UNIT - 2

EVALUATION OF MOBILE SYSTEM

AND
WIRELESS NETWORK

THIS IS NOT THE SUBSTITUTE OF TEXT BOOK. PLEASE FOLLOW YOUR TEXT BOOK.
Evaluation of Mobile System:
A Mobile Network route's communications in the form of radio waves to and
from users. It is composed of base stations that each cover a delimited area or
"cell." When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide
geographic area. This enables a large number of portable transceivers (e.g.,
mobile phones, pagers, etc.) to communicate with each other and with fixed
transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, even if some of the
transceivers are moving through more than one cell during transmission. We are
discussing some Mobile Network technologies as follows:

• GSM: GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communications. It’s a
standard that specifies how 2G (second generation) cellular networks
operate. GSM was a significant improvement over the first generation of
cellular networks and represented a transition from analog to digital
telecommunications. GSM is currently the most widely used network
technology in Internet of Things (IoT) applications for its simplicity,
affordability, and accessibility. But that’s likely to change over the next
few years.
Mobile services based on GSM were first launched in Finland in 1991. It
uses 4 different frequency bands of 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz and
1900 MHz. In 2010, GSM represented 80% of the global mobile market.
However, several telecommunications carriers have decommissioned their
GSM networks, including Telstra in Australia. In 2017, Singapore retired
its 2G GSM network. With decades of built up infrastructure, GSM-based
networks can offer good coverage, but they can’t compete with the speed,
versatility, and security of 3G, 4G, and 5G networks. Features of GSM are:

o Supports international roaming

o Clear voice clarity
o Ability to support multiple handheld devices.
o Spectral / frequency efficiency
o Low powered handheld devices.
o Case of accessing network
o International ISDN compatibility.

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow
 DIFFERENT GENERATION OF MOBILE NETWORK

• FDMA: FDMA or Frequency Division Multiple Access is the channelization

protocol in which bandwidth is divided into various frequency bands. Each
station is allocated with band to send data and that band is reserved for
particular station for all the time which is as follows:

FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow
 The frequency bands of different stations are separated by small band of
unused frequency and that unused frequency bands are called as guard
bands that prevent interference of stations. It is like access method in data
link layer in which data link layer at each station tells its physical layer to
make bandpass signal from data passed to it. The signal is created in
allocated band and there is no physical multiplexer at physical layer. Some
features of FDMA are as follows:
o Overall bandwidth is shared among number of stations.
o Guard bands between adjacent channels is necessary.
o Synchronization is not required.
o Power efficiency is less.
o It is basically used in GSM and PDC.

• TDMA: TDMA or Time Division Multiple Access is channelization protocol

in which bandwidth of channel is divided into various stations on time
basis. There is time slot given to each station, station can transmit data
during that time slot only which is as follows:

FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

Each station must aware of its beginning of time slot and location of the
time slot. TDMA requires synchronization between different stations. It is
type of access method in data link layer. At each station data link layer
tells station to use allocated time slot. Some features of TDMA are as
follows:

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow
 o Time sharing of satellite transponder takes place.
o Guard time between adjacent slots is necessary.
o Synchronization is necessary.
o It does not require stability of high carrier efficiency.
o It is basically used in advanced mobile phone systems.

• CDMA: In CDMA or Code Division Multiple Access, all the stations can
transmit data simultaneously. It allows each station to transmit data over
the entire frequency all the time. Multiple simultaneous transmissions are
separated by unique code sequence. Each user is assigned with a unique
code sequence.

CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow
 In the above figure, there are 4 stations marked as 1, 2, 3 and 4. Data
assigned with respective stations as d1, d2, d3 and d4 and the code
assigned with respective stations as c1, c2, c3 and c4. Some features of
TDMA are as follows:

o CDMA is available in fewer countries and carriers.

o CDMA supports transmitting data or voice one at once.
o In CDMA, there is sharing of both i.e. bandwidth and time among
different stations takes place.
o Codeword is necessary.
o Both guard bands and guard time are necessary.

Wireless Networking:
Now days, wireless networks are quite common and used everywhere. You can
find wireless network from your HOME to SHOPPING MALLS and from RAILWAY
STATIONS to AIRPORTS. Everywhere we are gather from the wireless networks.
Now we shall see that how wireless technology works, and how it is used to
create networks. Wireless technology is used in many types of communication.
We use it for networking because it is cheaper and more flexible than running
cables. While wireless networks can be just as fast and powerful as wired
networks. Wireless signals are important because they can transfer information
-- audio, video, our voices, data -- without the use of wires, and that makes them
very useful. Wireless signals are electromagnetic waves travelling through the
air.

WIRELESS SIGNALS

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow
There are two types of Wi-Fi signal, based on the frequencies they use. These two
types of Wi-Fi are called the Frequency Bands, or just Bands for short.

o 2.4GHz: A lower frequency, this is the more common Wi-Fi technology in

use today. Many devices use it, so the signals can become more crowded
and interfere with each other. It can pass through walls and windows fairly
well.
o 5GHz: This higher frequency technology is used by fewer devices, and can
sometimes achieve higher speeds because the frequencies are less
crowded. It cannot pass through walls and windows as well as the 2.4GHz
band signals, so the range of 5GHz technology is often shorter.

Wireless routers have different types of antennas. Some routers will have
antennas built in, and sometimes the routers will have a choice of antenna you
can attach to the router. There are many specific types of antennas, two of them
is very common. Both of it is describe below:

Omnidirectional Antennas:
An omnidirectional antenna sends a signal out equally in all directions around it.
Using omnidirectional antennas has the benefit of creating connections in any
direction. You don’t have to do as much planning to connect with multiple
neighbours or buildings. If there is enough signal between nodes, they should
connect.

OMNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS

The all-direction strength of these antennas comes with the drawback of

transmitting a weaker signal. Since the signal is going in all directions, it spreads
out and gets weaker with distance very fast. If nodes or clients are far away, they
may not connect well.

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow
 DEVICE MAY BE DISCONNECTED

Directional Antennas:
The next type of antenna is known as directional, it sends out a signal in a more
focused way. There are two main types of directional antennas:

SECTOR ANTENNA FOCUSED ANTENNA

Using directional antennas has the benefit of increasing the distance a signal will
travel in one direction, while reducing it in all other directions. Since the signal is
all going one way, the power that would be sent out in all directions with
omnidirectional nodes is now focused, increasing the power in that direction.

RANGE COMPARISON OF BOTH ANTENNAS

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow
However, directional antennas also have the drawback of requiring more
planning to create links in your neighbourhood. Since you are defining and
limiting the areas where wireless signals go, you need to think about how those
signals cover your neighbourhood. If there are areas that are then left out, how
will those areas be included in the network?

What is Bluetooth?
The Bluetooth wireless technology was named after a Danish King named Harald
Blatand. His last name means "Bluetooth" in English. The name "Bluetooth" was
awarded to this technology he was united the Denmark and Norway, same as
Bluetooth wireless technology is used to unite two disparate devices for
communication or data transmission.
Ericsson Mobile Communications started the development of Bluetooth
technology in 1994. The main motive behind the development of this amazing
technology was to find an alternative to the use of cables for communication
between mobile phones and other devices. In 1998, 4 big companies of that time
named Ericsson, IBM, Nokia and Toshiba formed the Bluetooth Special Interest
Group (SIG), which published the 1st version of Bluetooth technology in 1999.
After that, four versions have been released. The latest version of this technology
is Bluetooth 5.0.
Here’s a quick look at the different Bluetooth versions throughout the years and
their maximum data transfer speed:

o Bluetooth 1.0-1.2 (1999)

o Bluetooth 2.0-2.1 (2005)
o Bluetooth 3.0 (2009)
o Bluetooth 4.0-4.2 (2010)
o Bluetooth 5.0-5.2 (2016)

• Piconet: A collection of devices connected via Bluetooth technology in an

ad hoc fashion. A piconet starts with two connected devices, such as a PC
and cellular phone, and may grow to eight connected devices. Piconet is a
type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called MASTER
NODE and seven active secondary nodes called SLAVE NODES. Thus, we
can say that there are total of 8 ACTIVE NODES which are present at a
distance of 10 meters. The communication between the primary and
secondary node can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Possible
communication is only between the Master and Slave; Slave-Slave
communication is not possible. It also have 255 parked nodes, these are

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow
 secondary nodes and cannot take participation in communication unless
it gets converted to the active state.

PICONETS IN A SCATTERNET

• Scatternet: It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present

in one piconet can act as master or we can say primary in another piconet.
This kind of node can receive message from master in one piconet and
deliver the message to its slave into the other piconet where it is acting as
a slave. This type of node is refer as bridge node. A station cannot be
master in two piconets.

o Master unit: The device in the piconet whose clock and hopping
sequence are used to synchronize all other devices in the piconet.
o Slave units: All devices in a piconet that are not the master (up to
seven active units for each master).
o MAC address: A 3-bit medium access control address used to
distinguish between units participating in the piconet.
o Parked units: Devices in a piconet which are time-synchronized but
do not have MAC addresses.
o Sniff and hold mode: Devices that are synchronized to a piconet,
and which have temporarily entered power-saving mode in which
device activity is reduced.

• Bluetooth Protocol Stack: Bluetooth network technology connects mobile

devices wirelessly over a short-range to form a Personal Area Network
(PAN). The Bluetooth architecture has its own independent model with a
stack of protocols, instead of following the standard OSI model or TCP/IP
model. Another unique feature is that it is not mandatory for all the
devices in the Bluetooth system to use all the protocols in the stack. This

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow
is because Bluetooth is designed to be used by myriad applications and the
application designates which part of the protocol stack is to be used.

BLUETOOTH PROTOCOL STACK

o Radio (RF) layer: It performs modulation/demodulation of the data

into RF signals. It defines the physical characteristics of Bluetooth
transceivers. It defines two types of physical link: connection-less
and connection-oriented.
o Baseband Link layer: It performs the connection establishment
within a piconet.
o Link Manager protocol layer: It performs the management of the
already established links. It also includes authentication and
encryption processes.
o Logical Link Control and Adaption protocol layer: It is also known
as the heart of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the
communication between upper and lower layers of the Bluetooth
protocol stack. It packages the data packets received from upper
layers into the form expected by lower layers. It also performs the
segmentation and multiplexing.
o SDP layer: It is short for Service Discovery Protocol. It allows to
discover the services available on another Bluetooth enabled
device.
o RF comm layer: It is short for Radio Frontend Component. It
provides serial interface with WAP and OBEX.

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow
 o OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol
to exchange objects between 2 devices.
o WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet
access.
o TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony
service.
o Application layer: It enables the user to interact with the
application.

• Advantages:
o Low cost.
o Easy to use.
o It can also penetrate through walls.
o It creates an ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.
o It is used for voice and data transfer.

• Disadvantages:
o It can be hacked and hence, less secure.
o It has a slow data transfer rate: 3 Mbps.
o It has a small range: 10 meters.

TCP over Wireless:

During the last decades, computing has become more and more pervasive.
Personal computers are commonly found in homes, cars are controlled by
microchips, and mobile phones have more computing power than an average PC
a decade ago. Advances in wireless communication and decreasing size and cost
of computing units have an explosive growth in the mobile computing market.
common wireless technologies used today, with emphasis on data transmission.
It further outlines the TCP protocol, with a special focus on the mechanisms that
are problematic in wireless networks.
WTCP or Wireless TCP does not replace the TCP on the hosts, but is placed on a
proxy in between two communicating hosts. In wireless systems, WTCP is placed
on a base station or intermediate gateway between a source host and a mobile
(wireless) host. The base station is a wireless transmitter and receiver for the
mobile host, and acts as a gateway to the internet for the host.

The following is a highly simplified example of what happens when the mobile
host and source host have a TCP connection with each other:

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow
When the mobile host uses its TCP to send a segment, the WTCP at the base
station receives it and sends it on through the network, where it eventually
reaches the awaiting host. The awaiting host might send an acknowledgment
back through the network, to the base station, which transmits it to the mobile
host. Despite handling some wireless-related errors, WTCP effectively does
exactly what regular TCP does. The two edge hosts aren't even aware that the
WTCP exists.

Data Broadcasting:
Broadcasting in computer network is a group communication, where a sender
sends data to receivers simultaneously. This is an all − to − all communication
model where each sending device transmits data to all other devices in the
network domain.
The provision of broadcast/multicast services in a mobile-communication system
implies that the same information is to be simultaneously provided to multiple
terminals, often dispersed over a large area corresponding to a large number of
cells.

DATA BROADCASTING
Mobile IP:
Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol,
IP) that allows the users to move from one network to another with the same IP
address. It ensures that the communication will continue without the user’s
sessions or connections being dropped.

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow
 HOME NETWORK

When the Mobile Node determines that is has moved, whether roaming across
different FAs or returning home, it initiates a Mobile IP handover by entering into
the Mobile IP registration phase. During this phase, the Mobile Node signals this
location update to its Home Agent. This signalling is accomplished through a
Mobile IP RRQs, one of the most important messages in Mobile IP. RRQ messages
are the equivalent of a routing update, because they inform the network how to
deliver traffic to the Mobile Node (through the CoA). A RRP is a positive or
negative acknowledgment of the RRQ, and can be originated by either the Home
Agent or Foreign Agent.

FOREIGN NETWORK

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow
When the Mobile Node determines that is has moved, whether roaming across
different FAs or returning home, it initiates a Mobile IP handover by entering into
the Mobile IP registration phase. During this phase, the Mobile Node signals this
location update to its Home Agent. This signalling is accomplished through a
Mobile IP RRQs, one of the most important messages in Mobile IP. RRQ messages
are the equivalent of a routing update, because they inform the network how to
deliver traffic to the Mobile Node (through the CoA). A RRP is a positive or
negative acknowledgment of the RRQ, and can be originated by either the Home
Agent or Foreign Agent.
A depiction of the registration message exchange when the Mobile Node is in a
Foreign Network. For a Mobile IP handover other than returning home, upon
successful exchange of a Mobile IP RRQ and Mobile IP RRP, the Mobile Node is
said to be registered with the Home Agent (and FA if one is used) for the lifetime
specified by the Home Agent in the RRP. Thus, in addition to sending RRQs as
location updates, the Mobile Node must also send a RRQ to continue its
registration if the lifetime is about to expire.
For a Mobile IP handover when returning home, the Mobile Node is said to be
deregistering during the RRQ and RRP message exchange. The RRQ and RRP
messages are centre to the Mobile IP registration phase. They are sent through
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) signalling with destination port.
The UDP transport layer protocol is chosen over Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) because it is lighter-weight than TCP. The overhead and retransmission
mechanism in TCP is unwarranted, because the RRQ messages can be
retransmitted by the Mobile Node if an RRP is not received.

What is the Tunnelling?

Tunnelling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel
entry and an endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it
is achieved by a mechanism called encapsulation.

WAP:
WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol. It is a protocol designed for micro-
browsers and it enables the access of internet in the mobile devices. It uses the
mark-up language WML (Wireless Markup Language and not HTML), WML is
defined as XML 1.0 application. It enables creating web applications for mobile
devices. In 1998, WAP Forum was founded by Ericson, Motorola, Nokia and
Unwired Planet whose aim was to standardize the various wireless technologies
via protocols.

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow
WAP protocol was resulted by the joint efforts of the various members of WAP
Forum. In 2002, WAP forum was merged with various other forums of the
industry resulting in the formation of Open Mobile Alliance (OMA).
The user opens the mini-browser in a mobile device. He selects a website that he
wants to view. The mobile device sends the URL encoded request via network to
a WAP gateway using WAP protocol.

WAP MECHANISM

The WAP gateway translates this WAP request into a conventional HTTP URL
request and sends it over the internet. The request reaches to a specified Web
server and it processes the request just as it would have processed any other
request and sends the response back to the mobile device through WAP gateway
in WML file which can be seen in the micro-browser.
Following is a list of some advantages of Wireless Application Protocol or WAP:

• WAP is a very fast-paced technology.

• It is an open-source technology and completely free of cost.
• It can be implemented on multiple platforms.
• It is independent of network standards.
• It provides higher controlling options.
• It is implemented near to Internet model.
• By using WAP, you can send/receive real-time data.
• Nowadays, most modern mobile phones and devices support WAP.

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow
Following is a list of some disadvantages of Wireless Application Protocol or
WAP:

• The connection speed in WAP is slow, and there is limited availability also.
• In some areas, the ability to connect to the Internet is very sparse, and in
some other areas, Internet access is entirely unavailable.
• It is less secured.
• WAP provides a small User interface (UI).

*

Dr. Qaim Mehdi Rizvi

IMRT, Lucknow