Anatomy and Physiology

Module 1 – The Human Organism

Anatomy – study of the structure of the body.
 Systematic anatomy – study of the body by region.
 Regional anatomy – study of the body by area.
 Surface anatomy- uses superficial structures to locate deeper structures.
Physiology – study of the processes and functions of the body
Six Levels of Organization
1. Chemical Level – atoms combine to form molecules
2. Cell Level – molecules form organelles
3. Tissue Level – similar cells and surrounding materials make up tissues
4. Organ Level – different tissues combine to form organs
5. Organ system Level – organ make up an organ system
6. Organism Level – organ systems make up an organism
Characteristics of Life
1. Organization -all parts of organism interact to perform specific functions.
2. Metabolism - chemical and physical changes in an organism.
3. Responsiveness – adjustments that maintain their internal environment.
4. Growth - increase of size of all or part of an organism.
5. Development - changes an organism undergoes through time.
6. Reproduction – formation of new cells or new organisms.
Homeostasis - Existence and maintenance of relatively constant internal environment.
- Set poimt – is the ideal normal value
- Normal range – fluctuation around the set point
- maintained by negative and positive feedback mechanism
 Negative Feedback - turns off the original stimulus.
- Reverses the change
- Moves closer to the set point
 Positive Feedback - enhances and up-regulates the initial stimulus.
- usually harmful
- encourages/promotes the change
- moves away from the set point
Terminology and Body Planes
Body Positions
 Anatomical Position – human standing erect, face forward, arms hanging to the side, and palms forward.
 Supine – person laying face up (kaya)
 Prone – person laying face down (hapa/kulob)
Directional Terms – always refers to atonomical position
 Superior – up  Lateral – away from midline
 Inferior – down  Medial – towards the midline
 Anterior/ Ventral – front  Superficial – toward/ on the surface
 Posterior/ Dorsal – back  Deep – away from surface
 Proximal – closer/ nearest
 Dorsal – further/ distant
Body planes
 Sagittal plane – divides into left and right part (vertical & front)
 Transverse plane – divides into superior and inferior (horizontal)
 Frontal (coronal) plane – divides into anterior and posterior (vertical & side to side)
Organ Planes
 Longitudinal section – along long axis
 Cross (transverse) section – right angle to the long axis
 Oblique section – across long axis at an angle other than right angle (diagonal)
Body Cavities
 Thoracic Cavity – bounded by ribs and diaphragm
o Mediastinum - houses the heart, thymus, trachea, esophagus, and other structures
- between two lungs
- on each side of the thoracic cavity
Serous Membranes – line the trunk cavities and cover the organs of these cavities.
 Parietal membrane – lines the wall of the cavity.
 Visceral membrane – contact with the internal organs.
 Serous fluid – secreted by serous membrane and protects organs against friction
3 serous membrane-lined cavities
 Pericardial cavity – surrounds the heart
 Pleural cavities – surrounds the lungs
 Peritoneal cavity – surrounds certain abdominal and pelvic organs
o Mesenteries hold the abdominal organs and provides passageway for blood vessel and nerves
to organs
o Retroperitoneal organs are located “behind” the parietal peritoneum.
 Module 2 – The Chemical Basis of Life
Matter - “stuff” of the universe
- anything that has mass and takes up space
States of Matter:
 Solid- definite shape and volume
 Liquid- definite volume, changeable shape
 Gas- has changeable shape and volume
Composition of Matter:
 Elements- unique substances that cannot be broken by ordinary chemical means.
 Properties of elements – each element has unique physical and chemical properties
o Physical properties- detected with our senses
o Chemical properties- pertain to the way atoms interact with one another.
 Major Elements of the Human Body
o About 96% of body weight from: CHON
o 3.9% of body: P, S, Mg, K, Na, I, Ca, Cl, Fe
o <0.01% of the body: required in minute amounts & found as part of enzymes
 Identification of Elements
o Atomic number – equal to number of protons
o Mass number - equal to the mass of the proton and neutron
o Atomic weight - average mass numbers of all isotopes
o Isotope – atoms with same number of protons but different number of neutrons
 Atoms- building blocks for each element
 Atomic structurre - the nucleus consists of neutrons and protons
o Neutrons no charge
o Protons positive charge
o Electrons are found orbiting the nucleus and negative charge
 Atomic symbol- one or two letter chemical shorthand for elements.
Chemical bond
 Electron shells (energy levels) surrounds the nucleus of an atom
 Valence shell – outermost energy level
 Octet rule – atoms interact to have eight electrons except for first shell (has 2 electrons)
 Types of Chemical Bonds
o Ionic Bond - formed when one atom loses an electron and another accepts
- transfer of electrons
 Ions- charged atom from gain/loss of electrons
 Anions- negatively charged ions
 Cations- positively charged ions
 Ionic compounds forms crystals
o Covalent Bonds – sharing of electrons which produces
 Single covalent bond – pair of electrons
 Double covalent bond – 2 pairs of electrons
- Nonpolar molecule = electrons shared equally
 - Polar molecule = electrons shared unequally
o Hydrogen Bonds - responsible for surface tension in water and common in dipoles like water
- too weak to bind atoms together but important as intermolecular bonds
Molecules and Compounds
Molecule – atoms held together by chemical bonds
Compound – different kind of atoms chemically combined
Covalent compound – a molecule
Ionic Compound – organized array of ions
Dissociation – Seperation of ions in an ionic compound
 Electrocytes-dissociated ions
 Nonelectrocytes – molecules that do not dissociate in water
Reactions:
1. Chemical Reaction – Chemical bonds are formed, rearranged, and broken
o Reactants – substances that enter a chem reaction
o Products – result from chem reaction
2. Synthesis Reaction – combination of reactants to form new larger product
o Dehydration reaction – a synthesis reaction, water is product
3. Decomposition Reaction – breakdown of larger reactants to smaller products
o Hydrolysis reaction- decomposition reaction that uses water
4. Reversable reaction – chemical reactions are reversible
o Chemical equilibrium = neither forward nor reversed reaction is dominant
Energy - capacity to do work
- neither created nor destroyed
- Types: Potential – stored/inactive energy & Kinetic – energy that does work
- Forms:
1. Mechanical – moving matter
2. Chemical – chemical substance
3. Electrical – result from movement of charged particles
4. Radiant/electromagnetic – travels in waves
Adenosine Triphosphate - Stores and provides energy
- Source of immediately usable energy for the cell
Factors Influencing Rate of Chemical Reactions
• Concentration: higher reacting particle concentrations produce faster reactions
• Temperature: chemical reactions proceed quicker at higher temperatures
• Catalysts: increase the rate of a reaction without being chemically changed – Enzymes are biological catalysts
• Particle size: the smaller the particle the faster the chemical reaction
Acids release hydrogen ions (H+ ) and are therefore proton donors
Bases release hydroxide ions (OH–) and are proton acceptors
Acid-Base concentration is measured using a pH scale
pH Scale - Ranges from 0 to 14
- Indicates the H+ concentration of a solution
o Neutral solutions have an equal number of H+ and OH– and a pH of 7.0
o Acidic solutions have more H+ than OH– and a pH of less than 7.0
o Basic (alkaline) solutions have fewer H+ than OH– and a pH greater than 7.0
Salts - formed by the reaction of an acid and a base
Buffers - chemicals that resist changes in pH when acids or bases are added

Biochemistry
 Inorganic chemistry – Mostly concerned with non-carbon-containing substances
o Inorganic Compounds
1. Oxygen (O2 ) - involved with the extraction of energy from food molecules to make ATP
2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ) - a by-product of the breakdown of food molecules
3. Water (H2O) - has many important properties for living organisms and is essential for life
Properties of Water
a. Stabilizes body temperature – The high heat capacity of water allows it to absorb and
release large amounts of heat before changing temperature
b. Protection – acts as a lubricant or cushion
c. Chemical reactions – Reacting molecules are dissolved in
d. Transport –serves as the body’s major transport medium
 Organic chemistry – Substances contain carbon, are covalently bonded, and are often large
o Organic Compounds - Molecules unique to living systems
1. Carbohydrates - Ratio of 1:2:1 (C:H:O)
- supply a source of cellular food
a) Monosaccharides – glucose and fructose
b) Disaccharides – sucrose and lactose
c) Polysaccharides – starch and glycogen
2. Lipids - Dissolve in nonpolar solvents
 Fats: found in subcutaneous tissue and around organs
 Phospholipids: chief component of cell membranes
 Steroids: cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, sex hormones, and adrenal cortical hormones
 Eicosanoids: prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes
 Fat-soluble vitamins: vitamins A, D, E, and K
 Lipoproteins: transport fatty acids and cholesterol in the bloodstream
3. Proteins – Macromolecules (C, H, O, N, and some S)
- regulate chemical reactions (enzymes- speed up chemical reactions)
- provide the framework for many of the tissues & responsible for muscle contraction
- Composed of 20 basic types of amino acids
 Dipeptide, Tripeptide & Polypeptide
Amino Acids (AA) - Building blocks of proteins and organic acids.
Denaturation – Disruption of hydrogen bonds, and makes proteins nonfunctional
Structural Levels of Proteins:
 Primary - determined by the number, kind, and arrangement of amino acids.
 Secondary- results from folding or bending of the polypeptide chain.
 Tertiary- results from the folding of the helices.
 Quaternary: spatial relationships between proteins to form a functional unit
4. Nucleic Acids- Composed of C, O, H, N, and P
- The basic unit of nucleic acids is the nucleotide,
Two major classes:
DNA - Double-stranded helical molecule with genetic material of the cell
 - Contains monosaccharide deoxyribose & adenine, THYMINE, guanine, cytosine
RNA - Single-stranded molecule and uses URACIL
- Three varieties of RNA: messenger RNA , transfer RNA , ribosomal RNA

Module 3- Cell Structures and Their Functions

Cell Organization
Cell - the basic structural and functional unit of life
 Plasma membrane - forms the outer boundary of the cell
- a selective barrier that regulates what goes into and out of the cell
Ions and molecules move across plasma membranes :
1. Diffusion - movement of a solute from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration
o Solution - any mixture of liquids, gases, or solids & substances are uniformly distributed
o Solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution
o Concentration gradient - the concentration difference between two points divided by the
distance between those two points
2. Osmosis - diffusion of a solvent (water) across a selectively permeable membrane.
o Osmotic pressure- force required to prevent the water across membrane
o Isosmotic solutions -concentration of solute particles = reference solution
o Hyperosmotic solutions - concentration of solute particles > reference solution
o Hyposmotic solutions - concentration of solute particles < reference solution
3. Mediated transport - transport proteins mediate, assist in, the movement of ions & molecules.
Types of transport proteins:
1. Channel proteins - form membrane channels
2. Carrier proteins- bind to ions or molecules and transport them uniport (down
It’s concentration gradient), symport (same direction), and
antiport (opposite direction
3. ATP-powered pumps - move ions or molecules against their concentration w
gradient using the energy from ATP
 Secondary active transport - uses energy of one substance moving down
to move another substance across the plasma membrane
4. Vesicular transport - transport of large particles and macromolecules across plasma membranes
o Endocytosis- movement of materials into cells by the formation of a vesicle
 Phagocytosis- movement of solid material into cells
 Pinocytosis- uptake of small droplets of liquids and the materials in them
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis- plasma membrane receptors attaching to
molecules that are then taken into the cell
o Exocytosis- the secretion of materials from cells by vesicle formation
 Cellular organelles- each performs specific functions
 Cytoplasm- the material between the plasma membrane and nucleus
o Half cytosol - consists of a fluid part, the cytoskeleton, and cytoplasmic inclusions
 Microtubules – provide support, aid cell division, and are components of organelles
 Actin filaments – support the plasma membrane and define the shape of the cell
 Intermediate filaments – provide mechanical support to teh cell
 o Half organelles
- Cytoplasmic Inclusions = aggregates of chemicals produced by the cell taken in by the cell
- Cytoplasmic Organelles = specialized subcellular structures with specific functions
 Nucleus- contains the cell’s genetic material and directs cell activities
o Nuclear envelope consists of two separate membranes with nuclear pores.
o DNA and associated proteins are found inside the nucleus
 Chromatin- between cell divisions DNA
 During cell division chromatin condenses to form chromosomes consisting of two chromatids
connected by a centromere
o Nucleoli- dark-staining spherical bodies within the nucleus and consist of RNA & proteins.
o Ribosomes- sites of protein synthesis

Cell Functions:
1. Metabolize and release energy
 release of energy in the form of heat helps maintain body temperature
2. Synthesize molecules
 cells differ from each other
3. Provide a means of communication
• achieved by chemical and electrical signaling
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
• mitosis
• meiosis
Fluid Mosaic Model
• Lipid bilayer – double layer of lipids with imbedded, dispersed proteins
• Bilayer consists mainly of phospholipids and cholesterol (20%)
• Phospholipids have hydrophobic (nonpolar tails) and hydrophilic (polar heads) bipoles.
Membrane Proteins
- Marker molecules , attachment proteins (cadherins and integrins) , transport proteins, receptor proteins, and
enzymes
- Protein molecules “float” among the phospholipid molecules
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - Series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that extends into the cytoplasm
 Rough ER (RER)
o Studded with ribosomes
o Major site of protein synthesis
 Smooth ER (SER)
o Does not have ribosomes attached
o Major site of lipid and carbohydrate synthesis
Golgi Apparatus - membranous sacs that collect, package, and distribute proteins and lipids produced by the ER.
Secretory vesicles- transport material from the golgi apparatus to the exterior of the cell.
Lysosomes - Spherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes
Peroxisomes - Membranous sacs containing oxidases and catalases.
- Neutralize dangerous free radicals (highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons)
Mitochondria - major sites of the production of ATP.
- Have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane that is infolded to produce cristae.
 - Contain their own DNA, can produce some of their own proteins, and can replicate of the cell.

Centrioles - cylindrical organelles located in the centrosome.

Centrosome - a specialized zone of the cytoplasm.
Spindle fibers – microtubules that extend out in all directions from the centrosome.
Cilia - move substances over the surface of cells .
Flagella - are much longer than cilia and propel sperm cells .
Microvilli - increase the surface area of cell and aid in absorption and secretion.
Genes - are segments of DNA carrying instructions for a polypeptide chain .
Triplets of nucleotide bases - form the genetic library.

Protein Synthesis - Two step process

- Transcription - cell makes a copy of the gene necessary to make a particular protein: messenger RNA (mRNA).
- Translation - requires both mRNA and transfer RNA (tRNA)
Transcription - synthesis of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA based on the nucleotide sequence in DNA.
- an enzyme that oversees the synthesis of RNA
 Messenger RNA (mRNA) – carries the genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm
 Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) – bound to amino acids base pair with the codons of mRNA at the ribosome to begin the
process of protein synthesis
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – a structural component of ribosomes.
Translation - synthesis of proteins in response to the codons of mRNA.
 Codon - a set of 3 nucleotides that codes for 1 amino acid during translation.
 Anticodon - part of tRNA and consists of three nucleotides and is complementary to a particular codon of mRNA.
Cell Division
 Mitosis - produces new cells for growth and tissue repair
 Meiosis - produces gametes (sex cells)
Chromosomes - Somatic cells have a diploid number of chromosomes
1. Interphase is the time between cell divisions. DNA replication occurs during interphase. Organelles, other than
the nucleus.
2. Prophase, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes. The centrioles move to the opposite ends of the cell, and
the nucleolus and the nuclear envelope disappear.
3. Metaphase, the chromosomes align in the center of the cell in association with the spindle fibers. Some spindle
fibers are attached to kinetochores in the centromere of each chromosome
4. Anaphase, the chromatids separate, and each chromatid is then referred to as a chromosome. The chromosomes,
assisted by the spindle fibers, move toward the centrioles at each end of the cell. , by the time anaphase has ended,
the chromosomes have reached the poles
5. Telophase, migration of each set of chromosomes is complete. The chromosomes unravel to become less distinct
chromatin threads. The nuclear envelope forms from the endoplasmic reticulum. The nucleoli form, and
cytokinesis continues to form two cells
6. Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase begins. The chromosomes have unraveled to become chromatin.
Differentiation - process by which cells develop specialized structures and functions.
 Module 4- Tissues, Glands, and Membranes
Tissues - collections of similar cells and the extracellular matrix surrounding them
Histology - the study of tissues
The four primary tissue types are :
1. Epithelial tissue - Covers surfaces and has no blood vessels.
o Epethelial cells:
 apical surface (not attached to other cells)
 lateral surface (attached to other cells)
 basal surface (attached to the basement membrane)
o Epithelial Tissue Functions
a) Protecting underlying structures
b) Acting as barriers
c) Permitting the passage of substances
d) Secreting substances
e) Absorbing substances
o Epithelial Tissue Classification:
 Cell layers
 Simple epithelium has one layer of cells.
 Stratified epithelium has more than one cell layer.
 Pseudostratified epithelium has one layer, but appears to have two or more layers.
 Transitional epithelium is stratified epithelium that can be greatly stretched.
 Cell shape
 Squamous are flat and thin
 Cuboidal are cubelike
 Columnar are tall and thin
o Types of Epithelium
 Simple squamous -diffusion, filtration, some secretion and some protection against friction.
 Simple cuboidal - active transport & facilitated diffusion result in secretion & absorption of cells
 Simple columnar - movement of particles out of the bronchioles of lungs by ciliated cells.
 Pseudostratified- synthesize and secrete mucus onto the free surface and move mucus.
 Stratified Squamous - protection against abrasion, barrier against infection.
 Stratified cuboidal - secretion, absorption, protection against friction.
 Transitional - accommodates fluctuations in the volume of fluid in organs or tubes.
o Structural and Functional Relationships
 Free Cell Surfaces
 A smooth, free surface reduces friction
 Microvilli are cylindrical extensions of the cell membrane that increase surface area (cells
involved in absorption of secretion)
 Cilia propel materials over the cell
 o Cell connections
 Tight junctions bind adjacent cells together and form a permeability barrier
 Desmosomes mechanically bind cells together
 Hemidesmosomes mechanically bind cells to the basement membrane
 Gap junctions allow intercellular communication
o Epithelial Tissue Glands - A gland is a single cell or a multicellular structure that secretes
o Endocrine glands do not have ducts while Exocrine glands have
 Structure of Exocrine Glands
 Simple: have one duct
 Compound: have ducts that branch repeatedly
 Tubules: ducts end in small tubes
 Acini: ducts end in saclike structures
 Alveoli: ducts end in hollow sacs
 Secretion Types
 Merocrine – no loss of cellular material (Ex. sweat glands)
 Apocrine – part of the cell pinches off (Ex. mammary glands)
 Holocrine – entire cell is shed (Ex. sebaceous glands)
2. Connective tissue - Consist of cells seperated from each other by abundant extracellular matrix.
o Functions:
 Enclosing and separating
 Connecting tissues to one another
 Supporting and moving
 Storing
 Cushioning and insulating
 Transporting
 Protecting
o End in suffixes that identify the cell functions
 Blast (germ) cells form the matrix
 Cyte (cell) cells maintain it
 Clast (break) cells break it down
o Extracellular matrix contains
 Protein fibers
 Ground substance
 Fluid
o Connective Tissue Classification
 Loose, or areolar, connective tissue is the “loose packing” material of the body
 Adipose tissue (fat)
 Dense connective tissue
 Cartilage provides suppor
 Bone has a mineralized matrix
 Blood has a liquid matrix
o Mesenchyme – embryonic connective tissue that gives rise to six major categories of connective tissue.
3. Muscle tissue - specialized to contract, or shorten, making movement possible.
- called muscle fibers because they often resemble tiny threads
o Three types of muscle tissue
  Skeletal - 40% of a person’s body weight and attaches to the skeleton & allows movement
- Voluntary, multinucleated, and striated (banded)
 Cardiac - Muscle of the heart and connected to one another by intercalated disks
- Involuntary, striated, and usually have one nucleus per cell
 Smooth - Forms the walls of hollow organs, found in the skin and the eyes
- Involuntary, not striated, and have a single nucleus
4. Nervous tissue - specialized to conduct action potentials (electrical signals)
o Neurons conduct action potentials
o Neuroglia support the neurons
o Membranes:
 Mucous membranes line cavities that open to the outside of the body
 Serous membranes line trunk cavities that do not open to the outside of the body
 Synovial membranes line freely movable joints
Embryonic Tissue - primary tissue types are derived from the embryonic germ layers.
 Endoderm -forms the lining of the digestive tract and its derivatives
 Mesoderm - forms tissues such as muscle, bone, and blood vessels
 Ectoderm - forms the outermost layer of skin and the nervous system
Inflammation - Function of the inflammatory response is to isolate and destroy harmful agents
Five symptoms:
 Redness
 Heat
 Swelling
 Pain
 Disturbance of function
Tissue Repair - the substitution of viable cells for dead cells
 Labile cells divide throughout life and can undergo regeneration
 Stable cells do not ordinarily divide but can regenerate if necessary
 Permanent cells have little or no ability to divide
- Tissue repair involves
 Clot formation
 Inflammation
 Formation of granulation tissue
 Regeneration or replacement of tissues
Tissues and Aging
o Cells divide more slowly as people age
o Injuries heal more slowly
 Module 5- Integumentary System
Integumentary System – covers the outside of the body
 Consists of:
1) Skin - SA – 1.2-2.2 m2 and weighs 4-5 kg (9-11 lbs)
- consists 3 major regions:
 Epidermis – outermost region (superficial)
- Composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, consisting of four distinct
cell types and four or five layers
o Cells of the Epidermis:
 Keratinocytes – Most abundant cell type
 Melanocytes – Produce the brown pigment melanin and found in the deepest
layers of the epidermis
 Langerhans’ cells – Epidermal macrophages and help activate the immune
system
 Merkel cells – Touch receptors in association with sensory nerve endings
o Layers of the Epidermis
 Stratum Basale (Basal Layer) - Deepest epidermal layer firmly attached to
dermis & consists of youngest keratiocytes
 Stratum Spinosum - Melanin granules & Langerhans are abundant here
 Stratum Granulosum - Drastic changes in keratinocyte appearance occurs
 Stratum Lucidum - Thin, transparent band superficial to the Stratum
Granulosum and present only in thick skin.
 Stratum Corneum - Outermost layer of keratinized cells
 Functions include:
o Waterproofing
o Protection from abrasion and penetration
o Rendering the body relatively insensitive to
biological, chemical, and physical assaults
o Thick and Thin Skin
 Thick skin has all five epithelial strata
 Thin skin contains fewer cell layers per stratum
– Stratum lucidum is usually absent
– Hair is found only in thin skin
o Skin Color
 Melanocytes produce melanin inside melanosomes and then transfer the
melanin to keratinocytes
 The size and distribution of melanosomes determine skin color
 Dermis - Second major skin region containing strong, flexible connective tissue
o Composed of two layers:
  Papillary - Areolar connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers.
- Contains blood vessels that supply the overlying epidermis.
 Reticular - Dense irregular connective tissue
- Accounts for approximately 80% of the thickness of the skin
- Striae (stretch marks) are caused when skin is overstretched,
the dermis ruptures and leaves visible lines
 Subcutaneous tissue
 Deep to the skin
 Composed of adipose and areolar connective tissue
 Not really part of the skin
 Stores fat and connects the skin to the underlying structures (mainly muscles)
2) Accessory Skin Structures
a. Hair – Lanugo (fetal hair) is replaced near the time of birth by terminal hairs (scalp, eyelids, and
eyebrows) and vellus hairs
- Hairs are columns of dead, keratinized epithelial cells
b. Glands
 Sebaceous Glands - Simple or compound alveolar glands found all over the body except
on the palms and soles
- Acne is an active inflammation of the sebaceous glands.
 Sweat Glands - Different types prevent overheating of the body
o Merocrine sweat glands - produce sweat, which cools the bod
o Apocrine sweat glands - in axillary & genital areas and produces organic
secretion to cause body odor.
o Mammary glands - specialized sweat glands that secrete milk
 Nails - The nail is Stratum Corneum containing hard keratin
 Integumentary System Functions
 Protection
 Skin
o Protects against abrasion and UV light
o Prevents the entry of microorganisms
o Helps regulate body temperature
o Prevents water loss
 Hair
o Protects against abrasion and UV light
o Acts as a heat insulator
 Nails protect the ends of the digits
 Sensation
 Skin contains sensory receptors for heat, cold, touch, pressure, pain
 Temperature Regulation
 Skin
o Controls heat loss from the body by dilation and constriction of blood
 Sweat glands •
o Produce sweat, which evaporates and lowers body temperature
 Vitamin D Production
  UV light stimulates the production of a precursor molecule in the skin that is modified by
the liver and kidneys into vitamin D
 Vitamin D increases calcium uptake in the intestines
 Excretion
 Skin glands remove small amounts of waste products but are not important in excretion

Temperature Regulation - normal body temperature is 37︒C

- regulation of body temperature is important because the rate of chemical reactions within the
body can be increased or decreased by changes in body temperature.
Heat Exchange in the Skin:
Blood transfers heat from deeper tissues to the surface of the skin, where the heat is lost. Alteration of blood vessel
diameter, and therefore blood flow, allows for regulation of heat loss at the skin.

Integumentary System as a diagnosic Aid

Useful in diagnosis = reflects events occuring in the other parts of the body
Examples:
1. Cyanosis - bluish color to the skin caused by decreased of blood O2 content =indication of
impaired circulatory or respiratory function.
2. Jaundice - yellowish skin color=liver damaged by a disease like hepatitis
3. Rashes and Lesions - symptoms of problems elsewhere in the body
4. Condition of skin, hair and nails=affected by nutritional status
Burns - injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold, friction, chemicals, electricity, or radiation.
 Partial-thickness burns - part of the stratum basale remains viable, and regeneration occurs
 First-degree: only the epidermis is damaged
 Second-degree: epidermis and upper regions of dermis are damaged
 Full-thickness burns
 Third-degree: entire thickness of the skin is damaged
Rule of Nines :
 Estimates the severity of burns
 Divides body into areas that are - 9%, or multiples of 9%, of the total body area.

Skin Cancer - most common type of cancer

- 3 main types:
 Basal Cell Carcinoma - Least malignant and most common skin cancer
- Can be cured by surgical excision in 99% of the cases
 Squamous Cell Carcinoma - Arises from keratinocytes of Stratum Spinosum
- Prognosis is good if treated by radiation therapy or removed
surgically
 Melanoma - Cancer of melanocytes is the most dangerous type of skin cancer because it is:
– Likely to metastasize
– Resistant to chemotherapy

Effects of Aging on the Integumentary System

 Epidermal replacement of cells slows and skin becomes thinner
 Decreased elasticity and loss of subcutaneous tissue leads to wrinkles
 Subcutaneous fat layer diminishes, leading to intolerance of cold
 Skin becomes dry and itchy
 Sweat and sebaceous glands are less active, and the number of melanocytes decreases
 Age spots= increase of melanocytes in some areas