroon, they are not included. Throughout this study, we
have tried to be realistic as much as possible.

III.2 IDENTIFICATION TESTS
III.2.1 SAMPLING (NF P 18-553):

Laboratory sampling is the mass of material necessary to perform the test (s) under
good conditions. It is essential that this quantity is at least twice greater than the mass
required for the test (s).
III.2.1.2 Domain of application:

It applies to soils and aggregates of natural or artificial origin, used in the field of
building and civil engineering.
III.2.1.3 Principle:
The preparation can be done in two different ways:
By quartering or manual splitting of a quantity of material. This method is to be
used when there are large quantities of material.
By means of “sampler” dividers, devices, which separate a determined quantity
of material into, equal parts.
III.2.1.4 Equipment:
Balance whose limit capacity is compatible with the masses to be weighed and
which perform all weighing with a relative accuracy of 0.1%
Shovels and trowels.
A bag, which is used for the laying of the material.
III.2.1.5 operating mode:

Place the overall sample on the flat surface on which the operation will be
performed.
Mix the material with a trowel while taking care to give it a conical shape.
Repeat this operation several times.
Use an adequate material to grind the given materials to obtain the required
size for the different test (s).
When the sample is ready, weigh the amount needed for the test.

III.2.2. GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS (NF P 94-056)
III.2.2.1. Definition:
Set of operations resulting in the separation according to their size of the elements
constituting a sample, using a square mesh sieves in order to obtain a representation of
the distribution of the mass of particles in the dry state according to their size.
III.2.2.2. Domain of application:

Applies to soils, rocky materials after extraction and industrial by-products used in
civil engineering, as long as the stresses caused by the test process do not modify their
structure. For particles smaller than 80µm, the particle size analysis is carried out by
the sedimentation method (NF P 94-057).
III.2.2.3. Principle:
The test consists of dividing, by means of a series of sieves, a material into several
granular classes of decreasing size. The masses of the various refusals and sieves are
related to the initial mass of the material. The percentages thus obtained are used in
graphical form.
III.2.2.4. Equipment:
An 80µm mesh sieve for washing the sample.
Tubs and water for washing.
The oven for drying.
A set of interlocking sieves with square opening meshes in accordance with the
standard NF ISO 565.
Lid and sieve bottom of the same diameter as the sieves.
Containers made of non-alterable material, brush, and paintbrush.
Electronic balance.
III.2.2.5. Procedure:
The material is pre-washed in the 80µm sieve to remove any impurity.
It is dried in an oven at 105⁰ for 24 hours.
Then put the material in the larger sieve.
You can either place the sieves on the vibrio-sieve or activate the device or you
can vibrate the sieves manually.

Weigh the refusal of the sieve having the largest mesh: let R1 be the mass of
this refusal.
Continue the same operation with all the sieves in the column to obtain the
masses of the various cumulative refusals.
The masses of the various cumulative refusals Ri are related to the total mass of
the sample Ms.
The cumulative refusals percentages thus obtained are recorded on the test
sheet. The percentage of cumulative sieves will be deducted.
Record the various percentages of the cumulative sieves on a semi-logarithmic
sheet.
On the x-axis: the mesh dimensions, logarithmic scale.
On the y-axis, the percentages on an arithmetic scale.
The curve must be drawn continuously.
III.2.3. ATTERBERG LIMITS (NF P 94-051)
Determine the remarkable water contents located at the borders between different
states of a soil, which are the “Atterberg limits”: Liquid limit, WL (border between
plastic and liquid state): Plastic limit, WP (border between solid state and plastic).

It is a geotechnical test intended to identify a soil and characterize its condition by
means of its consistency index. The position of the in-situ water content (w) relative to
the Atterberg limits allows prediction of soil consistency. The Atterberg limits make it
possible to predict the behavior of fine soils during earthworks and/or when they are
mechanically stressed (admissible stress, modulus of elasticity).
The test is carried out in two phases:
Research of the water content for which a groove made in a soil placed in a
cup of imposed characteristics closes when the cup and its contents are
subjected to repeated shocks.
Research of the water content for which a roll of soil, of fixed dimension and
made manually, cracks.

For soil preparation
A container of at least 2l.
A tray.
A 400µm square mesh sieve opening.
For the liquid limit
Casangrande’s device
A scale
An oven
Petri dish, spatula, trowel, tool
For the plastic limit
Smooth marble plate
A scale
An oven
Petri dish, spatula, trowel grooved
Preparation of the sample
In a container, soak at least 250g of the sample and leave for 24 hours. Then sift
through a 400µm sieve in a tank and collect the sieve. Leave to settle for 24 hours.
Dry in an oven for 24 hours. The material is ready for testing.
Plastic limit
The sample is mixed with varying amounts of water; a roll 6 mm diameter is shaped
with the dough for about a hundred mm in length. Then we reach 3mm in diameter by
rolling it (often with the fingers), after 5 to 10 back and forth trips maximum. The
plastic limit is the percentage water content of the roll, which cracks and breaks when
it reaches a diameter of 3mm. Then take, place in a petri dish of known mass, weigh
and place in an oven set at 105⁰c.
Liquid limit
The soil is mixed with a quantity of water. The paste obtained is placed in a cup
approximately 100mm in diameter. A standardized groove is drawn on the smoothed
dough with a special tool. Using a cam, the cup is subjected to a series of shocks. At
the end of the experiment, the contact of the two lips of the groove is observed. The
liquid limit is the water content in percentage, which corresponds to a closure in 25
shocks.
Then take, place in a petri dish of known mass, weigh and place in an oven set at
105⁰c.
III.2.4. SPECIFIC DENSITY WITH THE USE OF

PYCNOMETER (NF P 94-054)
The density of solid soil particles ( ρ s) is the quotient of the mass of these solid
particles (ms) by their volume ( v s).
ρ s=ms /v s

The standard applies to any sample of intact or disturbed soil whose dimension of the
largest elements is less than 2mm. the test determines the average density of a sample
composed of particles, sometimes of a different nature. The density of solid particles
in a soil is used to find out the void index, the degree of saturation and the porosity.
The mass of the particles is obtained by weighing. The volume is measured with a
pycnometer.
Oven
Electronic balance
2mm square mesh sieve with opening
Cups for drying the soil
Mortar and pestle
Pycnometers
Reserve of distilled water
A vacuum effecting the vacuum
A thermometer

A test portion of approximately 25g passing through a 2mm sieve is taken an
placed in an oven.
The agglomerates of particles from the test sample are then separated wih a
pestle in the mortar.
The pycnometer and its stopper are weighedm1.
The test sample is introduced into the pycnometer and then weighed with m2
cap. The pycnometer flask is filled with distilled water.
Air bubbles are removed with agitation.
When the ventilation is complete, the cap and its marker tube are placed on the
flask of the pycnometer.
The filling is carried out up to the mark and 30minutes later, the pycnometer is
weighedm3.
We empty the pycnometer, clean it, fill it with distilled water to the mark and
weigh it 30min later. We denote by m4 .
III.2.5. MODIFIED PROCTOR (NF P 94-093)
It is a geotechnical test, which allows determining the water content necessary to
obtain the maximum dry density of a granular soil (or not) by compaction at a fixed
energy (ram’s weight, number of strokes and standardized dimensions).

The water content of a soil is a fundamental condition parameter and determines its
behavior. To achieve good compaction of backfill, subgrade or pavement body, it is
necessary to determine the ideal water value of the material allowing effective
compaction resulting in the best compactness. The proctor test consists of simulating
compaction in the laboratory to determine the optimum conditions for processing the
material on the job site. The compaction energy depends on the destination of the
structure we distinguish:
The normal proctor test: moderate compaction energy for earth fill (earth
dams, dikes etc.).
The modified proctor test: intense proctor energy pure foundation of
pavements, airfield runaways, etc. it corresponds to the maximum compaction
that can be obtained on construction sites with powerful compaction machines.

The principle of this test consists in humidifying a material with several water
contents and in compacting it, for each of the water contents, according to a
conventional method and energy. For each of the values of water content considered,
the dry density of the material is determined and the curve of the variations of this
density is plotted as a function of the water content.
In general, this curve, called the proctor curve, has a maximum value of the density of
the dry material, which is obtained for a particular value of the water content. These
two values are called the optimum normal or modified proctor compaction
characteristics depending on the test performed.
A CBR mold
Dame proctor modified
A ruler to level
Homogenization tanks
A 20mm sieve
A trowel
A graduated cylinder
Tares
An electronic balance
An oven set at 105⁰ C
All the material sampled is, if necessary, dried in air or in an oven set at 50 ⁰ C
maximum until a water state considered sufficiently dry to start the test
After drying, the material is sieved at 20 mm and only the sieve is kept for
carrying out the test
The material is homogenized and divided by visual assessment into least five
equal parts
The parts are humidified to a water content such that the water contents of at
least three parts and at most four are distributed between 0.8 W OPM and 1.2 W OPM
Join together: mold , base and extension
Lubricate the walls of the mold, if necessary
Place the spacer disc at the bottom of the CBR mold
Place a filter paper or plastic film on the spacer disc the CBR mold to facilitate
demolding
Then introduce the quantity of material so that the height of the first layer after
compaction is slightly greater than a fifth of the height of the mold
Compact this layer with the corresponding dame by applying respectively 56
strokes per layer (eight series of six strokes on the perimeter and one in the
center), and repeat the operation for the five layers. Weigh it all
Carry out a new compaction at a slightly higher water content
The test ends when the mass of the mold is less than the previous one.
III.2.6. CBR AFTER IMMERSION (NF P 94-078)
The CBR (California Bearing Ratio) test allows us to perform the mechanical
characterization of natural soils and compacted soils in embankments and subgrade
layers, foundations and sub-foundations of roads and airports. It measures the shear
resistance of a soil and the swelling of the soil when submerged in water for 4 days. It
allows us to calculate the bearing capacity of the ground, by estimating its resistance
to punching.

The CBR applies to soils and granular materials used in the construction of
earthworks and pavement layers provided that the proportion of elements who’s Dmax
exceeds 20mm does not exceed 30%. This test is used around the world to determine
the thickness of subbase layers, to establish a classification of soils and to study traffic
ability.
The principle consists in measuring the forces to be applied to a cylindrical punch to
make it penetrate at a constant speed into a test piece of tamped material. Three test
pieces groomed at 10, 25 and 55 strokes are produced.
Punch press
CBR molds
Proctor dame
Electronic balance
Oven at 105⁰ C
Bins
Swelling discs and overloads

Swelling measuring device
The material is dried in the open air or in an oven
Weigh the molds empty
Then introduce the quantity of material so that the height of the first layer after
compaction is slightly greater than a fifth of the height of the mold
Compact this layer with the corresponding dame by applying 10 strokes, 25
strokes or 55 strokes on each of the molds per layer for the layers
The mold containing the test piece is then separated from its base plate turned
upside down so that the upper plate of the test piece comes into contact with
the base and the latter is again secured
Weigh the mold with the material
Position the swelling disc on the test tube before placing the overload
Set up and initialize the swelling measuring device
Immerse the whole so that the test tube is covered by a height of water at least
20mm
After 4 days, note the swelling value reached
Remove the mold from the immersion tank and after draining, proceed with
punching
Bring the upper surface of the specimen into contact with the piston
Initialize the force and sag measurement devices
Execute the punching while keeping the penetration speed constant at
1.27±0.1mm / min
Establish the force / deformation curve corresponding at least to the 0mm
depressions, 0.625mm, 1.25mm, 2mm, 2.5mm, 5mm, 7.5mm and 10mm.
SECTION 2: ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
1. COST STUDY:
Estimating the overall cost of a road project is one of the most difficult design steps,
due to the many factors involved that are usually not under control. The investment
cost is divided into two main headings.
The initial investment cost:
It is very determining, and generally the most considered by our states. It depends on
market conditions, especially on the availability of the various materials involved in
the construction. It also depends on the lifespan of the structure.

In fact, by increasing the expected life of the structure, the cumulative traffic increases
the required structure index deviates high, hence the annual rate increases.
Maintenance cost:
The maintenance cost includes the cost of the various maintenance operations
scheduled during commissioning until the reinforcement carried out at the end of the
commissioning. It includes routine maintenance consisting of seasonal brush cleaning;
cleaning of ditches and culverts, as well as repairs of cracks etc.
The planned general maintenance consists of reinforcement works of longer
periodicity than usual. Its cost is a function of the lifespan; the structure index and the
quality of materials are so meticulous that maintenance becomes very low.
The overall cost of our road project is therefore the amount that we must have
available at the time of construction to carry out the work and maintain this
road during the period of planned service. The total cost of a road investment
must take into account both the initial cost and the discounted maintenance
cost. Moreover, the choice of the design year should be dictated by the
optimum of these two costs.

SECTION 3: MANUALS USED
This part highlights all the materials we will use for the completion of this project.
Indeed, the resolutions of each step enunciated in the previous section requires the use
of very specific materials. We have among others the following materials.
I. Work Tools
We can have:
a) Documentation
Neufert:
It is a book, whose main title is les elements des projets de construction, Dunod,
Paris, 1996, for the 7th French edition. ISBN 2-10-002716-6, translation and
adaptation under the direction of P-F.C. Walbaurn, translated into French by C
Bacheré, M. Bart and U.Benderitter. Indeed, Ernst Neufert is a book that provides
information on the essential technics, projects and science of building. We used it for
the architectural design of this project, because depending on the type of building it

gives information on the dimensions of the type of rooms and the minimum
dimension, all this information provided is given according to specific standards.
Manufacturer’s guide:
It is a book entitled: Guide du constructeur en batiment, R.Adrait, D.Sommier, J.-
P.Battail, mastering civil engineering, 2006-2007 Edition. It provides information on
drawing and technology learning in building projects and civil engineering projects.
We have used it for technical drawing conventions, the other state bodies highlighted
as well as the form concerning the characteristics of the materials.
Worker’s guide:
This book guides du tâcheron, Pierre blondin, Dedicate Fokwa, Désiré Embogo. This
book provides information on the technology of construction, or to speak simpler, try
to answer the question: how to build? From the foundation of the roof, you will find
essential notions allowing building according to techniques adapted to the local
context by avoiding mistakes commonly encountered on constructions sites.
Our courses enrolled in the academic program
 Strength of materials for HND/BTS 1 and 2: as regards calculation methods for
structure calculation.
 Reinforced concrete for Bachelor: concerning the dimensions of reinforced
concrete structures using Euro code.
 Site management courses for HND/BTS 1and 2: for planning work.
 Cost and Estimate course: to estimate the quantities of materials for the project.
b) The computer:
The use of computer for the writing of a summary concerning the study of this
project.
For the application of sizing software, drawing, planning and table.
c) Internet:
We have used it as part of the manual research, documentation, methods and useful
execution process to carry out the study of this project.
II. Software used

The overall study of the project necessitated the use of numerous study software’s,
technical and architectural drawing, for the structural calculation, the planning of the
work and the elaborations of the cost, and the writing of a summary memory. We
therefore use among other software such as:
MS PROJECT
Software used for planning of works in any project, we used it for the elaboration of
the estimates.
Microsoft Excel
Software used for programming tables and charts. We use it for the preparation of
estimates.
Microsoft Word
Software used for the execution of report writing, invitation ticket, vita curriculum,
business card. We used it to write a summary of the study of the said project.
Microsoft PowerPoint
Software used for developing project presentation as slides.

CHAPTER IV : RESULTS AND
DISCUSSIONS
IV.1: RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS
IV.1.1. GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS (NF P 94-056)
The results of the various cumulative weighing are recorded on a test sheet. The
masses of the various cumulative rejections Ri, are compared to the calculated total
mass of the sample for dry test Ms and the cumulative rejections percentages thus
obtained:
Ri
×100
Ms
The percentages of the sieves are therefore:

Ri
100−( ×100)
Ms
The percentages of cumulative sieve or those of the rejects are presented either in the
form of a table and in the form of a curve.
To plot the curve, it suffices to record the various percentages of the sieves or of the
various cumulative rejects on the sheet of semi-logarithmic paper.
- On the abscissa: the mesh dimensions, on a logarithmic scale.
- On the ordinate: the percentages on an arithmetic scale.
The results thus obtained for each sample are summarized in the following table:

IV.1.2. ATTERBERG LIMITS (NF P 94-051)
IV.1.2.1. LIQUID LIMIT

The W L liquid limit is the water content of the material, which conventionally
corresponds to a closure of 1cm of the lips of the groove after 25 impacts. It is
calculated from the equation of the mean straight line adjusted to the pairs of
experimental values.
The W L is obtained for a value N equal to 25. It is expressed as a percentage and
rounded to the nearest whole number.
IV.1.2.2. PLASTIC LIMIT

The W P plastic limit is the conventional water content of soil roll that cracks when the
diameter reaches 3mm ± 0.5mm. W P is the arithmetic mean of the water contents
obtained from two tests. The value of the plastic limit is expressed as a percentage.
IV.1.2.3. PLASTIC INDEX

I P is the difference between the values of the liquid and plastic limits.
I P =W L −W P


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APPROVAL

Mrs. ESSIMI Annette

Mrs. TCHIKDJE Prudence

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 1

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 2

Before any development of this professional experience, it seems appropriate to begin

Annette for her assistance and guide.

and financial support.

Besides everyone found expression of our deep gratitude here.

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 3

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 4

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 5

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 6

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 7

Development of a country depends on the connectivity of various places with

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 8

The points below are what motivated us to work on this topic;

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 9

Why is it that roads in Cameroon are mostly made up of asphalt concrete?

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 10

Improve the conditions of safety and comfort on this road section.

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 11

SECTION 1: HISTORY OF PAVEMENT

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 12

Figure 3: Cross section of Telford.

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 14

Figure 4: Cross section of Macadam

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 15

 TYPES OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURES

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 16

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 17

Joints: they include two types in rigid pavements

- Expansion joints: expansion joints consist of a performed joint filler, generally

- Contraction joint: typically, a contraction joint is a sawed transverse joint

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 18

c) Semi-rigid pavements: they have a bituminous surface layer resting on a base

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 19

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 20

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 21

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 22

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 23

1. Road pavement: set of superimposed layers of material resting on the road

Figure 8: schematic representation of a pavement structure

5. Pavement platform: surface of the subgrade supporting the pavement layers. In

6. Flexible structures: structures comprising a cover of bituminous materials of

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 24

7. Thick bituminous structures: structures composed of a surface layer and a base

8. Bed structures treated with hydraulic or semi-rigid binders: structures made up

9. Mixed structures: structures composed of a wearing course and a base layer of

10. Inverse structures: structures composed of bituminous layers, on an untreated

12. Urban roads: pavements forming an integral part of an agglomeration. Usually,

14. Interface pasted: the set of displacement is assumed to be continuous, it is the

16. Semi-glued interface: calculation assumption corresponding to the half-sum of

I. DESIGN OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURES:

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 26

Coating layer: it is a mixture of good quality aggregates and a hydrocarbon

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 27

Foundation soil: the presence of the foundation makes it possible to increase

Coating: it is generally a concrete slab. This material is well known to

II. DESIGN PARAMETERS

1. The traffic: traffic is an essential element in the design of pavements. In

PRESENTED BY MAKUATE FOSSOUO CARELLE FRANKLYN 28

- Flexible pavement its design life is typically 15 – 20years.