Quaternary International, Vol. 29/30, pp. 41-47, 1995.

Copyright © 1995 INQUA/Elsevier Science Ltd

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THE EVOLUTION OF LOW TUNISIAN COASTS IN HISTORICAL TIMES: FROM

PROGRADATION TO EROSION AND SALINIZATION

A m e u r Oueslati
Faculty of Human and Social Sciences, Boulevard 9 avril, Tunis, 1007, Tunisia

The geoarchaeological approach permits the separation at least two phases of evolution of the Tunisian coast during historical time. The first
is mainly contemporary with the Punic and Roman occupation, but it is not clear exactly when it ended. It was marked by an important
progradation of the coast at a time characterized by a sea level at least some decimetres below the present level. The second phase of
development took place after the Roman occupation and continues to the present day, but again we do not know exactly when it began. One
of its main characteristics has been a sea level rise which has led to the salinization of low unconsolidated areas and the fragility of the coast,
expressed by the advance of the sea at the expense of the shoreline, even in areas where developments have been built recently.

INTRODUCTION are characterized by a relatively rainy climate and a rugged

Lowlands occupy an important place in the morphology
of the Tunisian coasts (Fig. 1). The most extensive of them
exist in the mouths of wadis, particularly those flowing into
bays and gulfs or into lagoons. By examining the lowlands
in relation to the numerous archaeological sites, two trends
in Tunisian coastal evolution become apparent. The first
stage characterized the Antique period (Punic and Roman
occupation). This was marked by the progradation of the
coast as a result of alluvial processes.
The second stage, which is still continuing today, is
characterized by a shoreline retreat and increased
salinization of lowland soils in response to sea level rise.
AN IMPORTANT PROGRADATION OF THE
COAST IN CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY
In most cases the low Tunisian coast consists of alluvial
plains largely formed during historical times. Sections
offered by banks of wadis, wells and small cliffs reveal that
they often contain different objects, especially ceramics
dating back to Punic and Roman civilizations. This provides
important alluvial stage witnesses from which have been
described some Tunisian areas along the coast (Oueslati,
1985; 1989; 1992) as well as inland (Hamza, 1988; Bourgou
and Oueslati, 1987; Oueslati, 1994).
These deposits show many facies according to the variety
of the lithological and topographical contexts. But in the
main they are dominated by fine sediments, generally sands
and silt. Two distinct units are recognizable from the valleys.
(1) The youngest unit is relatively discontinuous and
cannot predate the middle age since it contains enamelled
Moslem ceramics. This unit is not always identifiable in the
sections through the plain material, so we believe that it has
limited influence on the shoreline evolution except for the
mouths of the most important wadis. Here the gain in ground
at the expense of the sea has continued even very recently.
(2) The older unit forms the major part of the coastal
alluvial plains. It is particularly well developed in the mouths
of wadis, especially those of the northeastern coasts which
41
topography. But it is also represented in the semi-add and
arid southern areas, even where the topography and slopes
are very gentle.
Its pertinence to the Antiquity is indicated by the
archaeological objects and sites with which it is often
associated. The deposits contain ceramics which predate the
middle age. In some cases, especially where this unit is quite
thick, the ceramics are more and more recent towards the top
of the sections as if the sedimentation was contemporary
with human occupation during Antiquity. Moreover, some
sections show that the alluvial deposits of this unit bury
Antique walls. In their turn, Antique structures are
sometimes located on alluviums or colluviums containing
Antique ceramics (Fig. 2).
As to its significance, this unit is often thought to he a
result of excessive soil erosion brought about by extensive
clearing and farming activities during the Antiquity
(Arnould et al., 1979). However, we think that it also
indicates a natural evolution of the environment. Its
deposition may have coincided with an increase in runoff as
a result of a significant change in the rainfall regime.
Because it exists even in areas devoid of important
archaeological sites and areas which have not suffered from
any important human intervention during classical Antiquity
(like in some parts of the northern coasts) and also in areas
characterized by very low topography and very gentle
slopes. This is the case, for example, in the very gentle
topography of the Sahel, and particularly in the very low
islands of the eastern coasts, even the smallest of them such
as Kuriates, Kneiss and Dzira.
The setting of the historical deposits was accompanied by
a variable modification of the coastal landscape. In some
cases it resulted in the aggradation of low areas, elevating the
local topography and sometimes burying a landscape of
sebkha and lagoons. Good examples were described in the
Gulf of Gab~s (Oueslati, 1992). But in other situations it
induced a shoreline migration favouring a ground gain at the
expense of the sea. In the following paragraphs some
examples of these situations are given.
The case of the Majerda's deltaic plain is now well
42
\ ~ .,: .."t..,
I1:"
:~14 ....' .."
"'..
is \ FIG. 2. Section in the cliff of Sail (near Rass Jbel): ( 1) bedrock, (2) alluvium
IS "..
Mediter~
r
"/0 kalt
FIG. 1. Location map: extension of very low coastal areas (in black) and
location of localities cited in the text. (1) Garaet Ichkeul; (2) Lake of
Bizerte; (3) Rass Joel; (4) Delta of Majerda; (5) Tunis; (6) mouth of Wadi
Milane; (7) Gulf of Tunis; (8) Cap Bon; (9) Gulf of Hammamet; (10)
Kriates I; (11) Sahel; (12) Dzira I; (13) Kerkna I; (14) Kneiss I; (15) Gulf
of Gab~s; (16) Jerba I; (17) Zarzis; (18) Bhiret el Bibane.
known (Jauzein, 1971; Paskoff, 1985). Here the alluviation
has pushed the shoreline many kilometres seaward with the
result that Utica, an important harbour during the Antiquity,
is today more than 10 km inland. Recent geoarchaeological
investigations* indicate that the alluviation was already
active during the Antiquity. The discovery of trench drains
in the plain ahead of the Utica site revealed the existence of
different and younger Roman structures as one advances
*Carded out by F. Chelbi, A. Oueslati, H. Slim, R. Paskoff and
P. Trousset.
A. Oueslati
, 1
(sand and clay) containing Punic and Roman ceramics, (3) Roman ruins
severely attacked by waves, (4) alluviums (sand, clay and pebbles)
containing late Roman ceramics.
seaward, indicating that man's occupation has followed the
shoreline migration.
Other examples of land gained at the expense of the sea
exist in different regions. The coastal plain formed at the
mouth of Wadi Miliane, occupied by the southern suburbs of
Tunis, the capital of the country, was largely unknown by
ancient populations as these areas contain no Punic or
Roman ruins. They are found, however, at different points on
the slopes which overlook the plains and many kilometres
inland where they are generally covered with recent
alluviums (Bourgou, 1991). This plain, now covered by the
Hammam lif suburb of Tunis, was not formed by the eve of
the Roman occupation of Tunisia as its alluvial material
covers marine deposits which yielded a radiocarbon age of
2075 BP (Paskoff and Sanlaville, 1983).
The situation around the lagoonal system of Bizerte is
nonetheless significant. The low plain which borders the
western and southern parts of the Ichkeul lagoon must have
been largely formed since the Antiquity as indicated by
sections revealed by wells. A well bored almost halfway
between the lagoon and road number 57 allowed the
discovery of Punic and Roman ceramics at 6 and 7 m depth.
That is to say 2 or 3 m below the mean lagoon level, because
the elevation of the major part of the plain is essentially
between some decimetres and 3 m. Even if this situation
indicates subsidence, it is probable that the evolution of the
landscape was predominantly influenced by a significant
alluviation responsible for the extension of the plain and the
reduction of the Ichkeul lagoon surface (Fig. 3). This is also
corroborated by the distribution of Antique archaeological
sites which do not appear at the surface of the plain, while
they are relatively numerous at its margins, especially on the
slopes bordering the plain. The alluviation was caused by
different wadis, mainly Wadi Sejnane, Wadi Joumine and
Wadi el Malah.
 '1, !
Ill l|
"~ "-.,..,,,i. " 114

/'-~'" -"~ " "0 illlltJ I I F ~";]~ e izlrll ," ....

~ / ~ . ---. ~ !,o u r i u i 51a11~", ~.-'" --
6I. Ichkeul
--¢-7L7/ t~ ~ r , '.. ; ............. ,,.,:Pr.-'.~7

--/i- LL_ !I~,

'.I ' ' ~.-"::"-""*""
I Ii I,~--.-7__2:,'Cg
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_I : - L - : -" " 1',.... " " " r'7"_~,
rrl
-!--. . . . . ..=:r-.
i. Itllklu I
14• 7- ~,-....-:..~ - - ,~ - - "
-k ~ ~ • ---.\ z o
' ~ - ~:.~-"..~--': ~.1 . . . . ilI . ..,i~ . .~.. .
... ,,--e; -- %',, -, l
I" ~ #'y,
• ~ - - ~ - ¢%.,
: '.,.. . . . . . . ~ ~ . . . . . . "qJ...~---
L/• ..,--; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .., ~ -• ' . ' . ' . ' . ' . ' . ' . ' ~ ~ .___.._,~....,- • -.,,- • ..,--~-~--':T-., ~
I# / ~ " V--~--_ _-7" - • ~ "----~
i/.,~_~, t . . . . . . :.. ~ . ~ . ...I~ . ~,...~..~_--T-...~ , ~ . ~ t " . . . . * / " v l ~ ?_ ~ -~ Free. 3b 3
I~/ . . . . ~ .~._,_. __ . _~. _.,..._._..,.. _.,,....,_, 2~ . . . . . ---. l ~

17-:-.-.-'-.
~-.. . . . . .JL..
'".- -.......
;...~ . . . . .
z. . .....
. . ..L..
_'~...,_.,,
~-..
....
-, . . . . /~-
~.:,,'__
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I"-"~. . . . . . . . . s . . . . . . . . . . . . . '~'--: "~ - - " --/" ~'~,
I--. --. . . . . . . ----,. • .... .. . . . . . .
i----- --\ . . . . . . i. . . . . . . . . . ...-~": "" • ~,< • -/-. ~ . ~ . ~

I ~ . -. ":-.... . . . . . . . . . -E~-.-. _k~L. _ . ~ :

I k . . . . . --; __...-.-' . . . . . ,-1.--.-~. ___
I " k , .-- ,d . . . . II ,)l --.-- - - --- .
!,./4/'.~_ , ~ I

i I ki I !
FIG. 3. The situation around the Garaet Ichkeul and the southern part of Bizerte's Lake: (1) very low plain made essentially with historical alluvia containing Punic and Roman ceramics; (2) archaeological sites of Punic or
Roman age; (3) altitude; (4) contour line of 5m; (5) isobath of 5m; (6) swamps; (7) hilly relief; (8) main wadis: WM = Wadi Morra, WD = Wadi Douimis, WS = Wadi Sejnane, WMh. = Wadi Melah, WJ. = Wadi Joumine,
WMt. = Wadi Mtiref, WBH = Wadi Ben Hassine, WGh = Wadi Gharek; (9) = active cliff; (10) roads; (11) important agglomeration. (a) (1) Bedrock; (2) and (4) historical continental deposits; (3) Roman ruins; (5) scree. (b) 4~
(1) Pliocene bedrock; (2) Thyrrenian marine deposits; (3) Pleistocene continental deposits; (4) Roman ruins; (5) historical continental deposits.
44
FIG. 4. Romanruins coveredby the deposits of the alluvial plain which border the southern margin of the lake of Bizerte. Both ruins and alluvia are
attacked by an activecliff (Oueslati, 1987).
As to Lake Bizerte, the effects of the historical fluvial
alluviation are most perceptible in its southern bank at the
foot of the northern slopes of Jbel Kchabta. The sections
offered by the small cliffs of this bank indicate an important
alluviation accompanied by the lakeward migration of the
shoreline during Antiquity (Fig. 4). The alluviums contain
Antique ceramics and sometimes bury Roman walls which
are in turn covered by Antique structures (Figs 3a, b).
POST-CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY: SHORELINE
RECESSION AND T H E S A L I N I Z A T I O N OF L O W
A L L U V I A L PLAINS
The Tunisian coastline is retreating everywhere, except
for some localized areas at the mouths of active wadis or in
some sheltered bays and spits. Marine erosion is surely
sometimes provoked or accelerated by imprudent recent
human interventions which disturb the natural dynamics of
the coast--ports, dams, occupation of beaches, and so o n - -
(Oueslati, 1993).
Joint archaeological and geomorphological investigations
indicate that the advance of the sea began earlier and pertain
to a relative sea level rise since the Roman occupation. This
also induced salinization of the seaward parts of different
coastal plains. More than 200 archeological sites pertaining
to different natural environments have been examined. More
than 50% (Fig. 5) of them are exposed to a greater or lesser
degree of erosion. In some cases active cliffs cut various
Punic and Roman structures such as remnants of houses,
streets and industrial buildings, Ruins can also appear on the
nearshore and sometimes continue many decametres
seaward of the present shoreline. In salt marshes the
migration of the coastal system is indicated by small active
A. Oueslati
cliffs, the formation of schorres at the expense of ancient
ruins and the ingress of tidal channels through lowlands
behind the marshes (Oueslati, 1992, 1993).
This fragility of the Tunisian coasts is, above all, due to a
relatively positive trend in sea level suggested by
archaeological data. More than 20% of the antique sites
examined are partly, and sometimes wholly, invaded by sea
water. The submerged structures frequently correspond to
constructions pertaining to the seaward parts of important
sites, but they sometimes constitute the last remains of ruins.
In other cases they correspond to ancient quarries (about
15% of the sites) or to fish-ponds. These are always totally
submerged.
More often than not ancient ruins are submerged under
20-40 cm of water (Fig. 6). However, the magnitude and
impact of the relative sea level rise can differ perceptibly
from one region to another. The submergence has been
clearly more important in subsiding areas. This is the
situation in the northern part of the gulf of Gab~s: at Rass
Bou Tria, the jetty of a Roman harbour is now more than 1
m below the present mean sea level; at the site of Borj el
Hassar, in the Kerkna Archipelago, ruins are recognizable
more than 150 m offshore and are submerged under at least
2 m at spring tides; at Theanae, an important Roman site
south of the town of Sfax, a trench uncovered ruins at least
0.60 m below present sea level.
This sea level rise was accompanied by the intrusion of
salt water and the rise of the piezometric level in the
unconsolidated plains. The result was the progress of
salinization, favouring the extension of sebkhas (flat,
supratidal environments of sedimentation devoid of
vegetation) and chotts (marginal parts of sebkhas colonized
by salt-tolerant vegetation) and the transformation of
Evolution of Low Tunisian Coasts 45

C
L

"o

"O

e~

d
46 A. Oueslati

FIG. 6. A Roman construction submerged by 30 cm at high tide; here shown at low tide. Sidi Rais in the gulf of Tunis (Oueslati, 1990).

' -.,all am,--E

,-[

I TT ..... I

FIG. 7. Section in the gulf of Hammamet in front of the Sebkha Sidi Khlifa: (1) Mediterranean sea, (2) sandy beach and its foredune,
(3) chott and sebkha, (4) Roman ruins, (5) salinated soil covering the ruins, (6) clay small dunes, (7) sebkha Sidi Khlifa.

E-.~ ~.-W

Ilm
5

4 1

FIG. 8. The situation at Henchir M'deina: (1) lagoon of Bhiret el Bibane, (2) Roman ruins, (3) small dunes, (4) sebkha, (5) important
dunes.
 Evolution of Low Tunisian Coasts
formerly inhabited and cultivated fields into unproductive
lands. Examples of such an evolution were given for the gulf
of the Gabes in a previous paper (Paskoff and Oueslati, 1991).
More recent field investigations discovered important
examples in other areas. Roman ruins have been discovered,
for instance, in the Sebkha of Ariana, an area which is today
regularly covered by salt water, especially during the rainy
season. Important Roman ruins also exist under the soil of the
chotts which border the sebkhas situated in northern Hergla
in the gulf of Hammamet (Fig. 7). The Roman site of M'deina
near the Libyan border also shows evidence of salinization,
typically forming a sebkha for most of the year. The soil on
which it spreads corresponds to a typical sebkha impassable
during a long part of the year (Fig. 8). At the end of winter
this site appears as a small island encircled by the water of the
Bibane lagoon and the water of the sebkha of M'deina. The
situation was certainly different during the Antiquity.
In fact, the consequences of the relative sea level rise
since Antiquity were even more important, as coastal areas
were low and subsiding. The most sensitive modifications of
the environment were noted in the northern part of the gulf
of Gab~s, which is characterized by active subsidence.
The case of the Kneiss archipelago described by Trousset
et al. (1992) is the best example of modifications of coastal
conditions due to the concomitance of sea level rise and an
active subsidence. Dziret el Laboua, one of the small islets
of the southern part of this archipelago, contains remnants of
ruins attributed by some archaeologists to the monastery in
which Saint Fulgence Bishop retired at the end of the 5th
century. But one may hesitate about such an interpretation,
because the monastery was reported by Ferrand, the
biographer of Saint Fulgence, to be inhabited by a large
number of monks. But the islet today is very narrow. It is a
minute outcrop of calcareous sandstone and never exceeds
4 m elevation with length and width about 45 and 40m,
respectively. Joint archaeological and geomorphological
considerations therefore reduce this uncertainty as the
situation during Antiquity was clearly different from the
present one. The Laboua islet, bordered by a very shallow
and extensive continental shelf, has been significantly
reduced as a result of both sea level rise and subsidence.
CONCLUSION
Geoarchaeological research carried out in Tunisia
47
indicate important modifications in the coastal conditions
during historical times.
In Antiquity the evolution was largely advantageous for
the continent. The acceleration of soil erosion on slopes
(induced by human intervention and by an increase of run-
off activity as a result of a significant change in the rainfall
regime) was favourable to a gain in ground at the expense of
the sea.
Today the shoreline is retreating almost everywhere. Low
unconsolidated coastal areas have undergone serious
salinization and sometimes transformed into sebkhas. This
fragility is mainly explained by the recent sea level rise,
sometimes aggravated by a subsiding tendency. The
situation is in danger of becoming worse if developments
continue to ignore this tendency, expected to continue for
some decades. Man has already, in many cases, accelerated
the degradation processes.
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