ARTIFICIAL

SATELLITES
I. Introduction

Artificial Satellite, any object purposely placed into orbit around Earth, other planets, or the Sun. Since the launching of the first
artificial satellite in 1957, thousands of these “man-made moons” have been rocketed into Earth orbit. Today, artificial satellites play
key roles in the communications industry, in military intelligence, and in the scientific study of both Earth and outer space

Artificial Satellite
II. Types of Satellites

Engineers have developed many kinds of satellites, each designed to serve a specific purpose or mission. For instance the
telecommunications and broadcasting industries use communications satellites to carry radio, television, and telephone signals over
long distances without the need for cables or microwave relays. Navigational satellites pinpoint the location of objects on Earth, while
weather satellites help meteorologists forecast the weather (see Meteorology). The United States government uses surveillance
satellites to monitor military activities (see Remote Sensing). Scientific satellites serve as space-based platforms for observation of
Earth, the other planets, the Sun, comets, and galaxies, and are useful in a wide variety of other applications.

A. Communications Satellites
Almost all of the earliest satellites included some communications equipment. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) launched the first telephone and television satellite, AT&T’s Telstar 1, in 1962. The U.S. Department of Defense launched
Syncom 3 in 1964. Syncom 3 was the first communication satellite to use a geostationary orbit—that is, an orbit that keeps the
satellite over the same spot above Earth’s equator. Over 300 communications satellites have been launched since 1957. Today
satellites in geostationary orbit provide voice, data, and television communications, including the direct broadcast of television to
homes around the world.

B. Navigation Satellites

Navigation satellites can help locate the position of ships, aircraft, and even automobiles that are equipped with special radio receivers.
A navigation satellite sends continuous radio signals to Earth. These signals contain data that a special radio receiver on Earth
translates into information about the satellite’s position. The receiver further analyzes the signal to find out how fast and in what
direction the satellite is moving and how long the signal took to reach the receiver. From this data, the receiver can calculate its own
location. Some navigation satellite systems use signals from several satellites at once to provide even more exact location information.

The U.S. Navy launched the first navigation satellite, Transit 1B, in 1960. The United States ended its support of the Transit system in
1996. The U.S. Air Force operates a system, called the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS), that consists of 24 satellites.
Depending on the type of receiver and the method used, GPS can provide position information with an accuracy from 100 m (about
300 ft) to less than 1 cm (less than about 0.4 in). The Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) of the Russian
Federation consists of 24 satellites and provides accuracy similar to GPS. The European Commission (EC) and the European Space
Agency (ESA) plan to launch a civilian satellite navigation system called Galileo from 2005 to 2008. The European system is
designed to be compatible with those of the United States and Russia, allowing receivers around the world to communicate with
satellites in any of the three systems.

C. Weather Satellites

Weather satellites carry cameras and other instruments pointed toward Earth’s atmosphere. They can provide advance warning of
severe weather and are a great aid to weather forecasting. NASA launched the first weather satellite, Television Infrared Observation
Satellite (TIROS) 1, in 1960. TIROS 1 transmitted almost 23,000 photographs of Earth and its atmosphere. NASA operates the
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) series, which are in geostationary orbit. GOES provides information for
weather forecasting, including the tracking of storms. GOES is augmented by Meteosat 3, a European weather satellite also in
geostationary orbit. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) operates three satellites that collect data for long-
term weather forecasting. These three satellites are not in geostationary orbit; rather, their orbits carry them across the poles at a
relatively low altitude.

D. Military Satellites
Many military satellites are similar to commercial ones, but they send encrypted data that only a special receiver can decipher.
Military surveillance satellites take pictures just as other earth-imaging satellites do, but cameras on military satellites usually have a
higher resolution.

The U.S. military operates a variety of satellite systems. The Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) consists of five
spacecraft in geostationary orbit that transmit voice, data, and television signals between military sites. The Defense Support Program
(DSP) uses satellites that are intended to give early warning of missile launches. DSP was used during the Persian Gulf War (1991) to
warn of Iraqi Scud missile launches.

Some military satellites provide data that is available to the public. For instance, the satellites of the Defense Meteorological Satellite
Program (DMSP) collect and disseminate global weather information. The military also maintains the Global Positioning System
(GPS), described earlier, which provides navigation information that anyone with a GPS receiver can use.

E. Scientific Satellites

Earth-orbiting satellites can provide data to map Earth, determine the size and shape of Earth, and study the dynamics of the oceans
and the atmosphere. Scientists also use satellites to observe the Sun, the Moon, other planets and their moons, comets, stars, and
galaxies. The Hubble Space Telescope is a general-purpose observatory launched in 1990. Some scientific satellites orbit bodies other
than Earth. The Mars Global Surveyor, for example, orbits the planet Mars.

Artificial Satellite
II. Types of Satellites

Engineers have developed many kinds of satellites, each designed to serve a specific purpose or mission. For instance the
telecommunications and broadcasting industries use communications satellites to carry radio, television, and telephone signals over
long distances without the need for cables or microwave relays. Navigational satellites pinpoint the location of objects on Earth, while
weather satellites help meteorologists forecast the weather (see Meteorology). The United States government uses surveillance
satellites to monitor military activities (see Remote Sensing). Scientific satellites serve as space-based platforms for observation of
Earth, the other planets, the Sun, comets, and galaxies, and are useful in a wide variety of other applications.

A. Communications Satellites

Almost all of the earliest satellites included some communications equipment. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) launched the first telephone and television satellite, AT&T’s Telstar 1, in 1962. The U.S. Department of Defense launched
Syncom 3 in 1964. Syncom 3 was the first communication satellite to use a geostationary orbit—that is, an orbit that keeps the
satellite over the same spot above Earth’s equator. Over 300 communications satellites have been launched since 1957. Today
satellites in geostationary orbit provide voice, data, and television communications, including the direct broadcast of television to
homes around the world.
 B. Navigation Satellites

Navigation satellites can help locate the position of ships, aircraft, and even automobiles that are equipped with special radio receivers.
A navigation satellite sends continuous radio signals to Earth. These signals contain data that a special radio receiver on Earth
translates into information about the satellite’s position. The receiver further analyzes the signal to find out how fast and in what
direction the satellite is moving and how long the signal took to reach the receiver. From this data, the receiver can calculate its own
location. Some navigation satellite systems use signals from several satellites at once to provide even more exact location information.

The U.S. Navy launched the first navigation satellite, Transit 1B, in 1960. The United States ended its support of the Transit system in
1996. The U.S. Air Force operates a system, called the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS), that consists of 24 satellites.
Depending on the type of receiver and the method used, GPS can provide position information with an accuracy from 100 m (about
300 ft) to less than 1 cm (less than about 0.4 in). The Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) of the Russian
Federation consists of 24 satellites and provides accuracy similar to GPS. The European Commission (EC) and the European Space
Agency (ESA) plan to launch a civilian satellite navigation system called Galileo from 2005 to 2008. The European system is
designed to be compatible with those of the United States and Russia, allowing receivers around the world to communicate with
satellites in any of the three systems.

C. Weather Satellites

Weather satellites carry cameras and other instruments pointed toward Earth’s atmosphere. They can provide advance warning of
severe weather and are a great aid to weather forecasting. NASA launched the first weather satellite, Television Infrared Observation
Satellite (TIROS) 1, in 1960. TIROS 1 transmitted almost 23,000 photographs of Earth and its atmosphere. NASA operates the
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) series, which are in geostationary orbit. GOES provides information for
weather forecasting, including the tracking of storms. GOES is augmented by Meteosat 3, a European weather satellite also in
geostationary orbit. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) operates three satellites that collect data for long-
term weather forecasting. These three satellites are not in geostationary orbit; rather, their orbits carry them across the poles at a
relatively low altitude.

D. Military Satellites

Many military satellites are similar to commercial ones, but they send encrypted data that only a special receiver can decipher.
Military surveillance satellites take pictures just as other earth-imaging satellites do, but cameras on military satellites usually have a
higher resolution.

The U.S. military operates a variety of satellite systems. The Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) consists of five
spacecraft in geostationary orbit that transmit voice, data, and television signals between military sites. The Defense Support Program
(DSP) uses satellites that are intended to give early warning of missile launches. DSP was used during the Persian Gulf War (1991) to
warn of Iraqi Scud missile launches.
Some military satellites provide data that is available to the public. For instance, the satellites of the Defense Meteorological Satellite
Program (DMSP) collect and disseminate global weather information. The military also maintains the Global Positioning System
(GPS), described earlier, which provides navigation information that anyone with a GPS receiver can use.

E. Scientific Satellites

Earth-orbiting satellites can provide data to map Earth, determine the size and shape of Earth, and study the dynamics of the oceans
and the atmosphere. Scientists also use satellites to observe the Sun, the Moon, other planets and their moons, comets, stars, and
galaxies. The Hubble Space Telescope is a general-purpose observatory launched in 1990. Some scientific satellites orbit bodies other
than Earth. The Mars Global Surveyor, for example, orbits the planet Mars.

VII. The First Satellites

The first artificial satellite to orbit Earth was Sputnik 1. Built by the Soviet Union and launched on October 4, 1957, Sputnik had an
elliptical orbit, ranging in altitude from 225 to 950 km (140 to 590 mi). Sputnik broadcast a steady signal of beeps for 21 days and
burned up in Earth’s atmosphere upon reentry on January 4, 1958.

The Soviet Union also launched the first living creature, a dog named Laika, into space on November 3, 1957. Laika flew inside a
pressurized chamber aboard the satellite Sputnik 2. She died from overheating and panic after a few hours in orbit. Sputnik 2 reentered
Earth’s atmosphere and burned up on April 14, 1958.

The United States launched its first satellite, Explorer 1, on January 31, 1958. Explorer 1 had a highly elliptical orbit, ranging in
altitude from 360 to 2,500 km (220 to 1,600 mi). Scientists discovered the Van Allen radiation belts using data transmitted back to
Earth from Explorer 1.

On August 10, 1960, the United States launched a surveillance satellite, Discoverer 13, that carried the first artificial object ever
retrieved from space. While Discoverer 13 remained in orbit it ejected a capsule earthward, which was then recovered by a team from
the U.S. Navy. Later satellites carried cameras that photographed parts of Earth and then ejected recoverable containers of the exposed
film toward Earth.
Launched on October 4, 1957, the Sputnik 1 was the first
craft in Earth’s orbit. Named after the Russian word for
“traveling companion of the world” (Sputnik Zemli), it
was a small satellite measuring only 58 cm (23 in) across.
It circled the earth once every 96.2 minutes and
transmitted atmospheric information by radio. After three
months aloft, it was destroyed while reentering the
atmosphere.
The satellite Nimbus circles the earth in an orbit that
passes over the North and South Poles several times a
day, taking photos on each pass. Because the earth
rotates, each pass produces a new set of images, and the
entire earth can be photographed every day. Pictorial
information about the earth’s atmosphere and oceans is
relayed back to the surface, where it is used to monitor
changes in the environment.
The Solar Maximum Mission Satellite was a scientific
satellite designed to study solar radiation. Launched in
early 1980, the craft failed later in the year. It was
repaired and relaunched by the space shuttle in 1984,
collecting information until 1989, when it was destroyed
by a solar flare. Information collected by the satellite
indicated that the sun’s corona experiences an
unexpectedly high amount of violent activity related to
sunspot cycling. Data also showed that sunspots reduce
the amount of solar energy reaching the earth’s
atmosphere.

Broadcasters use data from meteorological satellites to

predict weather and to broadcast storm warnings when
necessary. Satellites such as the Geostationary
Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) collect
meteorological and infrared information about the
atmosphere and the ocean. A camera on the GOES is
continuously pointed at Earth, broadcasting satellite
images of cloud patterns both day and night. Here, the
GOES-C satellite is being encapsulated inside its payload
fairing aboard a Delta rocket.
The Syncom 4 communications satellite was launched
from the space shuttle Discovery. Modern
communications satellites receive, amplify, and
retransmit information back to earth, providing
television, telefax, telephone, radio, and digital data links
around the world. Syncom 4 follows a geosynchronous
orbit—that is, it orbits at the same speed as the earth
spins, keeping the satellite in a fixed position above
earth. This type of orbit enables uninterrupted
communication links between ground stations .
Telstar was one of the first active communications
satellites, launched by the United States in 1962. It
transmitted the first live television images between the
United States and Europe, and could also transmit
telephone calls.