Chapter 4 Synchronous generators 4.1 Introduction Almost all the electricity produced in the world comes from three phase synchronous generators, or alternators. The behavio: of the synchronous generators and their control mechanisms are very important in charaeterizing the overall behavior of the power system, both in the steady state, and under dynamics conditions. ‘The detailed mathematical model of a synchronous generator involves an intimidating number of complex equations. We will take some simplifying assumptions, and use the symmetrical structure of the synchronous machine to describe it with the help of a simple ect of equations. For the ti ves to the steady state analy: only. ‘The rotor of a synchronous generator can be of two types: eylindrieal or round roto and salient-pole rotor, as shown in Fig. 4.1. Cylindrical rotor construction is used mainly for turbo generators, which are driven by high-speed turbines, such as steam turbines. Salient poles in this type of generators will cause excessive centrifugal force due to high speed of rotation, and hence avoided. Salient pole rotor construction is used for generators driven by low speed turbines. The pole face is tapered in such a way that the flux distribution due to the rotor in the air gap in nearly sinusoidal, the flux density being maximum near the pole faces, and minimum in the region between two pole faces. ‘The axis along which the maximum value of the flux density lies, is called the d axi as shown in Fig 4.1, The axis perpendicular to the d axis is called the q axis. For someone walking along the periphery of the rotor. the flux will appear as sinusoidal and stationary. The stator conductors, however, see a sinusoidal fux distribution moving at the speed of the rotor. Voltage are induced in the stator windings as the rotor flux cuts the stator conductoruisofPhe | sorpmiee rocco (a) ) Figure 4.1: Synchronous generator: (a) cylindrical or round rotor, (b) salient pole rotor 4.2 Voltage induced by the rotor field From Fig. 4.1, it is clear that the component of the field flux along the magnetic axis of the phase A is, = bm 0080 (4.1) where ¢,. #8 the maxinmm value of the ‘nx, which ocenrs along the d axis, @ is the angle between the d axis and the magnetic ax's of phase A. ‘The voltage produced in phase A winding is therefore given by Faraday’s law as, don ao = = bm N sind €4 = — FS = oN sin (42) where NV is the effective number of turns in phase A, Recognizing that, d0/dt = w, where w is the speed of the rotor in radian per second, (4.2) ean be expressed as, ca = OmNweind (13) ‘The r.m.s value of the phase A voltage can therefore be given by. am Nonf = 444fNom (4.4) 2where f =w/2m is the frequency of rotation of the rotor in Hz, Notice that, the speed of rotation of the rotor, w that we mentioned above, is actually the electrical speed. Vor the ease of Hig, 4.1, the electrical speed is equal to the mechanical speed, since the number of poles is two. In general, the electrical speed, we, and the mechanical speed, w, are related as. (4.8) ‘The units of electrical and mechanical speeds are distinguished by using electrical radi- ans/second, and mechanical radians/second. Similar relation holds good for the electrical frequency, f. and the mechanical frequeney, fn as well. (46) 4.3 Armature reaction In the previous section, we saw that the field flux induces voltage in the stator windings. Let us denote this voltage with E. Whea the generator is operating at no-load, i.e., when the stator is not supplying any current, this induced emf is equal to the terminal voltage of the generator. However, this situation changes when the generator is connected to some load, ie., the when the stator current starts flowing. The stator current produces flux; and this stator flur distorts the original air-gap flux distribution due to rotor current only. The voltage at the terminal of the generator therefore changes. This is called armature reaction, an effect caused by the armature or the stator current, ‘The change in stator terminal voltag? is proportional to the stator current magnitud The change in stator terminal voltage is due to an emf induced by the stator flux. Since tho stator flu is in phase with the stator current, and this etator induced emf ie 00° ahead of the stator flux, effectively, the stator-nduced emf leads the stator current by 90°, ‘This behavior is similar to an inductor. Therfore, the armature reaction can be accounted for by inchiding an inductance in the stator circuit, Let X, be the inductive reactance that accounts for the armature reaction. The voltage drop accross this inductance is jX,7, where T is the armature current. Now, we have to determine the polarity of this drop; i.c., whether this voltage drop should be added to or subtracted from the original rotor-induced emf B. Let us refer Fig, 4.2 that slows the assumed polarities of the voltages and the currents for the field winding and one phase of the stator winding. This convention is usually followed for generators. If we follow the dots in Fig. 4.2, we note that the outgoing current from the dotted terminal on stator winding induces voltage in the stator with polarity opposite to E. Hence the terminal voltage is obtained by subtracting the voltage drop across the inductor (representing the armature reaction) from the intemal voltage E. Armature reaction,Feld ‘Armature Figure 4.2: Polarities of the fied and the armature voltage and current therefore, can be represented by the voltage drop Ep in the stator, given by, Ean =iX,7 (477) ‘The terminal voltage is then given by, -5X (43) Including the drop across the stator resistance, V=B-R,I-jXT (49) where R, is the armature resistance per phase of the stator winding, ‘The phasor diagram of a synchroncus generator under steady state, and the corre- sponding equivalent circuit are shown in Fig. 4.3. Sor 4 ! ye (6) (a) Figure 4.3: Synchronous generator: (a) phasor diagram, (b) equivalent cireuit stator. The Note that the major part of X, accounts for the air-gap flux set up by remaining part accounts for the leake flax around the armature conductors and the end. rings, which do not produce airgap flux. In other words, the synchronous reactance X, inchidles the magnetizing, reactance, as well as the lea4.4 Effect of rotor saliency In uhe above analysis, It was assumed dat the reactance of he alr gap path along and @ axes were the same. However, this is not the case for salient pole machines. Even for non-salient pole machines, rotor slots create variations in the reactance along d and q axes, ‘To consider the effect of the rotor salicney, the revolving stator mmf is resolved into d and. @ axes, which is equivalent to resolving the stator current into d and q axes. Similar to (4.7), the voltages induced by the stator current along d and q axes are given by, Bana = 5Xala (4.100) Bang = iXaly (4.100) where I; and J, are the d and q axis cormponents of the stator current, 7. ‘The stator terminal voltage is then given by, V =B-jXula—iXjhy (aan) ichronous generator. Fig. 4.4 shows the phasor diagram for a salient pole q-axis d-axis Figure 44: Phasor diagram of a sali t pole \chronous generator In the above figure, Ry is the armature resistance; ¢ is the angle between the stator terminal voltage and the stator current, i.e, the power factor angle, 4.5 Power and torque characteristics In this section, we are going to derive the power and torque equations for a salient-pole yynchronous generator, phasor diagram for which is shown in Fig. 44. The results then ‘an be easily generalized for non-salient pole machines by taking Xq = X,. Power output from the generator is given by, B= P+jQ=VT =Vicoso + jVI sing (4.12) 5‘The armature resistance in a synchronous machine is usually much smaller compared to the reactance. Typical value of resistance being of the order of 0.005-0.02 pu (Resistance being on the higher side of the scale tor smaller machines), and reactance being of the order of 0.5-1.5 pu (higher values for la:ger machines). The abbreviation ‘pu’ stands for ‘por unit’, We will discuss later, what it means. Por now, let us note that it is a method of sealing the actual circuit quantities, such as impedance, voltage, current, etc. Neglecting the armature resistance, from Fig. 4.4 we get, EB=Vo0sd + Xala (4.13) and Xyly = Vsind (4.14) Now, (4.15a) I, = Teos(é +4) (4.15) Expanding the right hand side of (4.15), I, = Isiné cos + Fcos sind (4.16a) I, — LcosScos — Isind sin’ (4.16b) Multiplying (4.16a) by sin 6 and (4.16) by cos6, and adding, we get, Tcos¢ = Iasind + I,cosé (4.17) Again, multiplying (4.16b) with sin 6 and subtracting from (4.16a), after multiplication with cos, we get, Isin @ = Iycos5 ~ Iysin6 (4.18) Using (4.17) and (4.18) in (4.12), the real and reactive powers, P and Q, respectively are given by, P=Vi(lysind + I,c058) Q=V(Iacosé — I, sind) Expressing 1, and J, using (4.13) and (4.14) in the above two equations, Veosé ) sno ev - x) sin 26 (4.19), (E-V cod Xa (4.20) If we neglect salieney by setting X, = X, = X,, the above two equations simplify to, (4.21) (4.22) Since the stator resistance is neglected in the above analysis, the real power output is also the power that flows across the airgap. ‘The torque developed in the machine is, therefore given by p38? _ SVE sind (4.23) Ban ayn where Wayy is the synchronous speed of the rotor. Notice that we have multiplied the real power found in (4.21) by 3 in (4.23). This is needed since the previous analysis was cn per phase basis, 4.6 Control of singly operated synchronous machine A synchronous generator is rarely used independently. It is generally connected to a system ‘consisting of several generators. However, ifa small load needs a constant frequency supply. synchronous generator may be used to supply that load all by itself. Consider the simplified equivalent circnit of a synchronous generator connected to a variable load, as shown in Fig. 4.5. When the variable impedance is infinite, ie, the terminals are open, the internal emf E appears actoss the terminals of the generator However, as soon as the machine is loaded, the terminal voltage reduces due to drop across the synchronons reactance (also due to drop in the armature resistance, which is neglected here). One can then increase the field excitation in order to raise the internal voltage, and consequently the terminal voltage. This is a function usually accomplished by the automatie voltage regulator (AVR). Note that, as soon as current starts flowing in the armature, stator flux is produced. Torque produced due to the interaction cf the stator and rotor fluxes tend to slow down the rotor. Prime mover input (mechanical power) therefore needs to be increased to maintain a constant speed. This is essentially the function of a speed governor.