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Microbiology
• Microbiology is the study of microbes, which are

extremely small (microscopic) living organisms and
certain non-living entities
• Living microbes are known as cellular microbes or
microorganisms; examples include bacteria, archaea,
some algae, protozoa, and some fungi
The Science of • Non-living microbes are known as acellular microbes or
infectious particles; examples include viroids, prions, and
viruses
Microbiology • Microorganisms are ubiquitous (they are found virtually
everywhere)
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Acellular and Cellular

Microbes Prokaryotes
Bacteria Cyanobacteria Archeans
Eukaryotes Virus
Fungi
Protozoa Algae
Prions and What is
Viroids
Microbiology?
• The microbes that cause disease are
sometimes referred to as “germs”
• The scientific term for disease-causing
microbes is pathogens
• Microbes that do not cause disease are
called nonpathogens; the vast majority of
microbes are nonpathogens
What is Microbiology? Categories of Diseases

Caused by Pathogens
• Microbes that live on and in our bodies are
referred to as our indigenous microflora
• Some members of our indigenous
microflora are opportunistic pathogens
• Opportunistic pathogens are microbes that
can cause disease, but usually do not; they
can be thought of as microbes that are
awaiting the opportunity to cause disease
• Pathogens cause two categories of
diseases: infectious diseases and microbial
intoxications
Field of Study under Why Study

Microbiology
Microbiology?
• Bacteriology – study of bacteria
• Microorganisms play significant roles in our lives; they are
• Virology – study of viruses essential for life on this planet
• Mycology – study of fungi • Photosynthetic algae and bacteria (such as cyanobacteria)
produce much of the oxygen in our atmosphere
• Parasitology – study of protozoa
• Microorganisms are involved in the decomposition of
and parasitic worms dead organisms and waste products
• Phycology – study of algae • Saprophytes are organisms that live on dead and/or
decaying organic matter
• Immunology – study of immune system • The use of microbes to clean up toxic wastes and other
and immune response industrial waste products is known as bioremediation
Microbes as Why Study
Saprophytes Microbiology?
• Many microbes play essential roles in various elemental cycles; e.g.,
the carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorous cycles
• Algae and bacteria serve as food for tiny animals; they are important
links in food chains
• Microbes that live in the intestinal tracts of animals aid in the
digestion of food and produce beneficial substances
• For many years, microorganisms have been used as “cell models”;
the more that scientists learned about microbial cells, the more they
learned about cells in general
Microbes and Why Study

Nitrogen Fixation Microbiology?
• Microbes are used in many industries; e.g., food, beverage,
chemical, and antibiotic industries and in genetic engineering
• In genetic engineering, a gene or genes from one organism
is/are inserted into a bacterial or yeast cell; the cell that
receives the new gene(s) is then capable of producing the
gene product(s) coded for by the new gene(s)
• The use of living organisms or their derivatives to make or
modify useful products or processes is call biotechnology
First Microorganisms Trivia

on Earth • Designer Jeans: Made by Microbes?
Stone-washing: Trichoderma
• Fossils of primitive microorganisms date back about 3.5 billion fungus- cellulases which digest cellulose
years ago. in cotton to make it soft.
• Candidates for the first microorganisms on Earth are archaea
and cyanobacteria.
• Infectious diseases of humans and animals have existed for as
long as humans and animals have inhabited the planet.
• Earliest known account of pestilence occurred in Egypt in
about 3180 BC.
Evolution of Microbiology Evolution of Microbiology
Contributor Contribution Date(s)
Robert Hooke Discover the cell Mid 1600s
Contributor Contribution Dates(s)
Edward Jenner Discovered vaccine for smallpox
Anton von Lee Created single lens microscope 1670s
- “Father of
Joseph Lister Contributed to the concept of aseptic surgery 1865-1870
Microbiology”
Louis Pasteur  Germ theory of disease 1855-1890s Paul Ehrlich Discovered Salvarsan for treatment of syphilis 1890-1900
 Pasteurization-basis for aseptic technique
 Introduced the terms aerobes and anaerobes
 Contributed to the understanding of fermentation Alexander Discovered the antibiotic penecillin
Fleming
Robert Koch Koch’s Postulate – specific organisms is the cause of 1870s-
specific infectious dideases 1890s
Compound microscopes
• Contains more than 1

magnifying lens
• Can magnify~1000x
Types of Microscopes • Visible light is the
main source of
illumination
Component Function Component Function

Ocular lens/eyepiece Topmost part, which is the lens the viewer looks through to see the Stage clips Situated above the stage, these are metal clips that hold the slide in place
specimen
Stage control Found beneath the stage, these knobs move the stage either left or right or
Evolving nose piece Located above the stage, it holds the objective lenses forward and backward
Aperture The hole in the middle of the stage that allows light from the illuminator to
Body tube/head It connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses
reach the slide containing the specimen
Arm It connects the body tube to the base of the microscope On/off switch The switch located at the base of the microscope that turns the illuminator
on or off
Coarse adjustment It brings the specimen into general focus Illuminator The light source of the microscope
Fine adjustment It fine tunes the focus and increases the details of the specimen Iris diaphragm Found on the condenser, it is used to adjust the amount of light coming
through the condenser
Objective lenses This is held in place above the stage by the revolving nosepiece and are condenser It is found beneath the stage and contains a lens system that focuses light
the lenses that are closest to the specimen. It contains 3-5 objectives onto the specimen. It gathers and focuses light onto the specimen
ranging in power from 4x to 100x
Base It supports the microscope and it is where the illuminator is found
Stage Located beneath the revolving nosepiece, it is the flat platform on which
the specimen is placed
Brightfield Microscope Darkfield Microscope
• Magnify an object~1000-1,500x • Utilizes reflected light rather than

• Visible light as source of transmitted light
illumination • Ideal for specimen that are
• Used to visualize bacteria and unstained or transparent
fungi bigger than 0.2µm • Specimen appears bright against
• Specimen appears dark against dark background
the surrounding bright viewer • Useful in examining external
field details of specimen
• Cells need to be stained • Used to view spirochetes
Phase-contrast Microscope
• Has contrast enhancing

optical technique to produce
high contrast images of
transparent specimen
• Can be used to observe
unstained living
microorganisms, thin tissue
slices and subcellular particles
(nuclei and organelles)
Differential Interference Contrast Fluorescence Microscope

Microscope
• Similar to phase contrast • Make use of ultraviolet light and
microscope except that it utilizes fluorescent dyes-fluorochromes
2 beams of light instead of 1 • Specimen appears to shine against a
dark background
• Useful in examining living • Uses higher intensity of light source
specimens • Used to visualize structural
• 3D image may not be accurate- component of small specimen,
enhanced areas of light and detect viability of cell population
shadow may distort the • Used to visualize genetic material
(DNA and RNA)
appearance
Confocal Microscope Electron Microscope
• Uses optical imaging technique • Utilizes a beam of electrons to create an image

that increases optical resolution • Used to visualize viruses and subcellular
and contrast structure
• TEM-original form
• Specimen is stained with 2D image of black and
fluorescent dye to emit or return
white
light
-magnifies~200,000x
• Object is scanned w/ laser into • SEM- interaction at surface
planes and regions rather than transmission
• Produce 3D image -3D image black and white
• Useful in study of cell physiology -magnify~10,000x
Used to study the molecular and atomic

shapes of organism on a nanoscale
Purpose
• To facilitate visualization
- meant to give color to the organisms
making them easier to see under
the microscope
Staining
Different types of Staining Simple Stains

• Make use of a single dye (aqueous or
• Simple Stains alcohol based)
• Differential stains • Uses basic dye such as safranin, methylene
blue, or crystal violet
• Special stains • The stain works by giving up or accepting
ion making it + charged. Since most
bacterial cells and cytoplasm are – charged,
the stain adheres readily to cell surface
• Quick and easy way to visualize cell shape,
size and arrangement of bacteria
Simple Bacterial Staining Technique

Differential Stains
• Used to differentiate 1 group of bacteria from

another
• 2 types: gram stain and acid fast stain
Gram Stain Gram Stain
• Distinguishes gram-positive bacteria from gram- • The final Gram reaction (positive or negative)
negative bacteria depends upon the organism’s cell wall structure.
• Gram-positive bacteria stain blue or purple
• Gram-negative bacteria stain red or pink – The cell walls of Gram-positive bacteria have a
• General rule: thick layer of peptidoglycan, making it difficult to
- all cocci are gram-positive except remove the crystal violet-iodine complex.
Neisseria, Veilonella and Branhamella
- all bacilli are gram-negative except – Gram-negative organisms have a thin layer of
Corynebacterium, Clostridium, peptidoglycan, making it easier to remove the
Bacillus and Mycobacterium crystal violet; the cells are subsequently stained
with safranin.
Gram-staining and expected

result
Reagent Function Result if Gram- Result if Gram-
positive negative
Crystal violet Primary stain Purple or blue Purple or blue
Gram’s iodine Mordant* Purple or blue Purple or blue
Acetone/95% Decolorizer Purple or blue Colorless

alcohol
Safranin Counterstain/ Purple or blue Red or pink

secondary stain
*a mordant enhances the uptake of the primary stain
Various Gram-Positive Bacteria Various Gram-Positive Bacteria
Spores
Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Chains of streptococci in A bacillus, Clostridium Clostridium tetani in a smear

Streptococcus pneumoniae perfringens,in a smear from a
smear from broth culture. from a broth culture (note
in blood culture. broth culture. terminal spores on some cells).
Epithelial cells
Gram-Negative Bacteria
Many Gram-positive bacteria Gram-negative bacilli in a Loosely coiled Gram-negative

smear from a bacterial spirochetes, Borrelia burgdorferi,
colony. the cause of Lyme disease
Acid-fast stain Acid-fast stain cont.

• Used for bacteria with high lipid content in their cell wall
• Some bacteria are neither consistently purple nor
• 2 method are used: pink after Gram staining; they are known as Gram-
1. ziehl-Neelsen stain- “hot method”, variable bacteria; example, Mycobacterium spp.
- it requires steam-bathing of the prepared smear. • Mycobacterium spp. are often identified using the
- the primary stain used here is aqueous and will not bind acid-fast stain.
to cell wall of organism. • The acid-fast stain
- specimen will appear red on blue background – Carbol fuchsin is the red dye that is driven
through the bacterial cell wall
2. kinyoun stain- “cold method” – Heat is used to soften the waxes in the cell wall
– Because mycobacteria are not decolorized by
- does not utilize heat because primary the acid-alcohol mixture, they are said to be
stain is oil-based
acid-fast
- specimen will appear red on green
background
Acid fast staining and expected

result Acid-Fast Mycobacteria
Reagent Function Result
Ziehl-Neelsen Kinyoun Acid-fast Non-acid-fast
Carbol fuchsin Carbol fuchsin Primary stain Red or pink Red or pink
Acid alcohol Acid alcohol Decolorizer Red Colorless

Methylene Malachite Counterstain Ziehl-Neelsen: Ziehl-Neelsen:
blue green or secondary red organism/ blue organism/
stain blue blue
background background
Kinyoun: Kinyoun:
Red organism/ Green Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
green organism/
background green Many acid-fast mycobacteria Acid-fast bacilli in a
background
in a liver biopsy. digested sputum specimen.
Other Special stains
Special Stains • Hiss stain (capsule or slime layer)

• Dyer stain (cell wall)
• Used to demonstrate specific structures in a • Fischer-Conn stain (flagella)
bacterial cells • Scgaeffer-Fulton stain (spores)
• Example: LAMB (Loeffler Alkaline Methylene • India ink or nigrosine (capsule of fungus
Blue) stain Cryptococcus neoformans)
Culture Media
• Specific culture media
- most ideal to identify specific organisms
-basically an aqueous solution to which all
the necessary nutrients essential for the
growth of organisms are added
 Classified into 3 primary levels:
1. physical state
2. chemical composition
3. functional type
According to Physical State According to Physical State cont.

• 1. Liquid media – broths, milk or infusion • 2. Semi-solid media – exhibit clot-like
- water based solutions, do not consistency at room temp.
- contain agar at concentration of
solidify at temp.>freezing point 0.5% or less, allows thickening w/o
-do not contain gelling agents such producing firm substance
as gelatin or agar - similar to custard in consistency
- suited for propagation of large - best suited for culture of
number og organisms, microaerophilic bacteria or for study
of bacterial motility
fermentation studies
Semisolid Agar Method for According to Physical State cont.
Determining Motility • 3. Solid media- contain solidifying agent such as
1.5%-2% agar, on w/c cells can form
discrete colonies
- Used for isolation of bacteria and fungi or
for determining the colony characteristics
-Come in 2 forms:
- liquefiable (reversible) solid media
- non-liquefiable (non-reversible) solid
media
According to Chemical composition

• 1. Synthetic media
- contain chemically defined substances,
pure organic and/or inorganic
compounds
- precise chemical composition is known
- maybe simple or complex depending
on supplement added
According to Chemical composition cont. According to Functional Type

• 2. Non-synthetic media • 1. General Purpose Media
- Contain at least one ingredient that is
not chemically defined, neither simple • 2.Enrichment Media
or pure compound • 3. Selective Media
- not exact chemical formula
• 4. Differential Media
- most are extracts of animals, plants or
yeasts • 5. Transport Media
- support the growth of more fastidious • 6. Anaerobic Media
organisms
According to Functional Type Cont.. According to Functional Type Cont..
• 1. General Purpose Media • 2. Enrichment media
- designed for primary isolation of broad - contain complex organic substances such as
spectrum of microorganisms blood, serum or special growth factors
-contain mixture of nutrients that support - designed to increase the number of desired
growth of pathogenic and non- microorganisms w/o stimulating the rest of
bacterial pop.
pathogenic organisms
- used to grow fastidious bacteria
- ex. peptone water, nutrient broth, and - 2 commonly used media:
nutrient agar 1. blood agar
2. chocolate agar
Enrichment Media cont..

• A. Blood Agar
-5%-10% (by volume) blood added to a
Blood Agar
blood agar base • A. Beta hemolysis
-Certain gram-positive bacteria produce
exotoxins that cause hemolysis (destruction - “Complete hemolysis”
of red blood cells). Their hemolytic reaction is -Shows complete lysis of red blood cells
categorized into 3:
1. Beta hemolysis resulting in complete clearing around
2. Alpha hemolysis the colonies
3. Gamma hemolysis
Blood Agar cont.. Blood Agar cont..

• B. Alpha hemolysis • C. Gamma hemolysis
- “Incomplete hemolysis” - “No hemolysis”
- Shows incomplete lysis of red blood - Shows no hemolysis, resulting in no
cells, producing a greenish change in the medium
discoloration of the blood agar around
the colonies
Enrichment Media cont..
B. Chocolate Agar
-Used also for the culture of
fastidious organisms such as
Haemophilis sp.
-Heat is applied to lyse the red blood
cells, causing the medium to turn
brown
According to Functional Type cont. Example of Selective Media

3. Selective Media a. Thayer-Martin agar- contain antibiotic
– contain 1 or more substance that -trimethroptrim, nystatin,
encourage growth of specific
microorganism but inhibit growth of vancomycin, and colistin
others - used for isolation of Neisseria
- example of approaches includes b. Mannitol Salt agar – contains 10% NaCl
changing pH or adding antibiotics, dyes
or other chemicals - used for the isolation of
- usually agar-based solid media Staphylococcus aureus
Example of Selective Media

c. MacConkey’s agar- promotes growth of
gram negative bacteria primarily
family Enterobacteriaceae and inhibit
the growth of gram-positive bacteria
through addition of bile salts
-both selective and differential
Example of Selective Media According to Functional Type cont.
4. Differential Media
d. Löwenstein-Jensen medium - allow growth of several types of
- selective medium used to Microorganisms
recover Mycobacterium tuberculosis - show visible differences among certain
groups of organisms
- made selective by the incorporation
- differences in the form of:
of malachite green - variation in colony size/color
e. Saboraud’s dextrose agar - changes in color of culture media
- used for isolation of fungi - formation of precipitate or gas bubbles
-Ex. Mackonkey’s agar and Triple sugar Iron agar
• Example:
-Cary Blair transport medium- for
transport of feces of suspected cholera
According to Functional Type cont. patients
5. Transport media
-used for specimen that needs to be
-Pike’s medium- used to transport throat
transported to the lab immediately after specimen of patients with streptococcal
collection infection
-prevent drying of specimen and inhibit
growth of commensals
-charcoal is added to neutralize inhibitory
factors
According to Functional Type cont.

6. Anaerobic media
- used specifically for organisms that
cannot survive in the presence of oxygen
and require reduced oxidation-reduction
potential
- supplemented with vitamin K and hemin
- 1% glucose, 0.1% ascorbic acid etc. are
added to reduce the oxidation-
reduction potential
-ex. Chopped cooked meat
Cells
• Smallest living unit
Cells • Most are microscopic
Source: www.chipola.edu/instruct/science/Tidwell/bscppt/alters1e...ppt/alters1e_ppt_ch05.p 2
Discovery of Cells Cell theory
• Robert Hooke (mid-1600s) • (1839)Theodor Schwann & Matthias Schleiden

• Observed sliver of cork “ all living things are made of cells”
• Saw “row of empty boxes”
• Coined the term cell
• (50 yrs. later) Rudolf Virchow
“all cells come from cells”
Source: www.chipola.edu/instruct/science/Tidwell/bscppt/alters1e...ppt/alters1e_ppt_ch05.p 3 Source: www.chipola.edu/instruct/science/Tidwell/bscppt/alters1e...ppt/alters1e_ppt_ch05.p 4
Principles of Cell Theory What is the size of a cell?
• All living things are made of cells
• Smallest living unit of structure and function of all organisms

is the cell
• All cells arise from preexisting cells

(this principle discarded the idea of
spontaneous generation)
5 Source: www.chipola.edu/instruct/science/Tidwell/bscppt/alters1e...ppt/alters1e_ppt_ch05.p 6
Cells Have Large Surface : Area-to-Volume Ratio
Characteristics of All Cells
• A surrounding membrane
• Protoplasm – cell contents in thick fluid
• Organelles – structures for cell function
• Control center with DNA
What are the two types of cell? Prokaryotic Cells
1. Prokaryotic • First cell type on

earth
2. Eukaryotic
• Cell type of
Bacteria and
Archaea
9 Source: www.chipola.edu/instruct/science/Tidwell/bscppt/alters1e...ppt/alters1e_ppt_ch05.p 10
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
• No membrane bound nucleus • Nucleus bound by membrane

• Nucleoid = region of DNA • Include fungi, protists, plant, and
concentration animal cells
• Organelles not bound by • Possess many organelles Protozoan
membranes

Representative Animal Cell Representative Plant Cell
Source: https://basicbiology.net/micro/cells/animal-cells Source: https://www.123rf.com/photo_80713899_education-chart-of-biology-for-plant-cell-

13 diagram.html 14
Cytoplasm
Plasma Membrane
• The material between the plasma membrane and the nucleus
• Plays a dynamic role in cellular activity • Half cytosol
• encloses cell • Consists of a fluid part (the site of chemical reactions), the cytoskeleton, and cytoplasmic
• supports the cell contents inclusions
• The cytoskeleton supports the cell and enables cell movements
• a selective barrier that regulates what goes into and out of the cell • Microtubules – provide support, aid in cell division, and are components of organelles
• plays a role in communication between cells • Actin filaments – support the plasma membrane and define the shape of the cell
• Intermediate filaments – provide mechanical support to teh cell
• Separates intracellular substances from extracellular substances
• Half organelles
• intracellular: inside cells • Cytoplasmic Inclusions are aggregates of chemicals either produced by the cell or taken in by
• extracellular (intercellular): between cells the cell (lipids, glycogen, hemoglobin, melanin)
Cytoskeleton
Fig. 3.13
Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Specialized subcellular structures with specific
functions
• Membranous
• Mitochondria, peroxisomes, lysosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus
• Nonmembranous
• Centrioles and ribosomes
Nucleus
Nucleus
• The nuclear envelope consists of two separate membranes with nuclear
pores
• Encloses jellylike nucleoplasm, which contains essential solutes
• DNA and associated proteins are found inside the nucleus
• DNA is the hereditary material of the cell and controls the activities of the cell
• Contains the genetic library with blueprints for nearly all cellular proteins
• Dictates the kinds and amounts of proteins to be synthesized
• Between cell divisions DNA is organized as chromatin
• During cell division chromatin condenses to form chromosomes consisting of two
chromatids connected by a centromere
Fig. 3.15
Nucleoli and Ribosomes
• Nucleoli: dark-staining spherical bodies within the nucleus
• Consist of RNA and proteins
• Produces ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA)
• Site of ribosomal subunit assembly
• Ribosomes: sites of protein synthesis
Chromosome • Free ribosomes are not attached to any organelles
• synthesize proteins used inside the cell
Structure • Attached ribosomes are part of a network of membranes called the rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
• produce proteins that are secreted from the cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• Series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that extend from the
outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm
• Two varieties: rough ER and smooth ER
• Rough ER (RER)
• Studded with ribosomes
• Major site of protein synthesis
• Smooth ER (SER)
• Does not have ribosomes attached
• Major site of lipid and carbohydrate synthesis
• Catalyzes the following reactions in various organs of the body
• Liver: lipid and cholesterol metabolism, breakdown of glycogen and along with the kidneys, detoxifiy
drugs
• Testes: synthesis of steroid-based hormones
• Intestinal cells: absorption, synthesis, and transport of fats
• Skeletal and cardiac muscle: storage and release of calcium
Fig. 3.17
Golgi Apparatus Lysosomes
• Series of closely packed membranous sacs that collect, package, and • Spherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes
distribute proteins and lipids produced by the ER • Digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins
• Secretory vesicles: small, membrane-bound sacs that transport material from the
golgi apparatus to the exterior of the cell • Degrade nonfunctional organelles
• Breakdown glycogen and release thyroid hormone
• Breakdown non-useful tissue
• Breakdown bone to release Ca2+
• Secretory lysosomes are found in white blood cells, immune cells, and
melanocytes
Fig. 3.18
Peroxisomes Mitochondria
• The major sites of the production of
• Membranous sacs containing oxidases and catalases ATP (the major energy source for cells)
• Breakdown fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen via aerobic cellular respiration
peroxide • Have a smooth outer membrane and
• Detoxify harmful or toxic substances an inner membrane that is infolded to
produce cristae
• Neutralize dangerous free radicals
• Free radicals: highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons (i.e., O2–) • Contain their own DNA, can produce
some of their own proteins, and can
replicate independently of the cell
Fig. 3.21
Centrioles and Spindle Fibers Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli

• Centrioles: cylindrical organelles located in the
centrosome
• Pinwheel array of nine triplets of microtubules • Cilia move substances over the surface of
• Centrosome: a specialized zone of the cells
cytoplasm
• the site of microtubule formation • Flagella are much longer than cilia and
• Microtubules called spindle fibers extend out in propel sperm cells
all directions from the centrosome
• Spindle fibers are involved in the separation of • Microvilli increase the surface area of cell
chromosomes during cell division and aid in absorption and secretion
• Form the bases of cilia and flagella
Fig. 3.22
Parts of a Prokaryotic Cell Envelope Structures
Envelope structures
• Glycocalyx (capsule/slime layer) • Glycocalyx
• Cell wall
• Cytoplasmic membrane or plasma membrane - outermost covering of some
Internal Structures bacteria
• Nucloid - gelatinous substance that is
• Mesosomes located external to the cell wall
• Ribosomes composed of polysacharride or
• Granules or inclusion bodies polypeptide or both.
Projecting structures - called capsule if strongly attached
• Flagella to cell wall
• Pili or Fimbrae slime layer if it is loosely attached
• Axial filaments
Envelope Structures Cytoplasmic Membrane

• Cell Wall
- sometimes called murein sacculus • Located beneath the cell wall
- its principal component is • Sometimes called as cell sac
peptidoglycan which is also called because it encloses the cytoplasm
murein or mucopeptide of the cell
- multi-layered in gram+ bacteria
• Selectively permeable membrane
-single layered in gram- bacteria
that allows for transport of selected
-provides rigid support and give shape
solutes
to the bacteria
-protects bacteria from osmotic • Site of electron transport chain and
damage and plays an important role serves as the site of ATP production
in cell division • Serves the function of mitochondria
Internal Structures Internal Structures

• Nucleoid • Ribosomes
- the central region in a prokaryotic cell, as a
bacterium, that contains the chromosomes and - site for protein synthesis
that has no surrounding membrane.
-smaller compared to eukaryotic
• Mesosomes ribosome. (70s only)
- A special structure formed by an extension
of the plasma membrane into the cell wall. • Granules or inclusion bodies
These extensions are usually in the form of
vesicles, tubules, and lamellae. The main use of - found in certain bacteria that
mesosomes are:
• Synthesis of a cell wall. serve for storage of food and
• DNA replication. energy
• Distribution of daughter cells, respiration,
secretions, etc.
Projecting Structures Projecting Structures
• Flagella • Pili or Fimbrae
- rigid surface appendages found on
- are threadlike structures
many gram-negative bacteria
made up entirely of - fine and short as compared to flagella
molecules of the protein sub- - their structural sub-units are called
unit flagellin. pilins
- project from the capsule and - function for adherence to cell surface
are organs of motility (common pili) or
attachement to another bacterium
during a form of bacterial gene
exchange called conjugation (sex pili)
Comparison Between Prokaryotic and

Projecting Structures Eukaryotic Cells
• Axial filaments Feature Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
- also called as endoflagella and are Genetic material Not enclosed within a membrane; not Enclosed within a membrane; associated
found in spirochetes. (Tryponema associated with histones; usually with histones; usually linear
circular
pallidium causing syphilis) Size Smaller (1-2 µm by 1-4 µm or less) Greater than 5 µm in diameter
- composed of bundles of fibrils that Cell type Mostly unicellular Mostly multicellular
are similar to flagella Nucleus No true nucleus and nuclear With true nucleus enclosed by nuclear
memebrane; called nucleoid membrane
- arise from the ends of bacterial cell Cell wall Simple Complex
and spiral around the cell Cell division Budding or Binary fission Mitosis
- the filaments rotate producing Sexual Reproduction No meiosis; transfer of DNA only Meiosis
movement of the outer sheath of the Cytoskeleton Absent Present
Mesosome Functions as mitochondria and Golgi Absent
spirochetes propelling them forward. complex
Comparison Between Prokaryotic and

Eukaryotic Cells
Feature Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

Ribosomes 70S; located in cytoplasm 80S; located in membranes such as in the
endoplasmic reticulum
70S; found in organelles such as
mitochondria or chloroplast
Thank You!
Membrane-bound Absent Present
organelles
Extrachromosomal Present Absent
plasmid
Duration of cell cycle Short (20-60 minutes) Long (12-24 hours)
Medically Medically Important
Important Microorganisms
Microorganisms • Those that have the potential or the ability to
produce significant clinical disease in humans
• Maybe part of normal flora of the body or are
true pathogenic organisms
• Categorized into:
Viruses Algae
Bacteria Parasites (Protozoans and
Fungi Helminths)
Viruses are classified by:

Virus
• Acellular organisms • Type of genetic material (either DNA or RNA)

• Outer surface is called a capsid, composed of • Shape and size of capsid
repeating sub-units called capsomeres • Number of capsomeres
• Possess either DNA or RNA but never both • Presence or absence of an envelope
• Lack necessary nuclear parts to replicate • Type of host it infects
• Lack genes and enzymes for energy production • Disease it produces
• Rely on cellular machinery of the host cell • Target cell(s)
(obligate intracellular parasites) • Immunologic/antigenic properties
Comparative sizes of virions, their

Viruses nucleic acids, and bacteria.
– There are 4 categories of viruses, based on the

type of nucleic acid that they possess. Most
viral genomes are of the first two types.
•Double-stranded DNA viruses
•Single-stranded RNA viruses
•Single-stranded DNA viruses
•Double-stranded RNA viruses
– Most viral genomes are circular molecules, but
some are linear.
A partially lysed cell of Vibrio
Bacteriophages cholerae with attached virions of
phage CP-T1.
 Viruses that infect bacteria are known as
bacteriophages or simply phages.
 There are two categories of bacteriophages:
virulent bacteriophages and temperate
bacteriophages.
 Virulent bacteriophages always cause what is
known as the lytic cycle, which ends with the
destruction of the bacterial cell.
 The 5 steps in the lytic cycle are attachment,
penetration, biosynthesis, assembly, and release.
Animal Viruses
The bacteriophage T4 is an Viral DNA enters the
assembly of protein cell through the – The steps in multiplication of animal viruses are:
components. core.
•Attachment
•Penetration
20
facets, •Uncoating
filled with
DNA
•Biosynthesis
•Assembly
– Animal viruses escape from their host cells either by
lysis of the cell or budding. Viruses that escape by
budding become enveloped viruses.
Multiplication of Herpes Simplex Latent Virus

on HeLa Cells Infections
– Viral infections in which the virus is able to hide from

a host’s immune system by entering cells and
remaining dormant.
– Herpes viral infections are examples.
– Once acquired, herpes virus infections (e.g., those
that cause cold sores, genital herpes, and
chickenpox/shingles) never completely go away; for
example, chickenpox may be followed, years later, by
shingles - both the result of the same virus.
Antiviral Agents • Oncogenic Viruses or Oncoviruses
– Viruses that cause cancer.
– Antibiotics are not effective against viral – Examples include Epstein-Barr virus,
infections. human papillomaviruses, and HTLV-1.
– Antiviral agents are drugs that are used to treat
viral infections. • Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
– These agents interfere with virus-specific – The cause of acquired immunodeficiency
enzymes and virus production by disrupting syndrome (AIDS).
critical phases in viral multiplication or inhibiting – It is an enveloped, single-stranded RNA
synthesis of viral DNA, RNA, or proteins. virus.
– The primary targets for HIV are CD4+ cells.
Viroids and Prions (smaller and

Human Immunodeficiency Virus
less complex infectious particles
(HIV)
than viruses)
– Viroids
• Viroids are short, naked fragments of
single-stranded RNA, which can
interfere with the metabolism of plant
cells.
• Viroids are transmitted between plants
in the same manner as viruses.
• Examples of plant diseases caused by
viroids: potato spindle tuber and citrus
exocortis.
Prions Bacteria
• Prokaryotic cells
– Prions are small infectious proteins that cause
fatal neurologic diseases in animals; examples: • Its cell wall is composed mainly of peptidoglycan
Scrapie, Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy • Possess both DNA and RNA
(“Mad Cow Disease”) and Creutzfeldt-Jacob • Possess a nucleoid instead of a true nucleus
disease. • Smaller ribosomes
– Of all pathogens, prions are the most resistant • Lack mitochondria
to disinfectants.
– The mechanism by which prions cause disease
remains a mystery.
Bacteria Fungi
• Broadly categorized into:
1. Gram-positive bacteria with cell wall • Eukaryotic cells
(e. g. Staphyloccocus aureus) • Outer surface composed mainly of chitin
2. Gram-negative bacteria with cell wall • Cell wall is made up mostly of ergosterol
(e. g. Escherichia coli)
• Possess both DNA and RNA
3. Acid fast bacteria with lipid-rich cell wall
(e. g. Mycobacterium tuberculosis) • Possess true nucleus and mitochondria
4. Bacteria without cell wall • Ribosome is larger than bacteria (80S)
(e. g. Mycoplasma)
Fungi Fungi
Characteristics Characteristics, cont.
• The study of fungi is called mycology; scientists who • Fungal cell walls contain a polysaccharide called chitin.
study fungi are called mycologists. • Some fungi are unicellular, while others grow as filaments
• Fungi are found virtually everywhere. called hyphae.
– Hyphae intertwine to form a mass called a mycelium.
• Some fungi are harmful, some are beneficial.
• Some fungi have septate hyphae (the hyphae are divided
• Fungi represent a diverse group of eucaryotic into cells by cross walls or septa).
organisms that include yeasts, moulds, and fleshy
• Some fungi have aseptate hyphae (the hyphae do not
fungi (e.g., mushrooms). have septa).
• Fungi are the “garbage disposers” of nature. • Whether or not a fungus has aseptate or septate hyphae is
• Fungi are not plants – they are not photosynthetic. an important clue to its identification.
Fungi: Yeasts Fungi: Moulds

• Often spelled “molds.”
• Yeasts are found in soil and water and on the
• Moulds are often seen in water and soil and growing on
skins of many fruits and vegetables. food.
– Yeasts have been used for centuries to make wine • Moulds produce cytoplasmic filaments called hyphae.
and beer. – Aerial hyphae extend above the surface of whatever the
– Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a yeast used in baking. mould is growing on.
– Candida albicans is the yeast most frequently – Vegetative hyphae grow beneath the surface.
isolated from human clinical specimens, and is also • Reproduction is by spore formation, either sexually or
the fungus most frequently isolated from human asexually, on the aerial hyphae (also known as
clinical specimens. reproductive hyphae).
Comparison between Bacteria and
Fungi
Features Bacteria Fungi
Fungi: Moulds, cont. Cell type Prokaryotic; unicellular Eukaryotic; unicellular or

multicellular
Role in ecosystem Can be both producers and Mainly decomposers
• Moulds have great commercial importance. decomposers
Optimal pH Neutral pH (6.5-7.0) Slightly acidic (4.0-6.0)
– Some produce antibiotics. Cell structures No true nucleus and membrane- Possess true nucleus and
• Examples: Penicillium and Cephalosporium bound organelles membrane-bound organelles
– Some moulds are used to produce large quantities Main component

of cell wall
Peptidoglycan, except in
archaebacteria
Chitin
of enzymes that are used commercially. Sterols in cell Absent except in Mycoplasma Present
– The flavor of cheeses like bleu cheese, Roquefort,

membrane
Mode of nutrition Heterotrophic, Heterotrophic; majority aerobic
camembert, and limburger are due to moulds that chemoautotrophic, and facultative anaerobic
photoautotrophic, aerobic,
grow in them. anaerobic, facultative anaerobic
Reproduction Binary fission Sexual and asexual spores
Protozoa
Protozoa
• Eukaryotic cells Characteristics
• Representative for parasites • Protozoa are nonphotosynthetic, eucaryotic organisms.
• Have an outer surface that is called a pellicle • Most protozoa are unicellular and free-living; found in soil
• Unicellular organisms that usually divide through binary and water.
fission
• Most protozoa are more animal-like than plant-like.
• Majority exist in 2 morphologic form:
- cysts- infective stage • All protozoal cells possess a variety of eucaryotic
structures/organelles.
- trophozoites – pathogenic stage
• Possess both DNA and RNA as well as other cellular • Protozoa cannot make their own food; they ingest
features whole algae, yeasts, bacteria, and smaller protozoa
for nutrients.
Protozoa Protozoa
Characteristics, cont. Characteristics (continued)
• Protozoa do not have cell walls, but some possess a • Protozoa are divided into groups, based on their
thickened cell membrane called a “pellicle,” which serves method of locomotion:
the same purpose – protection.
– Amebae move by means of pseudopodia (“false feet”) –
• A typical protozoan life cycle has 2 stages – a trophozoite example: Entamoeba histolytica, the cause of amebic
and a cyst. dystentery.
• The trophozoite is the motile, feeding, dividing stage. – Ciliates move by means of hairlike cilia – example:
• The cyst is the nonmotile, dormant, survival stage. Balantidium coli, the cause of balantidiasis.
– Flagellates move by means of whiplike flagella –
• Some protozoa are parasites.
example: Giardia lamblia, the cause of giardiasis.
• Parasitic protozoa cause many human diseases, such – Sporozoa have no visible means of locomotion –
as malaria, giardiasis, and trypanosomiasis. example: Plasmodium spp., which cause malaria.
Algae
Protozoa That Cause Human Diseases
• Eukaryotic organism
• Outer surface consists primarily of cellulose
• Plantlike, capable of photosynthesis
• Unlike plants, do not possess true roots, stems
or leaves
• Vary in size from a single-celled phytoplankton to
large seaweeds in the ocean floor
Photomicrograph of a B. coli trophozoite SEM of a Giardia lamblia trophozoite.
(Arrows are pointing to the cilia).
Algae
• Do not produce significant disease to humans Algae
Characteristics and Classification
• Most of them are beneficial and are sources of food,
iodine, and other minerals • Algae are photosynthetic, eucaryotic organisms.
• May also be used as fertilizers, emulsifiers (puddings) and • All algal cells consist of cytoplasm, a cell wall
stabilizers (ice cream, salad dressing) (usually), a cell membrane, a nucleus, plastids,
• Dinoflagellates, unicellular algae help contribute to 02 and ribosomes, mitochondria, and Golgi bodies.
serve as important link in food chain – Some have a pellicle, a stigma, and/or flagella
• But, it is also responsible for “red tide” • Algae range in size from unicellular microorganisms
(e.g., diatoms) to large, multi-cellular organisms
• Dinoflagellates produce powerful neurotoxin which (e.g., seaweeds or kelp).
ingested, causes the potentially fatal disease called
paralytic shellfish poisoning. • Algae produce energy by photosynthesis.
– Some may use organic nutrients.
Algae Common Pond Water Algae and

Characteristics and Classification, cont. Protozoa
• Algae may be arranged in colonies or strands and are A. Amoeba sp.
found in fresh and salt water, in wet soil, and on wet rocks. B. Euglena sp.
• Most algal cell walls contain cellulose. C. Stentor sp.
• Depending on their photosynthetic pigments, algae are D. Vorticella sp.
classified as green, golden, brown, or red algae. E. Volvox sp.
F. Paramecium sp.
• Algae include: diatoms, dinoflagellates, desmids,
Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, Volvox, and Euglena.
B and E are algae.
• Algae are an important source of food, iodine, fertilizers, A, C, D, and F are
emulsifiers, and stabilizers and gelling agents for jams and protozoa.
culture media.
Comparison between Algae and
Plants
Features Algae Plants
Algae: Medical Significance Taxonomic

classification
Kingdom Protista Kingdom Plantae
Cellular structure Unicellular, multicellular or Multicellular

• One genus of algae, Prototheca, is a very rare colony-forming
cause of human infections Photosynthetic Yes Yes
Energy source Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide
• Causes protothecosis Storage form of Starch Starch
• Algae in several other genera secrete toxic energy
Vascular system Absent Present
substances called phycotoxins Habitat Mostly water Mostly rooted to the ground
– Poisonous to humans, fish, and other animals Composed of No Yes
– If ingested by humans, the phycotoxins produced by roots, stems and
leaves
the dinoflagellates that cause “red tides” can lead to Method of Both asexual and sexual Sexual (complex)
a disease called paralytic shellfish poisoning reproduction
Fundamental Shapes of Bacteria
• 1. Coccus (pl. cocci)- spherical or round
Bacterial Morphology - e. g. Staphylococcus, Streptococcus
- arranged singly, in pairs (diplococci), in chains
(streptococci), in clusters (staphylococci), in
groups of four (tetrad), or in groups of eight (octad)

• 2. Bacilli – rod- • 3. Curved and Spiral vary

in morphology
shaped organisms
Vibrio cholerae –
(e.g. Escherichia coli, organism causing cholera
Salmonella) (comma shaped)
• Coccobacilli – very Treponema pallidum –
causative agent of syphilis
short, resembling
(spiral in shaped)
elongated cocci
Corynebacterium
diptheriae – causative agent
for diptheria (club- shaped)
Glycocalyx
Envelop structures of Bacteria • Outermost covering od some bacteria

• Gelatinous substance located outside the cell wall
• Serves to protect the composed of polysaccharide or polypeptide or both
bacteria from harsh • It is called capsule- strongly attached to cell wall
environmental slime layer – loosely attached
condition • Capsule is indicative of virulence of organism
• 2 layers: - stimulate antibody response from immune
1. Glycocalyx system
2. Cell wall - serves to protect the organism from
dehydration
Cell wall
• Sometimes called murein sacculus

• Principal component is peptidoglycan (murein or
mucopeptide)
• Multi layered in gram-negative bacteria
single layered in gram-positive
• Provide rigid support and give shape to bacteria
• Protect bacteria from osmotic damage and plays
an important role in cell division
Special component of Gram- Special component of Gram-

positive cell wall positive cell wall
• 1. Teichoic acids – comprise major surface of • 2. Polysaccharides – complex sugar

gram positive bacteria - a carbohydrate whose molecules consists
- can elicit antibody response of a number of sugar molecules bonded
- attachment of the organism to the host together
- include neutral sugar such as mannose,
cell as in Staphyloccus aureus
arabinose, rhamnose and glucosamine
- provide tensile strength to gram-positive
- also include acidic sugars such as
bacterial cell walls
glucuronic acid and mannuronic acid
Special component of gram-

negative cell walls
• 1. Outer membrane – bi layered structure where the inner

leaflet is composed of a lipopolysaccharide
(LPS)
- LPS has special channels for sugars and amino
acids
- LPS has a complex glycolipid called lipid A,
responsible for its endotoxin activity found on outer
leaflet
- inner core is a plysacharide made of repeat units
called O antigen – unique for every species of
bacteria
Special component of gram-
negative cell walls
• 2. Lipoprotein – function to anchor the outer membrane to
the peptidoglycan layer and stabilizes the
outer membrane
• 3. Periplasmic space – a fluid-filled space between outer
membrane and inner membrane
- contains enzymes for the breakdown of large
nontransportable molecules into transportable ones
- enzymes that serve to detoxify and inactivate
antibiotics
Acid-fast cell wall
• Possess an outer layer that is lipid rich

• Cell wall is composed of large amount of waxes
known as mycolic acids
• Inner layer is also made up of peptidoglycan, but
outer layer is lipid rich so acid fast organisms are
hydrophobic
• They cannot be stained using reagents in gram
staining
• Hydrophobic cell wall protect the cell from harsh
chemicals such as strong acids and detergents
Projecting
Structures
• 1. Flagella – thread like structures made up of protein
sub-unit flagellin
• Organs of motility
• Classified into 4 types:
- monotrichous – single
-lophotrichous – tuft of flagella at one end
-amphitrichous – flagella at both ends
- peritrichous – flagella all around
• Bacteria without flagella are called atrichous
Pili or Fimbriae
• Rigid surface appendages found on many gram negative

bacteria
• Fine and short than flagella
• Its structural protein subunits are called pilins
• Functions:
for motility
- for adherence to cell surface (common)
-attachment to another bacterium (conjugation*)
* Temporary union of 2 bacteria for the exchange of genetic
material
Bacterial Growth
Learning Objectives
Requirements
• At the end of this chapter, the student should be
able to:
1. Define Microbial growth;
2. Discuss the various nutritional and physical
requirements of bacteria for growth; and
3. Illustrate the bacterial growth curve with
explanation of the events occurring in each
phase of the bacterial growth curve
Culturing Bacteria in the Laboratory

Growth Bacterial Growth
• Think of bacterial growth as an increase in the number
- As defined in medical dictionaries, involves an of organisms rather than an increase in their size.
orderly and organized increase in the sum of all
• Bacteria divide by binary fission (one cell divides to
components of the organism. It entails the become two cells) when they reach their optimum size.
replication of all cellular structures, organelles and
components. • Binary fission continues through many generations until
a colony is produced on solid culture medium.
- Microbial growth – concerned with increase in the
number of cells and not an increase in size of the • Binary fission continues for as long as there is a
organisms sufficient supply of nutrients, water, and space.
- Bacterial colony – composed of thousand of cells; • The time it takes for one cell to become two cells is
colonies in culture are actually composed of billions called the generation time (e.g., E. coli = 20 minutes).
of cells
Carbon
Nutritional Requirements • Makes up the structural backbone or skeleton of all
organic molecules
1. Carbon • Terms relating to an organism’s carbon source:
2. Nitrogen, Sulfur, Phosphorus – Autotrophs use carbon dioxide (CO2) as their sole source
of carbon.
3. Inorganic Ions – Heterotrophs use organic compounds other than CO2 as
carbon sources.
4. Growth Factors • Terms that combine both energy and carbon source:
– Photoautotrophs use light as a carbon source and CO2 as
an energy source.
– Chemoautotrophs use chemicals as a carbon source and
CO2 as an energy source.
– Chemoheterotrophs use chemicals as a carbon source
and organic compounds other than CO2 as an energy
source.
Carbon, cont. Nitrogen, Sulfur, Phosphorus
• Terms relating to an organism’s energy source. • These are necessary for the synthesis of cellular
– Phototrophs use light as an energy source. materials like proteins and nucleic acids
– Chemotrophs use either inorganic or organic • Nitrogen and sulfur are required for the
chemicals as an energy source. synthesis of proteins
•Chemolithotrophs use inorganic chemicals • Nitrogen and Phosphorus are essential for the
as an energy source. synthesis of nucleic acids and ATP
•Chemoorganotrophs use organic • ~ 14% dry weight of bacterial cell is nitrogen, 4%
chemicals as an energy source. is sulfur and phosphorus
Inorganic Ions Inorganic Ions, cont.

• These include magnesium, potassium, calcium, iron,
and trace elements (e.g. manganese, zinc, copper, • Calcium – component of gram + bacterial cell
cobalt) wall, contribute to resistance of endospore
against adverse environmental condition
• Magnesium – stabilizes ribosomes, cell membranes,
and nucleic acids • Iron – component of cytochrome, a component
of electron transport chain
- co-factor in the activity of many enzymes
- function as co-factor for enzymatic
• Potassium- required for normal functioning and
integrity of ribosomes, participate in certain activities
enzymatic activities of the cell
Growth Factors Physical Requirements

• Essential to promote the growth and •Moisture/Water
development of the bacterial cell
• These includes vitamin B complex and
•Oxygen
amino acids •Temperature
•pH
•Osmotic conditions
Moisture/Water Oxygen
• Used by aerobic bacteria for cellular respiration and serve
• Bacterial cell is composed mainly of as final electron acceptor.
water • Microorganisms are classified as either aerobic or
anaerobic based on their oxygen requirement
• It serves as the medium from which • Obligate aerobes – microoganisms that utilize molecular
bacteria acquire their nutrients oxygen for energy production
- prefer the same atmosphere that humans do (~20-
21% O2 and 78-79% N2, other gases < 1%).
• Obligate anaerobes – microbes that cannot survive in the
presence of oxygen. These organisms do not have the
enzymes that break down free radicals produced in the
body (i,e., catalase)
Oxygen, cont. Temperature

• Facultative organisms – organisms that can grow and survive • Every organism has an optimum growth temperature.
under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions • The temperature (and pH) ranges over which an organism grows
- most medically important bacteria are facultative best are largely determined by its enzymes.
• Microaerophiles – able to grow at low oxygen tension but • Microbes are classified into 3 groups based on their
their rate of growth is deminished temperature requirements, namely:
- require reduced concentrations of oxygen (~5% O2). - Thermophiles – grow best at temperatures higher than 40OC
• Capnophiles – some organisms that may require the addition - Mesophile – require an optimal temperature of 20OC - 40OC
of carbon dioxide to enhance their growth - Psychrophiles – require an optimum temperature of 10OC -
- require increased concentrations of CO2 (5-10% CO2). 20OC
Most medically important bacteria are mesophiles
Temperature, cont. pH
– Psychrophiles prefer cold temperatures (like
deep ocean water). • “pH” refers to the acidity or alkalinity of a
solution.
•Psychrotrophs, a particular group of • Alkalophiles - microorganisms grow best in pH 8.4 – 9.0
psychrophiles, prefer refrigerator
temperature (4oC). • Neutrophiles – grow best in pH 6.5 – 7.5
- most medically important bacteria
– Psychroduric organisms prefer warm
temperatures, but can endure very cold or - pH of human tissues are 7.0 – 7.2
even freezing temperatures. • Acidophiles – bacteria that grow in pH less than 6.0
Osmotic Conditions Osmotic Conditions, cont.
• Determined by the salt concentration • If the external environment does not contain
• The normal microbial cytoplasmic concentration salt, water will flow into the bacterial cell
is approximately 1% - the organism will swell and rupture
• If the extracellular concentration is increased • Halophiles – organisms that require high salt
(e.g., when food is salted), water will flow out of concentration for growth ( e.g., diatoms and
the microbial cell dinoflagellates)
- organisms will shrink and die • Osmophiles – require high osmotic pressure for
optimal growth
Changes in Osmotic Pressure Bacterial Growth Curve

• Illustrates the phases in the growth of the
population of bacteria when they are grown in a
culture of fixed volume.
• It reflects the different stages in the growth of
the organisms and is divided into:
- lag phase
- log phase
- stationary phase
- death or decline phase
A population growth curve of living organisms. Lag Phase

Stationary phase
• Period of adjustment for the bacteria in the new
Death phase environment
• There is no appreciable increase in the number
of microorganisms
Logarithmic growth phase • Bacteria attain their maximum size toward the
end of this phase
• May last for 1 to 4 hours
Lag phase

Log/Logarithmic/Exponential Stationary Phase
Phase
• Period of equilibrium
• Period of rapid cell division , resulting in an increase
in the number of bacteria • Period where the rate of growth slows down,
nutrients starts to deplete and toxic wastes
• Organisms exhibit high metabolic activity
begin to accumulate
• Period where the generation time or doubling time
• As a consequence, some bacterial cells may die
of the organisms is determined
• The rate of bacterial cell growth is equal to rate
• A generation time of 10 minutes means the bacteria
of bacterial cell death
will double in number every 10 minutes showing
exponential growth • Sporulation occurs (in the beginning or towards
the end)
• Average duration of this phase is about 8 hours
Death or Decline Phase

• Period of rapid cell death
• Due to continuous depletion of nutrients and
accumulation of wastes materials
• Sporulation continuous to occur during this stage
• The duration of this phase varies from a few
hours to a few days
Learning Objectives
CHAPTER 5
– At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Define "normal flora"
NORMAL FLORA OF
2. Differentiate between resident flora and transient flora
THE HUMAN BODY 3. Explain the role of normal flora in the body; and
4. Give examples of organisms that normally inhabit differentiate
sites in the body.
– Microbial Ecology- is the study of the relationships 2 TYPES OF FLORA

between microorganism and their environment.
– Among these relationships is the relationships of

1. Resident flora- are organisms that are relatively of fixed types
microbes with humans, and such include the normal
and are regularly found in a given area of the body at a given age.
flora (or indigenous flora) of the human body.
– Normal flora consists of the group of organisms that
inhabit the body of a normal healthy individual in the 2. Transient flora- Are those that inhabit the skin and mucous
community membrane temporarily for hours, days or weeks and are derived
from the environment.
Normal Flora Normal Flora

Beneficial to the human body by: – secrete vitamin K that is needed for the activity of some clotting
– Inhibiting the growth of pathogenic organisms by priming the immune factors.
systems of newborns – Aid in digestion of food by producing enzymes such as cellulases,
– Protects the body’s organs and systems that are in direct contact of galactosidase and glucosidase
external environment ( competing with invasive organisms for – Also help in the metabolism of steroids.
nutrients or by producing substances that can kill them) – Can prevent pathogenic organisms from attaching to and penetrating
– Synthesize important vitamins that are essential to humans the skin and other tissues by producing mucin which make it difficult
for the pathogenic organisms to attach to the tissues to produce
disease.
SKIN
Normal flora on
different sites of
the body The skin is part of the human body that is in constant
contact with the environment, making it the most
exposed to microorganisms.
There are certain factors that eliminate

The normal flora of the skin consists
non-resident flora from the skin, namely:
mainly of bacteria and fungi.
– 1. Lysozyme in the skin; – The microorganisms vary depending on the region of
– 2. Acidic pH of the skin due to sweat; the skin.
– 3. Free fatty acids in sebaceous secretions;
The skin may be divided into three (3) regions.
– 4. The constant sloughing off of the skin. 1. Axilla, perineum, and toe webs.
2. Hand, face, and trunk.
3. Upper arms and legs.
Organism Remarks
NORMAL FLORA ON THE SKIN Staphylococcus epidermidis Major skin inhabitant, comprising approximately 90% of
resident aerobic flora.
Staphylococcus aureus Most commonly found in nose and perineum; in the
– 1. Axilla, perineum, and toe webs. nose number varies with age ( Greater in newborns
than in adults)
- the skin here is characterized by having higher moisture levels,
Micrococci ( Micrococcus luteus ) Accounts for 20-80% of micrococci in the skin.
higher body temperature and higher levels of surface lipids
Diphtheroids ( Coryneforms ) Classified into; lipophilic (Common in axilla) or non-
- have more microorganisms compared to the other parts; lipholic ( More common on glabrous or hairless skin
predominantly inhabited by gram-negative bacilli such as palms of hands)
Anaerobic diphtheroids ( Propionibacterium acnes )
2. Hand, face, and trunk dry sites; have diverse flora because of their -areas rich in sebaceous glands
3. Upper arms and legs exposure to the environment Gram-negative bacilli (Enterobacter, Seen in most intertriginous areas such as toe webs and
axilla
- predominant flora here are Staphylococcus Klebsiella, Escherichia coli, and Proteus
spp.)
epidermides and Staphylococcus hominis
Nail Flora Similar to that of the skin
Fungi may also be present ( Aspergillus, Penicillium,
Cladosporium, Mucor )
Mouth and Respiratory Tract Mouth and Respiratory Tract, cont.
– Tongue and buccal mucosa – Streptococcus viridans group (S. mutans, S. – In the upper respiratory tract, initial colonization by pathogenic
milleri, S. salivarius, and S. sanguis). organisms may be seen.(Neissera meningitidis, Bordetella
– Although they are part of the normal flora of the mouth, Viridans pertussis, and Corynebacterium Diphtheriae)
streptococci have been implicated in the pathogenesis of dental caries.
– The lower respiratory tract is usually sterile and organisms
– The normal flora of the pharynx and trachea are similar to those found in
that reach this region are usually destroyed by the defense
the oral cavity.
mechanism of the body such as the alveolar macrophages.
CONJUNCTIVA DIGESTIVE TRACT

– The normal flora in the conjunctiva are very scanty because they are held
in check by the flow of tears that contain lysozyme. The lysozyme may – Esophagus contains transient mouth flora.
interfere with the cell wall synthesis of organisms.
– Minimal bacteria may be found in the stomach due to the relatively hostile
– Some bacteria may transiently colonize the conjunctiva including environment in the stomach.
Neisseria, Moraxella, and Corynebacterium.
– Bacteria that may be found In the stomach are those that may be swallowed
with the food or those that are dislodged from the mouth.
– Certain bacteria that are able to survive in the acidic environment of
stomach. One of these is Helicobacter pylori ( produces urease that causes
alkalinization of gastric acid), the most common cause of duodenal ulcer.
DIGESTIVE TRACT Important role of Intestinal Flora
– The number of bacterial flora differs between the small and – Synthesis of vitamin B complex and Vitamin K
large intestine. In the small intestine, scanty flora may be – Conversion of bile into bile acids.
found due to the constant peristaltic movement of the
– Competition with transient flora for nutrients.
intestines.
– Prevention of colonization of the intestines by transient flora.
– Most bacteria cultured in the small intestine include
streptococci, lactobacilli, and bacteroides which are all – Production of potentially pathogenic end-products of metabolism that
transient. are toxic to transient flora.
Normal Flora of the
digestive Tract GENITOURINARY TRACT
– Urinary tract is sterile above the distal 1 cm of the urethra.

– In both male and females, Mycobacterium smegmatis may be
found as normal commensals in their secretions.
– Female urethra is either sterile or contains Staphylococcus
epidermidis.
– Gardnerella vaginalis, bacteroides, and Alpha streptococci may
be found in penile urethra.
GENITOURINARY TRACT, cont. GENITOURINARY TRACT, cont.

– At the onset of puberty, there is resumption of glycogen secretion making
– Vaginal flora varies depending on the age , hormonal level, and vaginal
the vaginal pH acidic. Predominant flora include Lactobacillus acidophilus,
pH of the host.
corynebacteria, peptostreptococci, streptococci, Bacteriodes, and
- In female infants, the predominant vaginal flora is staphylococci
Lactobacillus spp. From 1 month- puberty, there is cessation – Lactobacillus – prevents gonococcal infection by producing lactic acid that
of glycogen secretion making the vaginal pH higher (around 7.0) adds acidity of the vagina.
(Staphylococcus epidermides, Streptococci, diptheroids, and – After menopause, the vaginal pH increase once more due to the lessened
production of glycogen. Predominant normal flora at this time are similar to
Escherichia coli may inhabit the vagina)
those found during pre-puberty.
Learning Objectives
01 Differentiate between sepsis and asepsis
02 Distinguish between medical asepsis and
surgical asepsis
03
MEDICAL & Enumerate general aseptic procedures
followed to maintain a clean environment and
prevent the spread of infectious diseases
SURGICAL 04 Explain the various isolation precaution

measures
ASEPSIS 05 Identify aseptic measures utilized in the

operating room
06 Determine the general measures that can be

used to prevent the development of infection
in the community
Chain of infection
Infection How an individual acquires the infectious agent
-infectious agent
Infection Decontamination
physical or chemical means are used to remove,
-source of infection inactivate, or destroy pathogens on a surface or item;
Control -how it was transmitted
-portal of entry into the host Control
Disinfection
Mode of transmission physical or chemical means to destroy pathogens,
manner in which the infectious organism is acquired excluding the spores
by the host
Sterilization
Standard precautions all pathogens are destroyed, including the spores
measures used to prevent the spread of infection
Antiseptic
Contamination
chemical solution that inhibits the growth of some
contact of a sterile or aseptic item with microorganisms
microorganisms
Infection Healthcare-associated infection

any infection that is acquired during the time a patient
ASEPSIS
is admitted in a healthcare facility (ex. UTI)
Control
Iatrogenic infection Asepsis Sepsis
infection that is acquired in the course of undergoing free of any microorganisms bacterial infection that starts
diagnostic tests or therapeutic procedures from a localized infection in one
part of the body
Occupational exposure
exposure to an infectious agent of a health worker Factors in the occurrence of
during the course of his/her work Goal of Asepsis: infections (patients):
• Protect the patient from 1. Suppression of immune
hospital-acquired or system
Personal Protective equipment (PPE) nosocomial infections 2. Prolonged duration of illness
specialized equipment or attire used to be protected • Prevent the spread of 3. Procedures that patients
from infections pathogenic microorganism undergo in the healthcare
facility
ASEPSIS
Categories of Asepsis
A. Medical or Clean Asepsis
Most commonly occurring Primary location of
pathogenic microorganism • absence of disease producing microorganism
infections: • infection control process that aims to reduce
that lead to nosocomial
infections: • Surgical wounds the spread of infection
• Urinary tract • proper hand hygiene, administration of all
• Escherichia coli • Respiratory tract medications except those that are given
• Staphylococcus aureus • Bloodstream intravenously, preparation of the patient’s skin
• Pseudomonas aeruginosa before administration of subcutaneous
• Candida albicans medication
• Enterococcus
Categories of Asepsis
General Aseptic Procedure
B. Surgical or Sterile Asepsis
• absence of all microorganisms • Frequent handwashing of hospital personnel
• procedure that aim to eliminate microorganisms from an • Prompt and safe disposal of contaminated
area in the body where surgical procedures will be
performed and locations where the surgical procedure
materials like bandages and needles
will be carried out. • Regular checking and emptying of containers
• applied when skin is not intact, when internal areas of for surgical drains
the body are involved in procedures, diagnostic or • Prompt cleaning of soiled or moist areas
treatment purposes • Proper labeling of containers regarding the
• wound care, invasive procedures (endoscopy),
administration of intravenous drugs, and during
date and time of disposal
insertion of urinary catheter and other internal tubes.
HANDWASHING HANDWASHING
Handwashing Handwashing Recommended routine:

 Most basic means to prevent the spread of pathogenic organisms  Handwashing for at least 15 seconds with a 10-second rinse
 (healthworkers) longer period of time for handwashing
 It is essential in the healthcare environment for the following  Lathering at least twice
reasons:  Careful cleaning of fingernails
o To reduce the flora on the healthcare worker’s skin o At the beginning and end of shift
o To protect the healthcare worker in the event that there is a o When hands are visibly soiled
o After contact with possible source of microorganisms such as blood or
break in his or her skin
body fluids, mucous membrane, non-intact skin, contaminated objects
o To reduce risk of contact with infectious agents if gloves worn o Before and after performing invasive procedures
are punctured o Before removing gloves if they are visibly soiled and each time after
o To reduce the chances of disease transmission removing gloves
HANDWASHING (PPE) GLOVES
- Serves as protective barrier when handling or touching open
Personal wounds, blood or body fluid. It provides protection from
Handwashing Recommended routine: microorganisms and prevents spread of infectious agent
Protective from one person to another.
- (1) examination gloves – may be sterile or non-sterile, and (2)


Done with friction and regular soap and water
Washed with vigorous scrubbing (nailbed, between fingers)
Equipment surgical gloves – sterile.
 Fingernails should be kept short Are specialized GUIDELINES FOR PROPER USE OF GLOVES IN HEALTHCARE
 Alcohol-based sanitizing antimicrobial solutions or hand cleaners equipment and FACILITIES BY WHO:
attire used in • Practice of hand hygiene must still be observed before and after
healthcare facilities wearing gloves
to protect not only • Gloves must be worn if potentially infectious material is
the healthcare anticipated.
workers but also • Gloves must be removed and disposed after caring for a patient.
patients and visitors • Gloves must be changed if moving from a contaminated body site
to another.
against infections.
• Re-using of gloves after contamination is not recommended
(PPE) GLOVES (PPE) MASK

WHO recommended the use of gloves in the following - must cover the mouth and nose and avoid touching
Personal situations: Personal while being worn
• Before performing a sterile procedure - Single-used items
Protective • When contact with patient and surroundings where
Protective - Decontaminate hands by washing with soap and water
Equipment contact precautions are warranted
• When contact with blood or body fluid, non-intact skin
Equipment or alcohol based sanitizer after disposing that mask
Are specialized and mucous membranes is anticipated. Are specialized STERILE GOWN
equipment and equipment and
attire used in attire used in - can be in form of apron or gown.
Remove gloves:
healthcare facilities healthcare facilities - Recommended on closed contact with patients,
• When hand hygiene is indicated
to protect not only to protect not only equipment, materials that can introduce infectious
• When contact with contaminated body sites ended.
the healthcare the healthcare agents to the healthcare worker's skin, uniform or
• As soon as the gloves are damaged
workers but also workers but also other clothing
• After contact with blood or body fluid, intact skin or
patients and visitors patients and visitors
against infections. mucous membranes against infections.
(PPE) STERILE GOWN (PPE) STERILE GOWN

- The type of apron or gown to wear depends on the - Disposable single-use gowns protect during
Personal degree of risk on the infectious agents and the Personal procedures and activities related to patient care where
Protective potential for body substances and blood to penetrate
through the clothes or skin of the healthcare worker
Protective there is generating, splashing or spraying of blood or
other substances.
Equipment - Fluid-resistant apron or gown is recommended for risk
on body substances blood or body secretions to
Equipment - Fluid-resistant single-use, long-sleeved, full body
gowns are usually worn (1) when there is a risk of
Are specialized contaminate the skin or clothing of the healthcare Are specialized contact of skin with patient's broken skin, (2) if there is
equipment and worker equipment and extensive skin-to-skin contact between worker and
attire used in - Clean non-sterile gowns or aprons are generally attire used in patient, (3) when the risk of contact with body
healthcare facilities sufficient to protect the skin and prevent soiling of healthcare facilities substances or fluids cannot be contained
to protect not only clothing during procedures to protect not only
the healthcare the healthcare
workers but also workers but also
patients and visitors patients and visitors
against infections. against infections.
(PPE) STERILE GOWN
Sterility parameters
Personal 1. The front of sterile gown from chest to level of sterile ISOLATION PRECAUTIONS
Protective field is sterile.
2. The gown sleeves are sterile, 2 inches above the
• Process of isolating an individual with infectious disease
from the rest of the healthy population to prevent
Equipment elbow to the cuff, circumferentially.
3. Back of the gown is not sterile because it is not
spread of infection to other individuals.
• Universal Precautions by Center of Disease Control
Are specialized monitored
equipment and (CDC), USA
4. The neck, sleeve cuffs and underarms of the gown are
attire used in not sterile and are not effective microbial barriers. – Geared towards handling patient with an infection
healthcare facilities from an unknown pathogen to decrease the risk of
to protect not only transmission
the healthcare
workers but also
patients and visitors
against infections.
TRANSMISSION-BASED
ISOLATION PRECAUTIONS PRECAUTIONS
1. Proper hand washing
- developed to prevent the spread of infectious agents.
2. Use of Person Protective Equipment
3. Proper handling and disposal of excretions and secretions Precautions are based on the mode of
4. Proper handling and disposal of soiled linen and equipment transmission of the infectious agents and are
classified into:
5. Environmental control
6. Prevention of injury from sharp devices A. Contact precautions
7. Patient placement B. Droplet precautions
C. Airborne precautions
TRANSMISSION-BASED TRANSMISSION-BASED
PRECAUTIONS PRECAUTIONS
A. CONTACT PRECAUTIONS B. DROPLET PRECAUTIONS
• Used for diseases or infectious agents that are spread in tiny
• Used to prevent the spread of infections or infectious agents throu droplets caused by coughing and sneezing.
gh contact (touching of patients or items in the room) where infecti • To prevent contact with secretions from the respiratory tract
ous agents may be deposited called Fomites. • Examples: influenza, mumps, pertussis (whooping cough)
• Example: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), virus • This can spread when the individual coughs or sneezes can
such as respiratory syncytial virus, agents that cause diarrhea travel a distance or apprx. 3 feet or 90 cm.
whether viral or bacterial, and open wounds. • All persons entering the room are required to wear surgical
• All individual must wear gowns and gloves. mask.
ASEPTIC MEASURES IN THE OPERATING ROOM
TRANSMISSION-BASED 01 Thorough cleaning of the operating room
with detergent or detergent germicides,
PRECAUTIONS soap and water must be done.
All equipment that would be directly in

C. AIRBORNE PRECAUTIONS 02 contact with the patients must be
• This is to prevent the spread of the disease or infectious agents properly sterilized
through the air from one person to another Sterile surgical clothing and operating
• Examples: chicken pox, measles, and tuberculosis 03 room gowns and other protective
• Patients admitted to the hospital must be placed in the room devices such as surgical gloves, face
with negative air pressure preventing contact with the outside masks, goggles, eye/face shield serves as
environment barriers against microorganisms and
• Doors must remain closed at all times and all individuals must be used to maintain asepsis in the
entering the room must wear a protective mask. Also called as operating room.
REVERSE ISOLATION Sterile drapes are sterilized linen placed
04 around the field to delineate sterile area.
ASEPTIC MEASURES IN THE OPERATING ROOM ASEPTIC MEASURES IN THE OPERATING ROOM
Wrapped kits of instruments and/or During the operation, only properly

05 equipment are opened in such a way 08 scrubbed personnel should be allowed at
that the contents do not touch non- the vicinity of the sterile field.
sterile items or surfaces.
06 To reduce the chances of introducing

endogenous flora of the skin to the
deeper tissues, the patient must be
prepared prior surgery.
07 Surgical scrub must be performed by all

members of the surgical team and all
others who will perform surgical
procedure or will have assess to and
contact with the patient, including
equipment and instrument inside the
operating room.
PREVENTING INFECTIONS IN THE COMMUNITY

The duty of a Healthcare personnel or Improvement of health practices involves
01 professional is to educate the public on 04 educating the members of the
infectious diseases, particularly their community on the proper handling,
modes of transmission. storage, and preparation of food.
02 Infection control in the community
includes sanitation techniques,
05 they must be made aware of that
infectious and parasitic diseases can be
improvement of health practices, and obtained from contaminated improperly
vaccination. cooked food and contaminated water.
03 Sanitation techniques include water 06 People should be made aware of the

purification, improvement of health importance of immunization.
practices, proper sewage system
disposal, and other measures that will
ensure a clean environment
LEARNING
PHYSICAL & OBJECTIVES
01 Define important terms related to
sterilization and disinfection
CHEMICAL 02 Compare the different physical and

chemical methods of sterilization as to
METHODS OF classification, mechanism of action,

and indication for use
03 Explain the different factors
STERILIZATION affecting the efficacy of a chemical

agent
DEFINITION Sterilization DEFINITION Bacteriostatic agent

agent, physical or chemical l, capable of
process of killing or removing all microbial
OF TERMS forms, including spores. OF TERMS inhibiting the growth of bacteria without
necessarily killing them.
Disinfection Sporicidal, fungicidal, viricidal

most microbial forms of inanimate objects are agents capable of destroying spores, fungi,
killed w/o necessarily destroying saprophytes and viruses, respectively.
& bacterial endospores.
Antisepsis
use of chemical agents on living tissue to
prevent the spread of microorganisms either
by inhibiting the growth or destroying them.
Bactericidal or germicidal agent

agent, physical or chemical, that kills the
bacteria.
Physical Methods of Heating

Sterilization The most common physical method of sterilization. The
rate of killing is expressed in thermal death time, the
minimum time required to kill a suspension of an organism
at a predetermined temperature and environment.
Mechanism of action of heating:

• Heating • Sonic and
• Dessication ultrasonic 1. Formation of single- strand breaks in the bacterial DNA.
• Freezing vibrations 2. Coagulation and denaturation of proteins;
• Filtration • Osmotic pressure 3. Accumulations of toxic levels of electrolytes
4. Alteration of cell membrane structure.
• Radiation
Heating Heating
Factors affecting the process of sterilization Factors affecting the process of sterilization
through heating: through heating:
• Nature of the heat • Nature of microorganisms
- moist heat has greater killing action than dry heat. - spore-forming microorganisms are more difficult to
• Temperature and time destroy than non-spore-forming ones.
- as temperature increases, the time taken to sterilize • Type of material
decreases. - Heat-sensitive materials will require lower temperature
• Number of microorganisms than heat-resistant materials.
- the more microorganisms there are, the higher the • Presence of organic material
temperature and the longer the duration of the process - the presence of organic materials such as fats, proteins,
required to destroy all of them. and sugars may necessitate higher temperatures.
Types of Heat Types of Heat

MOIST HEAT & DRY HEAT MOIST HEAT & DRY HEAT
Classification
1. Moist Heat Classification (Moist Heat)
- preferred over dry a.) Temperature below 100 C a.) Temperature below
• Inspissation
heat because of • Pasteurization 100 C • Serum bath - This technique is used to
- Method of destroying disease-producing organisms • Vaccine bath - This is used to
its more rapid solidify and disinfect egg-
in milk and milk products as well as other beverages. - This is used to destroy inactive bacteria
killing action. containing and serum-
o Conventional method- the milk is heated at 60 contaminating bacteria contaminating serum
- Cause coagulation containing media.
in vaccine preparations and is
deg C - 65 deg C followed by rapid cooling. - The culture media is
and denaturation o Flashed method- heating at 72 deg C for 15 sec
preparations. done by heating at 56 placed in the slopes of a
of protein - Only the vegetative C for several device called an
followed by quick cooling to 13 deg C. forms of bacteria are successive days.
o Ultra-high temp- heating is done at 140 deg C inspissation and is heated
destroyed.
for a period of 15 sec and 149 deg C for 0.5 sec. at 800 C -85 C for 30
mins for three successive
days.

Classification Classification
(Moist Heat) (Moist Heat)
b.) Temperature of 100 C c.) Temperature above 100 C
• Boiling • Fractional sterilization • Autoclave (Steam under pressure)
- This method involves utilizing - This method is used for intermittent - This is the most efficient method of sterilization because it
water at boiling temp of 100  C. sterilization and involves exposing the can destroy all microbial forms.
- It is not sporicidal and will destroy material to be sterilized to live steam at - When the pressure reaches 15 pounds per square inch
only the vegetative forms. (psi), the temp inside the vessel reaches 121 C .
100o C for 30-90 mins for three
- Certain metals articles and - This method is used to sterile instruments, surgical
consecutive days.
glassware can be disinfected using bandages, culture media, and other contaminated materials
this method for 10-20 mins w/o - This method can be used to sterilize that can withstand high temp and high pressure
opening the lid of the boiler. culture media such as TCBS and
selenite broth. Only vegetative forms of
bacteria are destroyed with this
method.
2. Dry Heat Classification (Dry Heat) Classification (Dry Heat)

- Used to sterilize a.) Red Flame b.) Open flame (Flaming) c.) Incineration d.) Hot air oven e.) Infrared rays
materials in enclosed - Sterilize articles like - Use Bunsen burner & - Burning organisms - Introduced by Louis - Placed in a conveyor
tubes, oils, jellies, bacteriological wire alcohol lamp into ashes Pasteur belt and passed
powders, and glasswares. loops, straight wires, - Passed over to flame - Contaminated - Placed in an oven w/ through a tunnel that
tips of forceps, searing several times but not material is burned a temp. of 160 deg. C is heated by infrared
spatulas heated to redness using an incinerator for 1 hr. radiators.
- Heated to redness in - Burning organisms to ashes - Soiled dressings & - Sterilize metallic - 180 deg. C for 7.5
flame (Bunsen Burner) - Sterilize mouth of test beddings, animal instruments, minutes
tubes, scalpel, glass slide & carcasses, glassware, powders, - Sterilize metallic
cover slips pathological material and ointments equipment and
- Only vegetative form is - Used for articles that glassware.
destroyed have to be diposed
Dessication Filtration
• form of mechanical sieving that does not kill
• method based on the principle of depriving
microorganisms but merely separates them from
the microorganisms of moisture the fluid.
• used mainly in the preparation of dried fish • used to remove bacteria from culture media or to
and fruits. prepare suspensions of used viruses and phages.
Freezing Radiation
• preservation of microorganisms in a process 1.) Ultraviolet Light/Non-ionizing radiation
called lyophilization or freeze drying 2.) Ionizing radiation
• not a reliable method of sterilization
Kinds of Radiation Sonic & Ultrasonic Vibrations

NON-IONIZING & IONIZING RADIATION
• exposure to sound waves at a frequency of approximately
20,000 cycles/second for one hour can kill some bacteria
Ultraviolet Light/Non- and viruses.
ionizing radiation Ionizing radiation • used to disinfect and clean instruments and to reduce
microbial load.
- this corresponds with the - have greater penetrance b.) Electromagnetic rays
maximum absorption of than UV rays - produced from nuclear
bacterial DNA. - not routinely used disintegration of selected
because of its potential to
- effective wavelength
ranges from 200nm-
280nm in which 260nm is
harm human tissues
- Types:
radioactive isotopes
- have greater penetrance
than electron beams but
Osmotic Pressure
the most effective. a.) Electron beams requires longer exposure • based on the principle of osmosis
- acts by inducing the - can be used to time. • when the concentration of fluid surrounding the organism is
formation of thymine- sterilize syringes, - used to sterilize disposable altered, the bacterial cell will collapse
thymine dimers resulting gloves, dressing packs, petri dishes, plastic • used for preservation of fruits in syrup and meats in brine.
in lethal frameshift food, and some syringes, vitamins,
mutations pharmaceuticals. antibiotics, hormones,
fabrics and glassware
Factors affecting the efficacy of a chemical
agent:
• Concentration and potency of chemical agent
- higher concentration is bactericidal and lower
concentration may only be bacteriostatic
- for alcohol, the effective bactericidal is at 50% to 80%
Chemical Methods of • Duration of exposure
Sterilization - the longer the time of exposure to the chemical agent,
the better killing action.
• Temperature
- a higher temperature speeds up the rate of chemical
reaction, thus, accelerates the killing action.
Factors affecting the efficacy of a chemical agent: Factors affecting the efficacy of a chemical
• Nature of the surrounding medium agent:
- the pH of the medium and the presence of extraneous materials
like pus or blood decreases the effiency of the chemical agent. • Number of organisms/size of inoculum
• Nature of the organisms - the larger the number of microorganism present, the
- refers to the innate resistance of the microorganisms to more time needed for a disinfectant to destroy all of
disinfectants. them.
- bacteria that produces endospores may be resistant to most
chemical agents.
- mycobacterial cell wall is lipid-rich that makes it difficult for the
chemicals to penetrate it.
- gram-negative bacteria have an outer membrane that confers
resistance to disinfectants.
CHARACTERISTICS CHARACTERISTICS
OF A OF A
GOOD 1
It should be broad spectrum
GOOD 6
It should be non-toxic, non-allergenic, non-irritative, & non corrosive
2
CHEMICAL It should be fast acting 7
CHEMICAL It should be soluble on water and easy to apply
3 It should be active in the presence of organic matter 8 It should leave a residual antimicrobial film on the treated surface
4 It should be active in any pH 9 It should have high penetrating power
5 It should be stable 10 It should not be expensive and must be easily available

Classification of Chemical Disinfectant:
CHARACTERISTICS Surface active agents
OF A - they concentrate on the surface of membranes and disrupt
GOOD 1
It should be safe under storage & shipping for reasonable periods of time membrane resulting in leakage of cell components.
a. Cationic agents
2
CHEMICAL It should not have a bad odor. - these are called quaternary ammonium compounds and
are effective at alkaline pH.
b. Anionic Agents
- these are negatively charged agents that contain long
hydrocarbons. They remove dirt through the process of
emulsification and are most effective at acidic pH.
Classification of Chemical Disinfectant: Denaturation of cell proteins

Phenolic Compounds - substances that cause denaturation or loss of the
- act by disrupting cell membranes as well as causing normal structure pave the way for eventual destruction of
precipitation of proteins and inactivation of enzymes. bacterial cell.
Alcohols
- disorganize the lipid structure of the cell
membrane, dehydrate cells, and cause denaturation and
coagulation of cellular proteins. Denaturating agents:
a. ethyl alcohol -acids and alkalis
b. isopropyl alcohol - alcohol and acetone
c. benzyl alcohol -phenol and cresol
d. methyl alcohol
Modification of the functional groups of Modification of the functional groups of proteins

proteins and nucleic acids: and nucleic acids:
Halogens
Heavy metals - bacterial oxidation agents that cause oxidation of
- cause precipitation of proteins and oxidation of essential sulfhydryl groups of enzymes causing
sulfurhydryl groups. inactivition of enzymes.
a. Mercurials
- use as antiseptic, active against viruses at dilution a. Iodine - considered the best antiseptic.
of 1:500 to 1:1000 b. Chlorine - used in treatment of water. Hypochlorites are used
b. silver compounds for sanitizing dairy and food processing equipment.
- are bactericidal, 1% silver nitrate is used as c. Hydrogen peroxide - weak antiseptic, only for cleaning wounds.
treatment for opthalmia neonatorum.
Modification of the functional groups of proteins
and nucleic acids:
Alkalyting agents
a. Aldehydes damage nucleic acids by alkylation of amino-,
carboxyl-, or hydroxyl groups.
formaldehyde (formalin) - used for surface disinfection.
glutaraldehyde - is sporicidal and used as cold sterilant in
sterilizing medical equipment.
Ethylene oxide
- is also a sporicidal and is used in gaseous sterilization of
heat-sensitive materials or equipment like heart-lung machine etc.
Chapter 8
What are Antibiotics or antimicrobials?
• Substances produced from microorganisms or

Antimicrobial Agents synthetically that are capable of inhabiting or destroying
microorganisms even at low concentrations.
• Drugs used to treat bacterial diseases are called
antibacterial agents;
• those used to treat fungal diseases, antifungal agents;
• those used to treat protozoal diseases, antiprotozoal
agents;
• those used to treat viral diseases, antiviral agents.
Example Characteristics of an Ideal Antimicrobial Agent
• The ideal antimicrobial agent should:

The discovery of penicillin by
Alexander Fleming. (A) Colonies of 1. It should be able to kill the microbial agent or inhibit its
Staphylococcus aureus are growing growth.
well in this area of the plate. (B)
Colonies are poorly developed in this 2. It must have a broad spectrum of activity.
area of the plate because of an 3. It should not cause any damage or adverse effect to the
antibiotic (penicillin) being produced
by a colony of Penicillium notatum (a patient.
mould), shown at C. 4. It should remain stable when stored in either a solid or a
liquid form.
5. It should be able to remain in specific body tissues long
enough for it to be effective.
Characteristics of an Ideal Antimicrobial Agent Antimicrobials are classified in several ways:
6. It should be able to kill the organism or inhibit its growth 1. Based on the spectrum of activity (broad-spectrum or
before it has had a chance to mutate and develop narrow-spectrum)
resistance. Broad spectrum antibiotics (wide coverage of
7. It must exhibit selective toxicity. It must be toxic to the activity against a wide spectrum of microorganisms);
microbial cell but not to the host's cells. Narrow spectrum antibiotics (limited coverage of
activity, effective only against a limited number of
microorganims)
Antimicrobials are classified in several ways: Antimicrobials are classified in several ways:
• 2. Based on their antimicrobial activity (bactericidal or 3. Based on their absorbability from the site of
bacteriostatic) administration
Bactericidal (capable of killing the microorganism); locally-acting – limits its action at the site where it is
Bacteriostatic (can only inhibit the growth of the administered. Example: topical
organism) ointments/ eye drops
systemically-acting – one that affects several body
systems. Ex. Antibiotics that are
administered intramuscularly or
intravenously.
Classification of Antibiotics based on Mechanism of Action Agents that Interfere with the Synthesis of
Bacterial Cell Wall
• Agents that Interfere with the Synthesis of Bacterial Cell
-Inhibiting the different stages of peptidoglycan
Wall
synthesis or by destroying an already formed
• Agents that Alter the Function of Permeability of the Cell peptidoglycan by activating autolytic enzymes.
Membrane
-example: β-lactam antibiotics (penicillins and
• Agents that Inhibit Protein Synthesis
cephalosporins);
• Agents that act on the Nucleic Acid
glycopeptides (Vancomycin)
• Agents that inhibit Microbial Metabolic Pathways
Agents that Alter the Function of Permeability of Agents that Alter the Function of Permeability of
the Cell Membrane the Cell Membrane
-Microbial cell membrane is essential to the survival of
-Antifungal agents work in different ways:
organism (serve as barrier & site of bacterial ATP Alter the permeability of the cell membrane (polyenes: e.g.,
production) nystatin and amphotericin B)
- Agents can be classified into: cationic, anionic, and Interfere with the synthesis of ergosterol, a major component
neutral agents of the fungal cell membrane (azoles: e.g., clotrimazole and
ketoconazole etc.)
-polymyxin B & colistemethate- most well known under
cationic agents; disrupting the outer membrane structure
enabling them to enter the cell and inhibit metabolic
processes in the bacterial cell.
Agents that Inhibit Protein Synthesis Agents that act on the Nucleic Acid
- These agents bind with the ribosomes, either 30S or the
50 ribosomal sub-units or both.
-Agents that inhibit DNA topoisomerases
- Binding with the ribosome results in failure to initiate
the synthesis of proteins, interference with protein Topoisomerases enzymes (types I & II) are essential to
DNA synthesis and are critical enzymes involved in
elongation or misreading resulting in deformed proteins) protein translation and cell replication.
- Representative drugs: aminoglycosides, tetracycline,
spectinomycin
-Quinolones- most effective against DNA gyrase
- Agents that bind to 50S ribosomosal sub-unit are
inhibitors of elongation process of protein. 3 classes
under this: chloramphenicol, macrolides, & lincinoids
Agents that inhibit RNA synthesis Inhibition of microbial metabolic pathways
- Agents that act by interfering with the β-subunit of an Agents interfere with metabolic pathways crucial for
RNA polymerase that is needed for RNA synthesis. the survival of the microorganism
Rifampicin-the first-line drug used for treatment of Examples:

tuberculosis Trimethoprim (inhibits the formation of tetrahydrofilic
acid by inhibiting the enzyme dihydrofolic acid),
Sulfonamides (inhibit the formation of dihydrofolic acid)
Mechanism of Drug Resistance

Drug Resistance – growing concern in the field of infection
Mechanisms of Drug control
Resistance - developed by the organism if it is not

affected anymore by that particular antibiotic
Developed resistance may either be:
Intrinsic resistance – a stable genetic property that is encoded in the
chromosome of the organism and shared by all
strains of the species
Acquired resistance – arise from the ability of an organism to resist
as antimicrobial drug to which a species, as a
whole, is naturally susceptible
Factors that contribute to Antimicrobial 3 ways in which resistance acquired through
resistance genetic exchange can occur
• Overuse of broad-spectrum antibiotics due to 1. Transformation- simplest and the earliest form of genetic
overprescription exchange studied
• Incorrect diagnosis -naked or free microbial DNA inserts itself into the
• Unnecessary prescription of antibiotics DNA of the same species
2. Transduction – the transfer of genetic material by a bacteriophage
• Indiscriminate or improper use of antibiotics by patient
3. Conjugation – the transfer of genetic material through the sex pilus
• Use of antibiotics as additives to livestock feeds - what is transferred to another bacterium is an
extrachromosomal DNA called plasmid (carries
resistance gene)
Several mechanisms developed by bacteria that enable them

Some Major Categories of Antibacterial Agents to develop resistance to selected antimicrobials:
• Penicillins (bactericidal; interfere with cell wall synthesis) • Drug modification or inactivation
-a resistance gene may code for enzymes that can alter its
• Cephalosporins (bactericidal; interfere with cell wall
chemical structure leading to the inactivation of the antibiotic or
synthesis) the products of the resistance genes may cause hydrolysis of
• Tetracyclines (bacteriostatic; inthibit protein synthesis) the antibiotic thereby destroying the antibiotic
• Aminoglycosides (bactericidal; inhibit protein synthesis) -Example: Bacteria that produce beta-lactamases which
can hydrolyze the beta-lactam bonds in the chemical structure of
• Macrolides (bacteriostatic at lower doses; bactericidal at
the antimicrobial agent, the mechanism involved in the
higher doses; inhibit protein synthesis) resistance of certain microorganisms to penicilin and
• Fluoroquinolones (bactericidal; inhibit DNA synthesis) cephalosporin
Several mechanisms developed by bacteria that enable Several mechanisms developed by bacteria that enable
them to develop resistance to selected antimicrobials: them to develop resistance to selected antimicrobials:
• Prevention of cellular uptake or efflux • Modification of target sites
-Gram-negative bacteria have the ability to change the lipid -Antimicrobials have specific targets in the bacterial cell.
composition of their outer membrane thereby preventing the antibiotic -Any change in the structure will lead to the inability of the
from reaching its cellular target
antibiotic to exert its action on the target bacteria.
-Gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria have developed an
- Ex. The target site of penicillin on a bacterial cell is a
efflux pump that can prevent the antibiotic to accumulate within the
bacterial cell structure called Penicillin-binding Proteins (PBP). The
-Efflux pumps are effective against a wide range of antimicrobials in organisms Streptococcus pneumoniae has developed
multiple classes resistance by causing alteration in the structure of its
penicillin-binding protein
Several mechanisms developed by bacteria that enable Several mechanisms developed by bacteria that enable
them to develop resistance to selected antimicrobials: them to develop resistance to selected antimicrobials:
• Overproduction or bypass of target enzyme • Target mimicry
One mechanisms developed by bacteria is targeting -A new mechanism of anti microbial resistance
specific enzymes that are essential to the metabolism of -Production of proteins similar in structure to the target
an organism sites of the antibiotics
– Overproduction of the target enzyme of the antibiotic, there will still -Due to the similarity in structure of new proteins and the
be enough amount of the enzyme that is free from antibiotic target proteins, the antimicrobial binds the new proteins
allowing the organism to still carry out the essential enzymatic and not the target protein
reaction
– Some bacteria have developed alternative or bypass mechanisms
that can serve as alternative for the target enzyme
Summary of Mechanisms for Drug Resistance

Learning objectives
Chapter 9: 1. At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
Host Response 1.
2.
3.
differentiate “antigen” from “immunogen;”
discuss the properties of antigen that would make them immunogenic;
describe the different lines of defense of the body;
4. determine the role of the B cells and T cells in providing defense against infectious
to infection 5.
6.
agents;
differentiate innate immunity and adaptive immunity;
identify the differences between humoral and cell-mediated immune response;
7. examine the function of the different immunoglobulins;
8. differentiate primary immune response and secondary immune response;
9. distinguish from each other the mechanism involved in the various types of
hypersensitivity reactions, citing examples for each type; and
10. explain the role of vaccines in the prevention of the development of infectious diseases.
Definition of Terms
Immunology- study of the immune system and the immune
response
Immunogen- any substances capable of inducing an immune
response
Properties
Antigen- substance recognized by the immune system that
serves as the target of the immune response
Epitope- structure in the antigen that is recognized by the B cell
or T cell.
of Antigens
Hapten- substance that is low of molecular weight that can only
induce an immune response if bound to another
substance tasty is already immunogenic.
There are several properties that an antigen must possess

Chemical composition and
to make it immunogenic. These include:
complexity
Foreignness and genetic composition
1.
 Most organic substances are can be antigenic
2. Chemical composition and complexity
3. Molecular size and stability except for pure lipids and nucleic acids
4. Mode of entry of the antigen  Proteins are the most immunogenic
- proteins are larger molecules than others
that have more complex structures
 Between a pure protein and a glycoprotein,
 Antigensare genetically foreign to the host or
recognized by the body as non-self glycoprotein will be more antigenic because its
structure is more complex
Molecular size and
Mode of entry of the antigen
stability
● The dose of the antigen as well as the mode of administration
 As a rule, molecules with molecular should be taken into consideration
weights below 10,000 daltons are weakly ● Example 1: one might need a small amount of antigen to induce
immunogenic or not immunogenic at all an immune response if the antigen introduced is a protein as
 Those with higher molecular weights
compared to a polysaccharide
greater than 10,000 daltons are very
potent immunogens ● Example 2: antigen may not elicit a reaction intramuscularly but
 However, stability of the molecule needs may provoke a good response when given subcutaneously.
to be considered
The Immune System

Composed of molecular and cellular
The Immune components that are derived from the central
(primary) and peripheral (secondary) lymphoid
System? organs
Central Lymphoid Organs Central Lymphoid Organs

– the primary sites for differentiation and Bone marrow – site from where blood cells originate
maturation of the important cells that play an important role in - it is where the precursor cells for lymphocytes are
the adaptive immunity which are the T lymphocytes (T cells) found and where they differentiate into B cells
and B lymphocytes (B cells) and T cells.once differentiated:
- these consist of bone marrow and the thymus - B cells remain in the bone marrow and undergo maturation
- T cells will go out of the bone marrow (immature and
incompetent) then go to the thymus where they mature
and become competent
Peripheral Lymphoid Organs Cells of the Immune System
 Consist of lymph nodes, spleen and the mucosa- The various responses of the human immune system are
associated lymphoid tissues (MALT) which includes mediated by specific cells and the substances they
the tonsils, adenoids, Peyer’s patches in the ileum produce. These cells includes:
and the appendix White Blood Cells
 These organs are site of reactivity of lymphoid cells - granulocytes (e.g., neutrophil) – 50% to
 These are where antigens are trapped and 80%
subsequently encounter the T and B cells - lymphocytes - ~20%-45%
 Both mature T cells and B cells are found in the - monocytes and macrophages – 3%- 8%
peripheral lymphoid organs
Cells of the Immune System Antigen presenting cells

 Neutrophil – plays a major role in acute inflammation as
well as in bacterial infections  Cells that are involved in the processing and
 Lymphocytes and macrophages – mainly involved in presentation of antigen to the T cells
chronic inflammation  These include macrophages, B cells, dendritic cells,
 Lymphocytes – predominant inflammatory cells in viral Langerhans cells in the skin, Kupffer cells in the liver
infections and glial cells in the central nervous system
 Macrophages – predominant in chronic inflammation  B cells, macrophages and dendritic cells are the
 Cells that belong to the mononuclear-phagocyte system professional antigen presenting cells, the most
play a crucial role as antigen presenting cells important of which are the dendritic cells
 Dendritic cells are considered as the true link
between innate and adaptive immunity
Other WBC that are part of innate

Natural Killer Cells
immune system
 Large granular lymphocytes that are also called NK
 Eosinophils – possess eosinophilic granules that play a role in cells or Null cells.
type I hypersensitivity reaction or allergy  Originally classified as cytotoxic T cells but lack T-
- secrete a substance that is called major basic protein Cell Receptor (TCR) on their surface thus makes
that is toxic to parasites, especially helminths or them not classified anymore as T cells
worms  Part of body’s innate immune system
 Basophils – also play a role in allergies
 Granules of both eosinophils and basophils contain histamine
 Platelets – membrane bound cell fragments that are derived
from a large cells called megakaryocytes.
- mainly involved in blood coagulation however they
secrete substances that play a role in inflammation
2 most important cells of the
immune system B cells
 Originate in bone marrow
 Mature in the fetal liver and in the adult bone
marrow
 They are located mostly in the germinal centers of
the lymph nodes and in the spleen
1. T lymphocytes  In the presence of appropriate antigen, B cells
2. B lymphocytes differentiate into antibody-producing plasma cells as
well as memory B cells
 Involved in body’s humoral immunity
 Function as a professional antigen presenting cells
T Cells Innate Immunity

● Also known as natural immunity
 Originate from the bone marrow
● Already active from the time of birth, prior to exposure to
 Located mainly in the paracortical and interfollicular areas of the lymph
an antigen
nodes and spleen
● Non-specific
 Involved in body’s cell mediated immunity
● Includes host barriers that prevent entry of
 Further differentiate into CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells (cytotoxic or cytolytic)
 CD4+ T cells consist of helper T cells and the regulatory T cells microorganisms
 Helper T cells – do not have direct capacity to destroy antigen instead, it skin and mucous membrane (first line of defense)
activates the cytotoxic T cells and stimulates differentiation of B cells into phagocytosis and inflammation (second line of
antibody-producing plasma cells defense)
● Activated within minutes following exposure to the
 Regulatory T cells – play an important role in the maintenance of self-
tolerance or the ability of the immune system to recognize self from non self. antigen
 CD4+ T cells – predominant lymphocytes in the circulation and constitute ● Does not improve after exposure
part of the body’s immune surveillance ● Does not possess memory
● Provides only short-term protection
2 major functions 2 major functions

● 2nd line of defense – prevents microorganism that penetrate the
1. Killing invading microorganisms
2. activating adaptive immune responses 1st line defense from multiplying inside the body
● If the primary barriers are breached, inflammation is activated
First line of defense as well as the natural killer cells
- prevent entry of the organisms to the body and limit ● The microorganisms are recognized by innate immune cells and
microbial survival soluble mediators because of their molecular patterns called
-includes the skin, fatty acids in sebaceous secretions Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMP)
and sweat.
● Activation of inflammatory cells lead to phagocytosis of the
- the low pH of the fatty acids and sweat inhibit the
growth of microorganisms antigen
● Activation of compliment system results in the production of
membrane attack complex which help degrade the antigen
Important Components of Innate Immunity Factors that limit growth of the Mode of action
microorganisms within the
Factors that limit the entry of Mode of Action body
microorganisms Natural killer cells Kills virus-infected cells
Keratin layer of intact skin Act as a mechanical barrier
Neutrophils Ingest and destroy microbes
Lysozyme in tears and other secretions Degrades bacteria cell wall
Respiratory cilia Directs organisms trapped in mucus out of the Macrophages and dendritic cells Ingest and destroy microbes; present antigens
respiratory passages to T cells
Interferons Inhibit viral replication; produce anti-viral state
Low pH of stomach and vaginal; fatty acids in Inhibits growth of microorganisms
skin
Complement system Membrane attack complex creates holes in
Surface phagocytes Ingest and destroy microbes bacterial cell membrane; components activate
inflammation
Normal flora Prevent colonization by pathogens
Fever Inhibits bacterial growth
Factors that limit growth of the microorganisms Mode of action
within the body Inflammatory response Limits spread of microbes by destroying them
Adaptive Immunity
● It is specific  An important distinction between innate
● Activated after exposure to a particular antigen and adaptive immunity – adaptive
● It is an acquired response to an antigen that is initiated by recognition of immunity possesses memory
specific epitopes of the foreign invaders
● It involves production of antibodies by the B cells and activation of the  Once the B or T cells are activated, some of
cytotoxic T cells
the B and T cells turn into memory cells
● The response is delayed compared to innate immunity – it takes 7-10
days before sufficient levels of antibodies are produced by the body
● The protection given by adaptive immunity is longer and inmost cases,
lasts throughout the lifetime of the individual
Comparison between innate and adaptive immunity Immune Response: Primary Antibody Response
Property Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity
Activity at birth Yes No
Activation of inflammatory
Activation of a
Response time Immediate Delayed response and delayed type
First exposure specific set of
hypersensitivity as well as
with an antigen helper T cells
Specificity for microorganisms Relatively low (PAMPS) High (specific antigens) stimulation of B cells to
(Th1 cells)
produce IgM and IgG
Cells Phagocytic cells, NK cells, epithelial B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes
cells
Memory No Yes
Response amplifiable No Yes
Components The antibodies can be

The serum level
detectable in the serum after
continues to rise
physical and chemical Skin, mucosa; antimicrobial substances Secreted antibodies about 7-10 days and longer
for several weeks
barriers (e.g. defensins) depending on the nature of
and then decline
antigen and the dose of antigen
Blood proteins Complement Antibodies
Line of defense First and Second Third (immune response)

Immune Response: Secondary antibody response
Humoral Immunity
● Innate and adaptive immunity can be humoral or cell mediated
Re-exposure with an
Activation of another Further stimulation of ● Innate humural immunity involves cytokines and
set of helper T cells B cells to produce
complementary system
antigen
(Th2 cells) antibodies except IgM
● Adaptive humoral immunity involves the action of antibodies

● Antibody-madiated immunity is directed primarily against :
- extracellular pathogens
If there is a need for other Persistence of -toxin-induced disease
antibodies, some IgG can
undergo modification in their
antigen-specific
memory cells; -certain viral infections
-infection caused by encapsulated pathogens (e.g.,
structure known as class predominant antibody
swithching involved is IgG
pneumococci and Haemophilus influenzae)
Antibody Structure
Antibodies
Globulin proteins (immunoglobulins)that react 1. Typical shaped like a letter “Y” and consist of
specifically with the antigens that stimulate their polypeptide chains linked by disulfide bonds
2. Made up of 2 identical heavy chains and 2
production identical light chains
3. Each chain is composed of a variable region
The most important antibodies are: and a constant region.
4. The variable region contains the hypervariable
1. Neutralize toxins and viruses region that represents the antigen binding site
of the antibody
2. Opsonize microbes so that they will be readily 5. The region at which the arms of the antibody
molecule form a letter Y is a flexible region
recognized and more easily phagocytosed called the hinge region
6. Digestion of this region with either papain or
3. Activate compliment system pepsin will yield two identical antigen binding
fragments (called Fab) and one crystallizable
4. To prevent the attachment of microbes to fragment (called Fc) which binds to effector
mucosal surfaces cells.
Classes of Immunoglobulins 1. IgG

1. IgG ● A monomer and is a predominant antibody in secondary
immune response (anamnestic) response.
2. IgM ● Major defense against bacteria ang viruses.
3. IgA ● It comprises approximately 73% of the Immunoglobulins in
the serum.
4. IgE ● Most abundant antibody in newborns
5. IgD ● Together with IgM, it can fix or activate complement system
● Function as opsonin, thus enhancing phagocytosis
● The main immunoglobulin in chronic infections
2. IgM 3. IgA
● The largest among the immunoglobulins and is a pentamer. ● Secretory immunoglobulin
● It has J chain (joining chain) that holds the IgM pentamer ● The main immunoglobulin in secretions such as colostrum,
together. saliva, and tears, as well as respiratory, gastrointestinal, and
● It is the main immunoglobulins produced early in the primary genitourinary tract secretions.
response and is predominant antibody in acute infections.
● It exist as a monomer in serum and as a dimer in secretions
● Together with IgG, it can activate the complement system.
● It is an important component of mucosal immunity
More efficient activator of complement owing to its large size
● Present on surface of B cells where it acts as an antigen
receptor.
4.IgE 5. IgD
● Reaginic antibody ● A monomer that has no antibody function.
● It is medically important for two reasons:
1. it meditate immediate or anaphylactic hypersensitivity ● It is found on the surface of many B cells and
reaction, and serves as a surface marker for B cells
2. It provides defense against parasites such as helminths
and worms. ● Also function as antigen receptor
● Binds to the surface of mast cells and basophils where it ● Present in small amounts in serum (approx.
serves as antigen receptor for the allergen
● It exists in monomeric form 1%)
Comparison of the Major Classes of

Immunoglobulins
Cell-mediated
Immunity
Four Basic Functions of Cell-mediated Immunity
Provide resistance and aid in recovery from infectious due to

1.
intracellular organisms. (e.g., viruses)

Several Types of
2. Important defense against fungi, parasites, and bacteria. Cell-mediated
3. Involved in transplant and graft infection.
4. Main defense against tumor cells. Immune System
2. Helper T Cells (Cd4+ T cells)

1. Macrophages
● Phagocytic cells that ingest and destroy In general, function to stimulate differentiation of B
cells to antibody-producing plasma cells as well as to
microbes. activate the cytotoxic T Cells.
● Present antigens to T cell with the help of B
cells and dendritic cells. 3. Cytotoxic T Cells (Cd8+ T Cells)
-Destroy antigens primarily through the perforin-granzyme mechanism.
-body’s main defense against intracellular pathogens
-involved in transplant and graft rejection as well as destruction of
tumor cells
Four Basic Steps Involved in Complement

System
Complement System 1. Initiation
2. Formation of C3 convertase
The complement system is consist of a group f 3. Formation of C5 convertase
soluble proteins (C1-C9) which are proteases 4. Formation of Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
that cleave and activate one another in
sequential manner.
Three Effects of Activation of the Complement
System
1. Lysis of the cells.

2. Generation of inflammatory mediators. Three Pathways of
3. Opsonization leading to enhanced phagocytosis.
Compliment System
1. Alternative or Properdin Pathway 2. Classical Pathway

● This pathway functions in both innate adaptive immunity. It is the last
● This pathway is activated by bacterial products such to be activated since it requires sometime for specific antibodies to be
as endotoxin or complexes of immunoglobulins. It is produced.
the first to be activated on the initial exposure to the ● These complexes bind to C1qrs (recognition unit) which lead to
antigen. spontaneous activation and cleavage of complement proteins C2 and C4.
● Upon exposure to antigen, the C3 component The resulting C4b and C2b combine to form C3 convertase which will
undergoes spontaneous hydrolysis and binds to cleave to form C5 convertase.
activated factor B forming C3 convertase which
cleaves C5 to form MAC.
Mannose Binding Lectin or MBL Pathway All three pathways lead to the production of C3b,
called the central molecule of the complement
● This pathway is activated by specific patterns of sugars found on system.
the bacterial cell wall.
● The sequence of activation of compliment proteins in both ● Functions of C3b include:
classical and MBL pathways are the same except that the MBL 1. Functions as an opsonin.
does not utilize complement protein C1 and the C3 convertase 2. Promotes further production of anti-bodies by
attaching to the receptor on the B cells.
produced is C4b2a.
Hypersensitivity
Reactions
FOUR TYPES OF
Hypersensitivity reactions are exaggerated and
HYPERSENSIVITY
inappropriate immune responses that lead to tissue REACTIONS
injury resulting in harm to the host.
TYPE I: Immediate (Anaphylactic) Hypersensitivity
● This is what commonly known as allergic reaction and mediated by IgE.

● It occurs in response to the environmental or administered antigens.
● Process:
1. IgE recognizes soluble antigen
2. Mast cells degranulate.
3. Histamine release causes allergy symptoms.
TYPE II: Antibody-mediated Hypersensitivity TYPE III: Immune Complex-mediated Hypersensitivity
● Also known as cytotoxic or cytolytic hypersensitivity. ● Initiated by the formation of immune complexes in the circulation.
● This reaction is mediated by IgM or IgG These immune complexes form deposits usually on the kidney and on
● Process: endothelium of blood vessels.
1. IgM and IgG recognizes cellular antigens ● Process:
2. Cell damage “cytotoxicity” 1. Immune complexes deposit into blood vessel walls.
3. Includes recognition of self antigens “autoimmunity” and ABO or Rh 2. Complement cascades and neutrophil degranulation.
antigens on RBCs. 3. Inflammation and tissue damage, like in lupus where antibodies bind to
self-DNA and self-proteins.
TYPE IV: T Cell-mediated Hypersensitivity
● Known as delayed type of hypersensitivity.

● It involves lymphocytes (either CD4+ or CD8+ T lymphocytes) not
antibodies.
●
●
The tissue destruction is due to either inflammation brought about by
cytokines produced by T Cells.
Examples:
Vaccines
• Latex allergies, poison ivy dermatitis and transplant rejections
Vaccines Types of Immunization

Passive Immunization Active Immunization
● contains a weakened or inactive form of the organism.
● may also be derived from toxins produced by the microorganism ( toxoids). ● involves the administration of purified antibody in ● Involves the injection of vaccines
● designed to stimulate the body’s immune system to produce the antibodies specific preparations called immune globulins or prepared from organisms or their
antibody-containing serum.
to the organism so that these are recognized as foreign and will be destroyed products.
● the protection given is short-lived.
immediately upon entry of the organism into the body. ● It stimulates the body’s immune
● used with the following goals in mind:
system to produce the specific
● Immunization programs have achieved the following goals:
antibodies against the component
1. To prevent a disease after a known exposure organism of the vaccine.
1. Protection of population groups from the development of common infectious
● The response takes days or weeks to
diseases. 2. To reduce the symptoms of an on going disease
develop but the protection given is
2. Controls the speed of measles, mumps, and rebella 3. To protect immunosuppressed patients long-term.
4. To block the actions of bacterial toxins and prevent

3. Examination of small pic in the world
the diseases that they cause.
● Live attenuated vaccine ● Killed/Inactivated vaccine

- Killed vaccines- refer to vaccines derived from bacterial sources
- They are prepared using organisms with limited ability to cause
diseases. ■ First killed vaccine to be produce was the typhoid
- These are especially useful for protection against infection caused
by enveloped viruses. Types of vaccine.
- Inactivated vaccines- are derived from viruses Types of
- Examples are BCG vaccine for tuberculosis, vaccine against
measles, mumps and chickenpox. Vaccines ■ Inactivated vaccines that are popularly used are the
polio vaccine and hepatitis A vaccine.
Vaccines
● Toxoids vaccine - this type of vaccine is similar to the response of the toxoid vaccine but
- were developed based on the principle that certain diseased are with a wider range of target antigens.
caused by exotoxins produced by the causative agents. ● Subunit vaccine
- they are not as immunogenic and large or multiple doses are - type of vaccine produced in the same way as the killed/inactivated vaccine
needed which may lead to tolerance to the antigen so that the but instead of using the entire organism to stimulate antibody production,
addition of adjuvant is necessary to elicit a higher and longer only a specific antigen on the organism is used.
lasting immune response. - Examples are hepatitis B vaccine where the surface antigen of the virus was
used in the development.
CHAPTER 10:
 At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
BACTERIA AND 1. Define common terms involved in the production of disease by bacteria;
2. Explain the components d Koch’s postulates;
DISEASE 3. Discuss thoroughly the various factors that play a role in the chain of
infection;
4. Compare the various mechanisms by which bacteria produce disease, citing
examples for each mechanism;
5. Describe the various ways by which infectious diseases are classified; and
6. Compare the events involved in the various stages of an infectious disease.
 Virulence- describes the degree of pathogenicity of an organism or the

degree to which an organism can produce disease.
 Disease- result of an undesirable relationship between the host and the  Contamination- presence of unwanted materials where they should not
pathogen, marked by interruption in the normal functioning of a body or be or at concentrations above the normal. The presence of these
parts. substances may not necessarily lead to harm.
 Infection- invasion of the body by pathogenic microorganism. The term is  Pollution- presence of contaminants that can cause adverse biological
not synonymous with disease. effects to humans and communities.
 Symbiosis- prolonged and close interaction between of different species.  Bacteremia- presence of bacteria in the blood.
 Mutualism- a form of symbiosis in which both organisms benefit from the  Septicemia- presence of actively multiplying bacteria in the blood,
relationship. usually from a source of infection. This condition is called sepsis.
 Commensalism- a form of symbiosis in which one organism benefits from  Pyemia- presence of pus-producing bacteria in the bloodstream
another organism without causing harm to it.
 Viremia- presence of virus in the blood.
 Parasitism- a form of symbiosis where one organism benefits from
another organism and at the same time causes harm to the other.  Toxemia- presence of toxins in the blood.
 Pathogenicity- ability of an organism to produce disease.
 Robert Koch
- a German physician who made significant contribution to the field of microbiology.
 Koch’s postulates
- a scientific experimental procedure proving that certain microorganisms caused
specific diseases.
- published in 1884 by Robert Koch and Friedrich Loeffler.
 These postulates are as follows:
1. The suspected organism must be absent in healthy individuals but present in those with the
disease.
2. The suspected organism must be isolated from the infected host and grown in pure culture.
3. The organism grown from pure culture must produce the same disease as that of the infected
source when inoculated to a susceptible animal.
4. The same organism must be isolated from pure culture from the experimentally-infected host.
 There are certain organisms that cannot be grown in artificial culture
media.
 The reaction of humans to specific pathogens may differ given a
specific organism.
 There are certain organisms that are species-specific.
 There are certain pathogens that become altered when grown in
artificial media
 Transmission starts when the pathogenic organism  It is the site where an infectious agent normally resides
leaves its host or a reservoir through a portal of exit. and multiplies.
 A susceptible organism acquires the infection through a  Provide favorable condition for organisms to survive,
given mode of transmission, entering the body of the multiply and opportunity for transmission
susceptible host through a portal of entry.
 Once inside the body, the organism starts to multiply  Example: human, animals, water
and produce disease.
 Zoonotic Infection - infectious disease transmitted  Directly transmitted from one individual to another
from an animal to human. – respiratory pathogens and STI
 Ex. Anthrax, plague and rabies  Carriers - are individuals who are not aware that they
are transmitting the infectious agent which makes them
public health hazards.
 Asymptomatic or Healthy Carriers- infected but do not
manifest symptoms. (no signs and symptoms of disease)
 Incubatory Carriers- transmit the causative agent during the
incubation period of illness. (the start of the spreading of  Water, soil and plants can harbor infectious organisms
disease throughout the body of the reservoir)
- fungus Histoplasma capsulatum is associated with soil
 Chronic Carriers- harbor the organism for months or longer
after the patient developed the initial infection. - a protozoan parasite that causes amebiasis, Entamoeba
 Convalescent Carriers- individuals who developed the histolytica – water
disease, recovered but remain capable of transmitting the - Fasciola hepatica causes liver damage – aquatic
causative agent. (recovered but can be cause of transmitting
diseases) vegetation (watercress and “kangkong”)
 is the route by which an infectious agent exits its host.

 Usually the site where the infectious agent is can be broadly categorized as direct or indirect
commonly located or localized contact.
 Example: bloodfluke Schistosoma haematobium
infects urinary bladder exits the host via urine How germs get around
 Agents causing Respiratory tract infection leave the Example: contact with hands,toys
host via droplet Droplets by sneezing, coughing
 STI exit via vaginal or urethral secretions
 Methods of direct contact  Airborne transmission- infectious agents may be transferred

from an infected person to a susceptible host through dust and
- Person-to-person contact- transmission through aerosols.
skin-to-skin contact, kissing, or sexual - Aerosols- are droplets with nuclei less than 5 microns in
transmission. size. Due to their small size, they remain suspended in air
- Droplet spread- transmit the causative agents for a longer time and may cover farther distance than droplets.
during coughing and sneezing. Considered direct  Vehicle transmission- transmission of organisms through media
contact because the droplets are sprayed over a such as food, water, milk etc.
few feet before they fall to the ground.
 Vector transmission- are usually insects that can
transmit an infectious agent.
 Two general methods of vector transmission  how the infectious agent enters a susceptible host. It
- Mechanical transmission- passive transport of the provides access to tissues where the infectious agent can
organism on the insect’s feet or other body parts. multiply.
- Biological transmission- active transport of the  More commonly, the portal of exit of an infectious agent is
also the portal of entry into another host
organism. the organism enters the insect vector after
the insect vector bites an infected person. The  Example: nose (respiratory tract)
organism then multiplies within the insect vector and mouth-feces

is transmitted by the insect vector to another person leave thru urine- enter thru skin (bloodfluke)
through bites. Hepa B and HIV – blood and blood products
 the final link in the chain of infection. The host’s

susceptibility is affected by several factors such as  Immune status of the host is probably the most
constitutional or genetic factors and immune status of important factor that can affect development of a
the host. disease process.
 Susceptibility to infection is influenced by specific  Besides having natural barriers that prevent entry of
genetic make-up potential pathogenic organisms, humans also are equipped
 Example: patients with sickle cell anemia are less with highly functional immune system to fight and destroy
any invading pathogen
prone to develop malaria
 Organisms can produce disease by directly damaging

tissues or body surface.
 Invasiveness encompasses three important steps-
colonization, ability to evade host immune defenses, and
production of extracellular substances that can promote
invasion.
 Colonization involves the ability of the invading organism
to enter the susceptible host and establish itself in the
portal of entry. This can be facilitated by substances
produced by the organism that facilitate adhesion of the
organism to specific target cells. These substances are
called adhesins

 Toxins are poisonous substances and are often the primary factors that
 Once the organism enters the body, the immune system of contribute to disease production.
the host immediately mounts an immune response that will Two major type of toxins
lead to the destruction of the invading pathogen.
1. Endotoxins- are integral components of the outer membrane of gram-
 Finally, some microorganisms produce substances or have negative bacteria. The specific component responsible for the endotoxin
developed mechanisms that can promote invasion. activity of these bacteria is the lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which is further
composed of a lipid A moiety and a polysaccharide moiety. All endotoxins
produce similar signs and symptoms, although not the same degree.
- are bacterial toxins consisting of lipids that are located within a cell.
2. Exotoxin
- are intracellular products of some bacteria as part of their  Cytotoxins which kill host cells or affect their
growth and metabolism and are released into the
surrounding medium. These are mainly proteins and many function
of them are enzymes. Exotoxins are soluble in body fluids
and are thus easily diffused into blood and rapidly Neurotoxins which interfere with normal nerve
transported throughout the body. impulse transmission
- disease-specific.
Enterotoxins which affect the cells lining the
- are toxic substances secreted by bacteria and released
outside the cell. gastrointestinal tract
Property Exotoxin Endotoxin

Enzymatic activity Yes No
Property Exotoxin Endotoxin
Heat stability Heat-labile (except staphylococcal Heat stable
Bacterial source Mostly gram-positive; Gram negative bacteria only
enterotoxin)
Some gram negative bacteria
Fever production No Yes
Relation to Metabolic product of growing Present in LPS of outer
microorganisms cell;secreted outside the cell membrane of cell wall;
Specificity High degree Low degree
Released after lysis of cell wall
Toxicity Extremely toxic; sometimes fatal Weakly toxic Relation to antibodies Can be converted to toxoids; Cannot be converted to
neutralize by anti-toxins toxoids; not neutralized by anti-
Chemistry Protein or short peptides Lipid A of LPS of outer toxins
membrane Denaturation on boiling Yes No
Pharmacology Specific for a paticular cell structure or General such as fever, malaise,
Location of genes Present on plasmids or Bacterial chromosome
Effect on the body function in the host (mainly affect cell and shock; all produce the same
bacteriophages
functions, nerves and GIT) effect
Representative diseases Gas gangrene, botulism, diphteria, Typhoid fever, UTI,
tetanus, scarlet fever meningococcal meningitis and
Antigenecity Extremely antigenic Less antigenic
meningococcemia
 some organisms produce disease not as a
consequence of mechanical invasion or toxin CLASSIFICATION
production but as a consequence of the immune
response of the host to the microorganism or its OF INFECTIOUS
product. DISEASE
 Ex. In hepa virus, the damage to the liver is not a
direct effect of the virus but of the response of the
immune system to the virus. Production of antibodies
and cytotoxic T cells lead to the destruction of
hepatocytes
BASED ON HOW THEY BEHAVE WITHIN A HOST AND WITHIN A

BASED ON HOW THEY BEHAVE WITHIN A HOST AND GIVEN POPULATION:
WITHIN A GIVEN POPULATION:
 communicable disease - a disease  fulminant infection - if the infection
that is spread from one host to results in the death of the patient over a
another, either directly or indirectly. short period of time.
(ex.measles, tuberculosis, and typhoid fever) (ex. meningococcemia, where a patient may die hours after
confinement in the hospital.)
 contagious disease - the disease is
easily and rapidly spread from one  non-communicable disease - is one that
person to another. is not spread from one person to another.
(ex. measles and chickenpox) (ex. Clostridium tetani)
BASED ON THE SOURCE OF THE MICROORGANISM: BASED ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A DISEASE:
 exogenous - if the source of the infectious  Sporadic Disease - a disease that

agent is from outside the body occurs occasionally.
(ex. cholera infection, because the causative agent enters the  Endemic disease - if the disease is
body through ingestion of contaminated water. And also, hospital- constantly present in a population at
acquired infections or nosocomial infection.)
low levels.
 endogenous - is one where the source of
epidemic - if a great number of people in a given
the causative organism is from inside the locality develop an infectious disease in a
body. relatively short period of time.
(ex. Escherichia coli can lead to UTI and might lead to sepsis in pandemic - if a disease has a worldwide
immunocompromised patients) occurrence or involves at least three regions in the
world.
BASED ON THE SEVERITY OR DURATION OF A DISEASE: BASED ON THE EXTENT OF HOST INVOLVEMENT:
 localized infections - is one in which the
 Acute disease - is one that develops invading organisms are limited to a relatively
rapidly but lasts for only a short period of small area of the body.
time.
(ex. common cold )  systemic or generalized infection - is one
 Chronic disease – if the disease develops where the causative organisms or their products
more slowly and occurs for long periods of are spread throughout the body through blood or
lymph.
time.
(ex. tuberculosis)
 focal infection - spread to specific parts of the
 Latent disease - is one in which the body and become confined to specific areas.
causative organism remains inactive but
can become active again and produce
symptoms of the disease.
(ex. chickenpox and dengue)
BASED ON THE EXTENT OF HOST INVOLVEMENT:
 primary infection - is an acute

infection that causes the initial illness.
 secondary infection - which is
caused by opportunistic pathogens
after the primary infection has
weakened the body's defenses.
 subclinical or inapparent infection
- is one that does not cause
noticeable illness.
STAGES OF AN INFECTIOUS DISEASE:
 The time interval between entry of the offending agent and the
appearance of the initial signs and symptoms of the disease
 This period is variable usually stated in a form of a range (e.g.
6-12 days)
 The length of the this period can be affected by: virulence of
organisms, resistance of the host and number of infecting
microorganisms
Relatively short period, characterized by early, mild  Corresponds to period of maximal invasion
symptoms of disease which are generally non-specific  It is during this period that the disease is most acute
Ex. In measles infection, prodromal period is  The patient manifests signs and symptoms distinctive
characterized by fever, cough, colds, general aches and of the disease
malaise – symptoms which can be seen with other
 As a rule, most bacterial infection will usually show
disease
increased neutrophil count while most viral infections
will have a high lymphocyte count
 Several outcomes may arise during this period:  Corresponds to what is known as period of
- body’s disease mechanisms successfully destroy invading defervescence
microorganisms  The signs and symptoms of the patient start to
- if unsuccessful, patient may develop severe disease that can
subside
lead to fulminant infection  Body temperature may return to normal and the
feeling of weakness may deminish
- from acute form to chronic
 Patient becomes vulnerable to secondary infection
- infection can progress to carrier state where the patient is
asymptomatic
 Period that is marked by recovery of the

patient from the disease
 The patient regains strength and the body
THANK YOU!
returns to its pre-diseased normal condition

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Microbiology

• Microbiology is the study of microbes, which are

Acellular and Cellular

Bacteria Cyanobacteria Archeans

What is Microbiology? Categories of Diseases

Field of Study under Why Study

Microbes and Why Study

First Microorganisms Trivia

• Contains more than 1

Component Function Component Function

• Magnify an object~1000-1,500x • Utilizes reflected light rather than

• Has contrast enhancing

Differential Interference Contrast Fluorescence Microscope

• Uses optical imaging technique • Utilizes a beam of electrons to create an image

Used to study the molecular and atomic

Different types of Staining Simple Stains

Simple Bacterial Staining Technique

• Used to differentiate 1 group of bacteria from

Gram-staining and expected

Gram’s iodine Mordant* Purple or blue Purple or blue

Acetone/95% Decolorizer Purple or blue Colorless

Safranin Counterstain/ Purple or blue Red or pink

*a mordant enhances the uptake of the primary stain

Various Gram-Positive Bacteria Various Gram-Positive Bacteria

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Chains of streptococci in A bacillus, Clostridium Clostridium tetani in a smear

Many Gram-positive bacteria Gram-negative bacilli in a Loosely coiled Gram-negative

Acid-fast stain Acid-fast stain cont.

Acid fast staining and expected

Acid alcohol Acid alcohol Decolorizer Red Colorless

Special Stains • Hiss stain (capsule or slime layer)

According to Physical State According to Physical State cont.

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

According to Chemical composition

According to Chemical composition cont. According to Functional Type

Enrichment Media cont..

Blood Agar cont.. Blood Agar cont..

According to Functional Type cont. Example of Selective Media

Example of Selective Media

According to Functional Type cont.

Cells • Most are microscopic

Discovery of Cells Cell theory

• Robert Hooke (mid-1600s) • (1839)Theodor Schwann & Matthias Schleiden

Source: www.chipola.edu/instruct/science/Tidwell/bscppt/alters1e...ppt/alters1e_ppt_ch05.p 3 Source: www.chipola.edu/instruct/science/Tidwell/bscppt/alters1e...ppt/alters1e_ppt_ch05.p 4

Principles of Cell Theory What is the size of a cell?

• All living things are made of cells

• Smallest living unit of structure and function of all organisms

• All cells arise from preexisting cells

Source: www.chipola.edu/instruct/science/Tidwell/bscppt/alters1e...ppt/alters1e_ppt_ch05.p 7 Source: www.chipola.edu/instruct/science/Tidwell/bscppt/alters1e...ppt/alters1e_ppt_ch05.p 8

What are the two types of cell? Prokaryotic Cells

1. Prokaryotic • First cell type on

Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

• No membrane bound nucleus • Nucleus bound by membrane

Source: www.chipola.edu/instruct/science/Tidwell/bscppt/alters1e...ppt/alters1e_ppt_ch05.p 11 Source: www.chipola.edu/instruct/science/Tidwell/bscppt/alters1e...ppt/alters1e_ppt_ch05.p 12

Source: https://basicbiology.net/micro/cells/animal-cells Source: https://www.123rf.com/photo_80713899_education-chart-of-biology-for-plant-cell-

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Centrioles and Spindle Fibers Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli

Envelope Structures Cytoplasmic Membrane

Internal Structures Internal Structures

Comparison Between Prokaryotic and

Comparison Between Prokaryotic and

Feature Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

Viruses are classified by: