JIMMA UNIVERISTY 2021

JIMMA UNIVERSITY

Y OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Highway Engineering stream (MSc)

Bridge Engineering Assignment

Group members: ID No:

1)Abraham Amele RM 7610 /11

2)Dejene Dereje RM 7623 /11
3)Kedir Mohammed RM 7633 /11
4) Fati Bori RM 7627 /11
5) Ayantu Bayisa RM 7617 /11
6)Gemechu Busa

RM 7628 /1
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7) Bulcha assefa 7619 /11Theory part One

1) Briefly discribe the different methods of bridge construction?
I. Balanced cantilever (cast-in-situ and precast)
Balanced cantilever is one of the most popular bridge construction methods used by
BBR Network Members on all continents. The economical range of span lengths for
cast-in-situ cantilever construction begins at roughly 70m and extends to beyond
250m. Considerable savings can be achieved by using this method rather than
conventional bridge construction.
Free cantilevering is a method of construction where a structure is built outward from
a fixed point to form a cantilever structure, without temporary support, using staged
cast-in-situ construction. When two opposing free cantilever structures are attached as
a single structure and erected in the same step, it is known as ‘balanced cantilever’.
In basic terms, cast-in-situ construction describes a process whereby segments are
progressively cast on site in their final positions within the structure.
By comparison, for precast construction, the segments are prefabricated at a casting
plant – either on site or at a remote facility – then transported to the project site and
erected as a completed unit in their final positions.
This method is a flexible method of bridge construction where complex and unusual
geometrical shapes of dams can be constructed easily. Situations when it is hard to
transport pre-fabricated elements either due to size or unreachability, this method is a
good choice.
II. Incremental launching
Incremental launching of bridges can save time, money, space and disruption while
easing access and delivering a high quality finish.
The incremental launching method is particularly suited to the construction of
continuous post-tensioned multi-span bridges. It involves casting 15-30m long
sections of the bridge superstructure in a stationary formwork behind an abutment and
pushing a completed section forward with jacks or friction launching system along
the bridge axis. The sections are cast contiguously and then stressed together. The

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superstructure is launched over temporary sliding bearings on the piers. To keep the
bending moment low in the superstructure during construction, a launching nose is
attached to the front of the bridge deck.
The main advantages for using this construction methodology, rather than other
traditional methods, are:
 Minimal disturbance to environmentally sensitive areas
 Smaller assembly zone required
 Greater safety during construction which is mainly carried out at ground level
 Economy of transportation and general reduction in construction elements
 Higher quality finish and performance derived from easier working conditions
and repeatability of tasks
 Ease of access to restricted or limited sites – such as over rivers, deep valleys,
road or train lines, in poor soil conditions or environmentally protected areas

Although its significant advantages make using this technique a highly attractive
option, certain aspects require a high level of expertise – both in terms of people
and equipment – offered by Members of the BBR Network. They have much
experience, acquired over many years, in the techniques of incremental launching
and a track record for successful delivery of launched structures all over the
world.

III. Advanced shoring (Movable Scaffold System MSS)

The advanced shoring method – or Movable Scaffold System MSS – has been
developed for multi-span bridges over difficult terrain or water where scaffolding
would be expensive or simply not feasible. A launching girder moves forward on the
bridge piers, span-by-span to allow placing of the cast-in-situ concrete. The method –
both under-slung and overhead – is highly adaptable for a wide range of spans and
types of superstructure.
Conventional false-work or scaffold is a suitable choice for construction of single-
span bridges. For bridges that are considerable longer and have multiple spans, the
scaffolding needs to be moved between the different sections of the bridge during
construction. This has developed the advanced shoring technique. The construction

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method uses a movable supporting beam, gantry, for the false work that reaches over
at least one span but usually over the length of two spans. With the supporting beam
in place, transverse beams along the gantry secure the formwork and working
platform and the building process can be carried out efficiently. With special roller
bearings and launching jacks the gantry can easily be moved forward along the bridge
as the construction proceeds. The travelling gantry system is most suited for spans of
30 to 60m.
IV. Precast span-by-span
The precast span-by-span bridge construction method offers a very high speed of
construction. It is most often used in conjunction with an erection truss under the
bridge segments or an overhead erection gantry to guide the precast elements into
position. The span-by-span construction technique consists of the following primary
steps:
Erecting the segments for the entire span onto a temporary erection girder spanning
between a pair of adjacent permanent piers
 Installing and stressing longitudinal PT tendons enabling the segments to span
on their own
 Advancing the erection girder into place to erect the adjacent span
 Since there is only one cycle of stressing and grouting of tendons per span, the
method can be significantly faster than precast balanced cantilever
construction, which requires one such cycle per pair of segments.

The most common use of span-by-span construction is to build long viaducts with
spans of similar length. The method has been used most often for spans ranging
from 25m to 45m. As spans increase, there is a significant increase in the cost of
the erection girder. Erection girder can support the segment from below, or above
– under slung and overhead launching gantries.

Alternatively, full-span precast beams can be delivered from the precast beam
production to the erection front by the launching gantry. This method allows a fast
rate of erection.

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V. Span by Span Casting method of Bridge Construction

This method is associated with cantilever construction method but with many
advancements in the technique, it is considered as most economic and rapid in
construction. For long bridges and viaducts with an individual span up to 60m, the
method is feasible.
Decks are begun at one abutment and constructed continuously by placing segments
to the other end of the bridge. Segments can be positioned by either a temporary
staying mast system through more commonly using an assembly truss.
VI. Cable-Stayed Method of Bridge Construction
In the cable-stayed method of construction, cables are used to carry the bridge deck
from one or both sides of the supporting tower. The cables carry and transfer all the
loads to the foundations. Cable-stayed method of construction is used for constructing
bridges that span more than 300m.
VII. Arch Method for Bridge Construction
Arch shaped bridge construction is one of the most economical choices when the
bridge under consideration is required to cross over landscapes that are inaccessible.
Many modern arch construction methods have made the arch construction more
economical. The arch construction can be built with concrete or pre-cast concrete.
The cast-in-situ free cantilever method and slip formed sections are two main
construction techniques coming under arch methods.

2) List the factors to consider when selecting a type of bridge.

 Geometric Conditions of the Site:- Horizontal and vertical alignment of the highway
route and on the clearances above and below the roadway.
 Subsurface Conditions of the Site:- The foundation soil type and its bearing capacity
 Functional Requirements:- To carry not only present but also future volumes of
traffic.
 Legal Considerations:- The requirements of environmental laws and other applicable
laws must be met.

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 Aesthetics
 Economics and ease of Maintenance:- Bridge with the minimum number of spans,
fewest deck joints, and widest spacing of girders will be the most economical

3) What are the designe loads of bridge superstructure, abutments and piers?

Types of Loads for Design of Bridge Structures

 Types of Loads for Design of Bridge Structures

Dead load Deformation and horizontal effects Braking Load
Live load Erection stresses Ice Load
Impact load Seismic loads Ship Collision Load
Wind load Imposed traffic Loading RSI Load
Longitudinal forces Thermal Creep & Shrinkage Effects
Centrifugal forces Dynamic effects Braking Load
Buoyancy effect Centrifugal Load Ice Load
Effect of water current Traction Load Thermal effects

 For Superstructure design

Permanent Loads
 Dead Loads
DC: dead load of structural components and Non-structural attachments
DW: dead load of wearing Surfaces and Utilities
 Earth Loads
EH: horizontal earth pressure load
ES: earth surcharge load
DD: down drag

Transient Loads

 Live Loads
LL: Vehicular live load
PL: pedestrian live load

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IM: vehicular dynamic load allowance
CE: vehicular centrifugal force
BR: vehicular braking force
CT: vehicular collision force
 Wind Loads
WL: wind on live load
WS: wind load on structure
 For abutments and piers design
 Water Loads, WA
 Static pressure
 Buoyancy
 Stream pressure
 Wave load
 Earth pressure due to live load surcharge, LS
 SE: settlement
 Loads on pier like:- Dead Loads, Live Loads, Vehicular Braking Force, Wind
Loads, Uniform Temperature Forces , Force of Stream Current , Buoyancy , Ice,
Centrifugal Force, Extreme Event Collision Loads and etc.
 Abutments loads like:- The dead load forces, DC and DW, live load, Earth
surcharge, Earth pressure, Water load, Temperature and shrinkage, Vehicular
braking force from live load and etc.
4) Mention the factors that affect the load distribution in RCC girder bridges?
 The stiffness of the slab and its span.
 Spacing and stiffness of beams.
5) List the types of bridge structures and their uses.
a) T-Girder bridges: are generally economical for spans of 10-20m. These are usually
constructed on ground supported false work.
b) Composite Steel Plate Girder Bridges: spans of 25-50m and have been used for spans
well over 100m. They have low dead load, which may be of value when foundation
conditions are poor.

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c) Composite Steel Box Girder Bridges: are used for spans of 20-150m. These bridges are
more economical in the upper span ranges where depth may be limited.
d) Culverts: are used for small spans through highway embankments with span length of
15m.
e) Slab Bridges: for small spans up to 12m. These bridges can be built on ground supported
false work or constructed of precast elements
f) A truss bridge: is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a truss.
This truss is a structure of connected elements forming triangular units.
g) Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevers—horizontal beams supported on only one
end. Most cantilever bridges use a pair of continuous spans that extend from opposite
sides of the supporting piers to meet at the center of the obstacle the bridge crosses.
h) Arch bridges: have abutments at each end. The weight of the bridge is thrust into the
abutments at either side.
i) Suspension bridges are suspended from cables. The earliest suspension bridges were
made of ropes or vines covered with pieces of bamboo. In modern bridges, the cables
hang from towers that are attached to caissons or cofferdams.
j) Cable-stayed bridges, like suspension bridges, are held up by cables. However, in a
cable-stayed bridge, less cable is required and the towers holding the cables are
proportionately higher
6) Compare cable stayed bridge and suspension bridges.
 Cable-stayed bridges
 In cable-stayed bridges, the cables are straight and extend from one tower and
connected to the deck directly at discrete points. Being, taut, they furnish
relatively inflexible support along the span at several points and provide a
bridge with relatively greater stiffness than that achievable in suspension
bridges.
 A cable stayed bridge is dependent upon towers/pylons which are the load-
bearing element of the structure. Cables are connected from the pylons to the
deck below.
 A Cable-stayed bridge is differ from their suspension bridge in a way they
don't require anchorages, nor do they need two towers.

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 In a cable stayed bridge, most all of the load is transferred from the road to the
towers directly through cables and balanced on each side of the towers. Except
for when affected by wind loads the towers are mostly in compression.
 In cable-stayed bridges, the towers are the primary load-bearing structures that
transmit the bridge loads to the ground. A cantilever approach is often used to
support the bridge deck near the towers, but lengths further from them are
supported by cables running directly to the towers. That has the disadvantage,
unlike for the suspension bridge that the cables pull to the sides as opposed to
directly up, which requires the bridge deck to be stronger to resist the resulting
horizontal compression loads, but it has the advantage of not requiring firm
anchorages to resist the horizontal pull of the main cables of the suspension
bridge. By design, all static horizontal forces of the cable-stayed bridge are
balanced so that the supporting towers do not tend to tilt or slide and so must
only resist horizontal forces from the live loads.
 Suspension bridge
 In suspension bridge it has elements like major suspension cables and minor
suspension cables which hold the deck unlike cable stayed bridge.
 In suspension bridges, the cables ride freely across the towers, transmitting the
load to the anchorages at either end. In cable-stayed bridges, the cables are
attached to the towers, which alone bear the load.
 In a suspension bridge, a portion of the load is transferred to towers
(sometimes…primitive suspension bridges can lack towers) from the deck via
suspender cables tied to catenary cables.
 In suspension bridges the main cables are curved and continuous between the
towers. The deck and other vertical loading are suspended from these cables at
relatively short intervals. Being relatively flexible, the main cable develops
funicular shape, which is a function of the magnitude and position of the
loading.
 This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, with vertical
suspender cables that transfer the live and dead loads of the deck below, upon

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which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc
upward for additional clearance.
 The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, since any
load applied to the bridge is transformed into a tension in these main cables.

7) How the total span of bridge structure is obtained?

 Safety: related to length of bridge needed, Related to applied load on the bridge
and transferring to the foundation.
 Aesthetics: according to beauty while seeing
 Economy: the cost to build and the cost to maintenance
 Bridges that cross railroad tracks
 Roadways
 Bridge substructure placement
 clear height
 profile grade
8) What are the benefits of concrete box girder bridges over other concrete bridges?
 It is an economical and an aesthetic solution for the over crossings, under crossings,
grade separation structures and viaducts found in the modern highway system.
 In case of long-span bridges, a large width of the deck is available to accommodate pre
stressing cables at bottom flange level.
 Interiors of box girder bridges can be used to accommodate service such as gas pipes,
water mains etc.
 For large spans, the bottom flange could be used as another deck as it accommodates
traffic as well.
 The maintenance of box girder is easier; interior space is directly accessible without the
use of scaffolding.
 It has high structural efficiency.
 Box Girder Bridge has a great resistance to torsion. This is specifically beneficial for a
bridge that is curved in plan.
 Its long span capability reduces the requirement for support point

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 The relatively shallow depth of box girders is an advantage where headroom is limited
like in urban overpasses.
 Monolithic construction of the superstructure and substructure offers structural as well as
aesthetic advantage. The pier caps for continuous box girders can be placed within the
box, facilitating rigid connection to the pier.
 They provide space for utilities such as water and gas lines, power, telephone and cable
ducts, storm drains and sewers, which can be placed in the hollow cellular section.
 The other advantages are, as mentioned previously, their torisional stiffness and
aesthetics.
 Box girders offer better resistance to torsion, which is particularly of benefit if the bridge
deck is curved in plane. Additionally, larger girders can be constructed, because the
presence of two webs allows wider and hence stronger flanges to be used. This in turn
allows longer spans.
 Box girders are more suitable for larger spans and wider decks. Economy and aesthetics
further lead to the evolution of cantilevers in top flanges and inclined webs in external
cells of box girder. The dimension of the cell could be controlled by pre-stressing.
9) Comment on the different kinds of abutments and piers?
Abutments
a. Spill-Through or Open
A spill-through or open abutment is mostly used where an additional span may be added to
the bridge in the future. It may also be used to satisfy unique construction problems. This
abutment type is situated on columns or stems that extend upward from the natural ground. It
is essentially a pier being used as an abutment.
It is very difficult to properly compact the embankment materials that must be placed around
the columns and under the abutment cap. Early settlement and erosion are problems
frequently encountered with spill-through or open abutments
b. Pile-Encased
Pile-encased abutments should only be used where documented cost data shows them to be
more economical than sill abutments due to site conditions. For local roads right-of-way
acquisition can be difficult, making the A5 a good option. Requiring crane access from only
one side of a stream may be another reason to use a single span bridge with A5 abutments, as

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would savings in railing costs. Steeper topography may make A5 abutments a more
reasonable choice than sill
abutments. In general, however, using sill abutments with longer bridges under most
conditions has cost advantages over using the Type A5 abutments. Type A5 abutments may
require additional erosion control measures that increase construction cost.
c. Gravity Abutment: These are used for abutments of small height.
d. Cantilever Abutment: derive lateral resistance through embedment of the stem by cantilever
action
e. Counterfort Abutment: used for larger heights for which cantilever abutments will be
uneconomical
f. Stub Abutment: used at the top of an embankment or slope. Unless rock foundation exists at
the site, stub abutment is supported on piles.
g. Spill through Abutment: this utilizes two or more columns with a cap beam at the top.
h. Reinforced earth Abutment: It is being used in many parts of the world, and is preferred for
its low cost and aesthetics.
Pier Types

a. Multi-Column Piers
Multi-column piers, as shown in Standard for Multi-Columned Pier, are the most
commonly used pier type for grade separation structures.
b. Pile Bents
Pile bents are most commonly used for small to intermediate stream crossings and are
shown on the Standard for Pile Bent. Pile bents shall not be used to support structures
over roadways or railroads due to their susceptibility to severe damage should a vehicular
collision occur.
c. Pile Encased Piers
Pile encased piers are similar to pile bents except that a concrete encasement wall
surrounds the piles. They are most commonly used for small to intermediate stream
crossings where a pile bent pier is not feasible. Pile encased piers are detailed on
Standard for Pile Encased Pier.
d. Solid Single Shaft / Hammerheads
Solid single shaft piers are used for all types of crossings and are detailed on Standards
for Hammer head Pier. The choice between using a multicolumn pier and a solid single
shaft pier is based on economics and aesthetics. For high level bridges, a solid single
shaft pier is generally the most economical and attractive pier type available.

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e. Solid Wall Pier: used at water crossings since they can be constructed to proportions
those are both slender and streamlined, which has a minimal resistance to flow.

f. Hammer Head Pier: These are used for high piers. These are predominantly used in
urban areas because they are attractive and occupy minimum space providing relatively
large clearance for underpass traffic.

g. Column Bent Pier: consists of a cap beam and supporting columns in the form of a
frame.

10) List the causes of scour nearby a piers and the methods to protect it.
The main causes of scour around the bridge piers are
 natural scour and channel shifting on alluvial rivers
 scour caused by changes to the river channel u/s or d/s
 general scour caused by reduction in the channel width at bridge site
 local scour at the base of piers, abutments and river training works due to turbulence

The different methods used for scour protection are:

 Riprap: Is carpet of loose stones, which protects the loose bed material for bed protection
and loose bank or embankment material from erosion by water current
 Gabion and Reno mattresses: The standard gabion is a rectangular basket made of steel
wire mesh with sizes of 2m, 3m and 4m long by 1m wide by 0.5m or 1m high.
 Filter Blankets: used to protect non – cohesive and fine bank materials that may be
washed away through the space between the voids in riprap or gabion lining.
 Vegetation
 aprons or revetments
 groynes

11) What are the approaches for obtaining the depth scour at bridge piers.
 The Area – Velocity Method: In this method the flow through the structure is assumed
to be equal to the unrestricted flow calculated on the basis of velocity measurement or
estimates made.

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 The Competent-Velocity Method: The competent velocity (Vc) is the largest velocity
that will not cause scour to the river bed. In this method a probable scour line is drawn
and area of flow increased (by As) until the resulting mean velocity of flow is reduced
to Vc.
12) Clarify the purpose of bridge bearings and issue that affect their selection.
Main functions
 To transmit loads from the superstructure to the substructure, and
 To accommodate relative movements between the superstructure and the
substructure.

Factors that affect the selection of the type of bridge bearing

 A simply supported span requires fixed bearings at one and expansion joints at the other.
 A continuous girder require fixed bearing at one and expansion bearing on all other
supports
 A two span girder will have fixed bearing at the center support and expansion bearings at
the two abutments
13) Describe when to select a bridge or a culvert for a site of interest.
When the waterway opening is less than about 15m2, and particularly where the road crosses
the waterway on a relatively high embankment, a culvert will usually be cheaper than a
bridge
14) What do you think the positioning and alignment of the culverts.
it is fine to use culverts when:-
 Where the waterway opening is less than about 15m2, and particularly where the
road crosses the waterway on a relatively high embankment, a culvert will usually
be cheaper than a bridge
 For a span ranging up to 6m
 For cross drainage work

The points to be considered in culvert location and alignment:

 Where a road crosses a valley, the lowest point requires a vent, whether there is an
established stream or not

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 Where there is an established stream, the culvert should follow the existing alignment,
unless the alignment can be improved
 The gradient of the culvert should be the same as the gradient of the stream.
 Measures may be necessary to ensure that the watercourse does not move. This could
cause severe damage and the consequent change of location of the culvert would be
expensive.
15) Why do you inspect and maintain bridge structure?
 The objective of bridge inspection comprises monitoring and evaluation of the
performance of each bridge structure throughout its service life so that any deficiency in
performance could be detected and corrected early.
 The object of maintenance inspections is to detect in good time any defect which may
cause an unacceptable safety or serviceability risk or a serious maintenance requirement
in order to safeguard the public, the structure and the environment and to enable
appropriate remedial action to be taken.
 We have to maintain, because of the bridge have to serve for its life time safely without
causing any default. Since bridges were constructed with huge amount of nation
investment we need to conserve this notational investment and to secure public safety.

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