Air Pollution and Control

Lecture 10: Atmospheric Stability and Lapse Rates

Prof. Bhola Ram Gurjar

Department of Civil Engineering

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Contents
• Atmospheric Stability
• Lapse Rate
• Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR)
• Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate DALR)
• Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR)
• Adiabatic Process
• Role of ELR & DALR on Atmospheric Stability
• Super Adiabatic Lapse Rate
• Sub Adiabatic Lapse Rate
• Neutral Stability
• Negative/Inverse Lapse Rate or Inversion
• Conclusions

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 Atmospheric Stability(1/2)
• Air movement in the atmosphere is
strongly influenced by atmospheric
stability.

• Stable - an object that is unlikely to

change or something that is balanced.

• Unstable - an unstable object is likely

to fall or change position with time.

Source: (Stull, R., 2017) Image: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu

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 Atmospheric Stability(2/2)

• Atmospheric stability depends on the variation of

temperature with height/altitude.

• In general stability refers to the tendency of air

to rise or to resist vertical motion. Thus, it
determines atmospheric status in terms of
whether or not air will rise, sink, or be neutral.

• As the air parcel rises, it will expand and cool

adiabatically to its dew point at which clouds are
formed.

Source: Spiridonov V., Ćurić M. (2021) Image: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu

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Atmospheric Stability Conditions (1/4)

Unstable

Atmospheric
Stability

Stable Neutral

Sources: https://www.nwcg.gov

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Atmospheric Stability Conditions (2/4)
Air Parcel
Rises

 Unstable Tair
15°C

• If an air parcel is warmer than its surrounding Tparcel

environment, then it will be less dense than its

surroundings and will rise like a hot air balloon.

Sources: https://www.weather.gov Image: www.atmos.albany.edu, pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu

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Atmospheric Stability Conditions (3/4)
Air Parcel
Sinks
 Stable
Tair
8 °C
• If an air parcel is cooler than its surrounding
Tparcel
environment, then it will be denser than its
environment and will sink.

Sources: https://www.weather.gov Image: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu

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 Atmospheric Stability Conditions (4/4)
 Neutral Tair
10°C
No change
in Air parcel

• If an air parcel has the same temperature as Tparcel

its surrounding environment, then the parcel

will not move and remain in suspension in
the atmosphere.

Sources: http://faculty.kutztown.edu, 20 Oct 2021

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 How to determine atmospheric Stability ?

• Stability is dependent upon the Environmental

Lapse Rate (ELR), the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rates
(DALR), and Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rates
(SALR).

• The measured ELR can be compared with both

the DALR and SALR to determine the
atmospheric stability conditions.

Sources: http://faculty.kutztown.edu, 20 Oct 2021

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Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) (1/2)
z2
• In the troposphere, the temperature of the
ambient air normally decreases with an increase in
the altitude.

• This rate of change of temperature is called lapse z1 T2 T1

rate.
𝑇2 − 𝑇1 Δ𝑇
𝛤= =
𝑧2 − 𝑧1 Δ𝑧
Where,
ΔT = Change in Temperature
Δz = Change in Altitude

Sources: https://www.britannica.com/science/lapse-rate Image: https://atoc.colorado.edu

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 Environmental Lapse Rate (2/2)
• Environmental lapse rate is observed by using
Radiosonde.
• A radiosonde is a battery-powered telemetry
instrument carried into the atmosphere usually
by a weather balloon that measures various
atmospheric parameters.
• As a weather balloon rises through the
atmosphere, it measures temperature and other
properties on the way.
• This rate will differ from place to place, and from
time to time even at the same place.

Source: (Stull, R., 2017) Image: (https://www.basicairdata.eu)

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 Adiabatic Lapse Rate
 The adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which the
temperature of an air parcel changes adiabatically
in response to the compression or expansion
associated with elevation change.
 Adiabatic process is express as no heat exchange
occurs between the given air parcel and its
surroundings.
 The types of Adiabatic Lapse Rate are
• Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR)
• Wet or saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR)

Source: (Harold F. Hemond, Elizabeth J. Fechner, 2015) Image: https://www.weather.gov

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 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
 The dry atmosphere, which may contain
water vapor, but the air parcel is
unsaturated (relative humidity < 100%)
will cool at the dry adiabatic lapse rate.
 The dry adiabatic lapse rate is 9.8
⁰C/1000m (5.4 ⁰F/1000 ft).

Source: (Harold F. Hemond, Elizabeth J. Fechner, 2015) Image: Meteorology: Understanding the Atmosphere, Jin-Yi Yu

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 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate Derivation(1/6)
 The balance of forces on a slice of air of thickness Δℎ
is made up of pressure and gravity forces,
h
𝑑𝑃
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃 + ⋅ Δℎ ⋅ 𝐴 = 𝐴Δℎ𝜌𝑔 Eq-1
𝑑ℎ

Where,
• 𝑃 is air Pressure
• 𝐴 is area
• ℎ is height
• 𝜌 is air density
• 𝑔 is acceleration due to gravity

Source: (Harold F. Hemond, Elizabeth J. Fechner, 2015)

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 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate Derivation(2/6)
 The ideal gas law is used to convert the vapor pressure into
the corresponding concentration (expressed in moles of
vapor per volume),
𝑛 𝑃
= ……………….. Eq-2
𝑉 𝑅𝑇
Where,
– 𝑛 is the number of moles of the chemical
– 𝑉 is the volume (liters)
– 𝑃 is the air pressure (atm)
– 𝑅 is the gas constant (0.082 (liter.atm)/(mol K)), and
– 𝑇 is the absolute temperature (K)
𝑛
– The left-hand quotient, , is the concentration of a chemical in the gas
𝑉
phase.

Source: (Harold F. Hemond, Elizabeth J. Fechner, 2015)

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 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate Derivation(3/6)
 𝜌 is equal to the number of moles of air per unit
𝑛
volume (𝑉) multiplied by the average molecular
weight (MW) of air (28.96 g/mol). Substituting this
relationship into the ideal gas law, Eq.2, gives
𝑛 𝑃
𝜌= 𝑀𝑊 = 𝑀𝑊 …………Eq.3
𝑉 𝑅𝑇
 Combining Eq.1 and Eq.3 and simplifying

𝑑𝑃 −𝑀𝑊. 𝑔 ………….Eq.4
= 𝑑ℎ
𝑃 𝑅. 𝑇

Source: (Harold F. Hemond, Elizabeth J. Fechner, 2015)

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 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate Derivation(4/6)
• Assuming adiabatic process, heat flow into a rising air parcel
is zero.
• Conservation of energy requires that the mechanical
(pressure-volume) work performed by the air as it expands
equal the decrease in the internal energy of the air, which is
given by the product of its heat capacity 𝐶𝑉 (energy per unit
mass per degree) and the change in temperature,
𝜕 1 𝜕𝑇
𝑃 = −𝐶𝑉 …………..Eq.5
𝜕ℎ 𝜌 𝜕ℎ
Where,
• 𝐶𝑉 is specific heat capacity at constant volume
• 𝑇 is absolute temperature (K)
Source: (Harold F. Hemond, Elizabeth J. Fechner, 2015)

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 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate Derivation(5/6)
• Eq.3 can be rearranged as • Substituting Eq.5 and Eq.8 into Eq.7
𝑀𝑊 𝑃 gives
𝑇= ⋅ ……………..Eq.6
𝑅 𝜌 𝜕𝑇 𝑀𝑊 𝜕𝑇 1
• Differentiating Eq.6, = ⋅ −𝐶𝑣 𝜕ℎ + 𝜌 −𝜌𝑔 , Eq.9
𝜕ℎ 𝑅
𝜕𝑇 𝑀𝑊 𝜕 1 1 𝜕𝑃
= 𝑃 + ….Eq.7
𝜕ℎ 𝑅 𝜕ℎ 𝜌 𝜌 𝜕ℎ

• From Eq.3 and Eq.4,

𝜕𝑝
= −𝜌𝑔 ………Eq.8
𝜕ℎ ⋅

Source: (Harold F. Hemond, Elizabeth J. Fechner, 2015)

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 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate Derivation(6/6)
• Eq.9 can be rearranged as
𝜕𝑇 −𝑔⋅𝑀𝑊
= 𝑅+𝐶 , ………………Eq.10 𝜕𝑇 −𝑔𝑀𝑊
𝜕ℎ 𝑣 . 𝑀𝑊 • = 𝑅+5Τ 𝑅
𝜕ℎ 2
• The quantity (𝐶𝑣 . 𝑀𝑊) is the heat capacity expressed in
units of energy per mole per degree and equals (5/2)R for
diatomic gases.
Thus, 𝑘𝑔ൗ
𝜕𝑇 −𝑔𝑀𝑊 − 9 ⋅ 81 𝑚Τ𝑠 2 ⋅ 28.96 ∗ 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= =
𝜕ℎ 𝑅 + 5ൗ 𝑅 7ൗ ⋅ 8.31 𝐽ൗ
2 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 . 𝐾

0
−0.0098 𝐾ൗ𝑚 = −9.8 𝐶ൗ𝑘𝑚

Source: (Harold F. Hemond, Elizabeth J. Fechner, 2015)

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 Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate(1/3)
• The rate at which adiabatic cooling for wet air
(an air parcel with a relative humidity of 100%)
is called the wet adiabatic lapse rate, the moist
adiabatic lapse rate, or the saturated adiabatic
lapse rate (SALR).
• The heat released by condensation mitigates
the adiabatic cooling effect, resulting in the
parcel of air being warmer than it would be
based on dry adiabatic cooling.
• Moist adiabatic lapse rate = 6°C / km (on
average in the troposphere)

Source: (Stull, R., 2017) Image: Meteorology: Understanding the Atmosphere, Jin-Yi Yu

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 Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate(2/3)

1+
𝐿𝑞∗ 𝑇,𝑝 • Where,
𝑅𝑑 𝑇 – 𝛤𝑚 is wet adiabatic lapse rate
• 𝛤𝑚 = 𝛤𝑑 𝐿 𝑞∗ 𝑇,𝑝
2
1+ – 𝛤𝑑 is dry adiabatic lapse rate
𝐶𝑝 𝑅𝑣 𝑇2
– 𝐿 is latent heat of vaporization of water
– 𝑞 ∗ (𝑇, 𝑝) is the saturation mixing ratio at given
temperature and pressure
𝜌𝑣∗
• 𝑅𝑑 is dry air gas constant – 𝑞 ∗ (𝑇, 𝑝) =
𝜌𝑑
(287 J/kg K) – 𝜌𝑣∗ is saturation vapor density
• 𝑅𝑣 is water vapor gas – 𝜌𝑑 is dry air density
constant (461.5 J/kg K)
• 𝐶𝑝 is the specific heat
capacity at constant
pressure
• 𝑇 is the temperature
Source: (David A. Randall, 2009)

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 Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate(3/3)
𝐿𝑞∗ 𝑇,𝑝
1+
𝑅𝑑 𝑇
• 𝛤𝑚 = 𝛤𝑑 𝐿 𝑞∗ 𝑇,𝑝
2
1+
𝐶𝑝 𝑅𝑣 𝑇2

• The denominator is larger than numerator, so

𝛤𝑚 < 𝛤𝑑 , although 𝛤𝑚 → 𝛤𝑑 at cold
temperatures.

• Ex, with pressure = 1000 mb and temp. = 288K,

𝛤𝑚 = 4.67 K/km.

• As the temperature increases, the wet

adiabatic lapse rate decrease.
Source: (David A. Randall, 2009)

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 Specific Stability Conditions (1/6) SALR
Absolute Stability: DALR > SALR > ELR. ELR
DALR

Altitude
• In this case, both plots are on the left or "cool" side of
the ELR. That is, both are on the stable side. This is
called absolute stability.

• Air parcel of any relative humidity (RH) will cool faster Temperature
than the surrounding environment and will not
rise. Air would tend to sink and create clear skies.

ELR: Environmental Lapse Rate

DALR: Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
SALR: Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Sources: http://faculty.kutztown.edu, 20 Oct 2021

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 Specific Stability Conditions (2/6)
Absolute Instability: ELR > DALR > SALR. SALR

DALR
• In this instance, both parcel lines are on the right or

Altitude
"warm side" of the ELR.

• This means that air parcel of any RH will cool more ELR
slowly than the environment and therefore always be
warmer than the surrounding environment. Temperature

• Air parcels will be buoyant and rise like hot air balloons.

ELR: Environmental Lapse Rate

DALR: Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Sources: http://faculty.kutztown.edu, 20 Oct 2021
SALR: Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate

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 Specific Stability Conditions (3/6)
SALR
Conditional Stability: DALR > ELR > SALR ELR

Altitude
The SALR is on the "warm" side and the DALR is
on the "cool" side of the ELR. DALR

This means that saturated parcels will be

unstable and dry parcels will be stable. Temperature

ELR: Environmental Lapse Rate

DALR: Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Sources: http://faculty.kutztown.edu, 20 Oct 2021
SALR: Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate

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 Specific Stability Conditions (4/6)
SALR
Wet Neutral: DALR > (SALR = ELR) ELR

Altitude
• The ELR matches the SALR. Saturated parcels
will thus be neutral. DALR

• Dry parcels, being on the left or "cool" side of

the ELR will be stable. Temperature

ELR: Environmental Lapse Rate

DALR: Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Sources: http://faculty.kutztown.edu, 20 Oct 2021
SALR: Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate

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 Specific Stability Conditions (5/6)
SALR
Dry Neutral: (DALR = ELR) > SALR
DALR

Altitude
The ELR now matches the DALR meaning that
dry parcels will be neutral. ELR

Note that saturated parcels, being on the right

or "warm" side of the ELR, will be unstable. Temperature

ELR: Environmental Lapse Rate

DALR: Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Sources: http://faculty.kutztown.edu, 20 Oct 2021
SALR: Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate

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 Specific Stability Conditions (6/6)
Extreme Stability (Inversion): ELR is negative SALR ELR
• This indicates that the layering of the lower
DALR

Altitude
atmosphere is such that warmer air lies on top of
cooler air, called temperature inversion.

• Both parcel lines are on the same, "cool" side of the

ELR. This is a special form of Absolute Stability. Temperature

• In this situation, no air parcel may rise. This often has

negative effects upon pollution dispersal.

ELR: Environmental Lapse Rate

DALR: Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Sources: http://faculty.kutztown.edu, 20 Oct 2021
SALR: Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate

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 Atmospheric Stability – Role of ELR and ALR
• The relationships between the environmental
lapse rate (ambient lapse rate) and the dry
adiabatic lapse rate essentially determine the
stability of the air and the speed with which
pollutants will disperse.

• These relationships are

i. Super Adiabatic lapse rate
ii. Sub-adiabatic lapse rate
iii. Neutral
iv. Negative/Inverse lapse rate or Inversion

Source: (Harold F. Hemond, Elizabeth J. Fechner, 2015) Image: (Ruth F. Weiner, Robin A. Matthews, 2003)

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 Super Adiabatic Lapse Rate(1/2)
• When the environmental lapse
rate (ELR) exceeds the dry
adiabatic lapse rate (DALR), the
DALR ambient lapse rate is said to be
super adiabatic.
• Super adiabatic atmospheric
conditions are unstable and
favor dispersion.

Source: (Harold F. Hemond, Elizabeth J. Fechner, 2015) Image: (electronicsbug.com)

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 Super Adiabatic Lapse Rate (2/2)
1. ELR = 12°C/km
2. Dry ALR = 10°C/km
3 3. Wet ALR = 6°C/km

1 • The air warmer than

the environment rises
2
up in the atmosphere.

Source: (Harold F. Hemond, Elizabeth J. Fechner, 2015) Image: (Air Pollution Meteorology, Brooks and Zungu, 2015)

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 Sub Adiabatic Lapse Rate(1/2)
• When the environmental lapse
rate (ELR) is less than the dry
adiabatic lapse rate (DALR), the
ambient lapse rate is said to be
sub adiabatic.
DALR
• Sub adiabatic atmospheric
conditions are stable and results
in poor dispersion.

Source: (Harold F. Hemond, Elizabeth J. Fechner, 2015) Image: (electronicsbug.com)

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 Sub Adiabatic Lapse Rate (2/2)
1. ELR = 5°C/km
2. Dry ALR = 10°C/km
3. Wet ALR = 6°C/km

1 3 • The air cooler than the

environment sinks up in
the atmosphere.
2

Source: (Harold F. Hemond, Elizabeth J. Fechner, 2015) Image: (Air Pollution Meteorology, Brooks and Zungu, 2015)

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 Neutral Stability
• When the environmental lapse
rate (ELR) is same as the dry
adiabatic lapse rate (DALR), the
DALR atmosphere has neutral
stability.

Source: (Harold F. Hemond, Elizabeth J. Fechner, 2015)

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 Inversion(1/3)
• When the air temperature increases with
altitude then the lapse rate becomes
inverted or negative.
DALR

Source: (Iyyanki V. Muralikrishna, Valli Manickam, 2017) Image: (Iyyanki V. Muralikrishna, Valli Manickam, 2017)

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 Inversion (2/3)
• When the reverse or negative lapse rate
occurs, a dense cold stratum of air at
ground level gets covered by lighter
warmer air at higher level. This
phenomenon is known as inversion.

Source: (Air Pollution -MN Rao HVN Rao) Image: (Iwww.sciencelearn.org.nz)

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 Inversion(3/3)
• Inversions are extremely stable and trap pollutants, inhibiting dispersion.

• There are four kinds of inversions:

– Ground/radiation inversion
– Turbulence inversion
– Subsidence inversion
– Frontal inversion
– Valley inversion

Source: (www.britannica.com) Image: (Iyyanki V. Muralikrishna, Valli Manickam, 2017)

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 Ground/Radiation Inversion
• Radiation inversion is caused by
radiation of heat from the earth at
night.
• 200 to 300m ht. only
• As heat is radiated, the earth and the air
closest to it cool, and this cold air is
trapped under the warm air above it.
• Pollution emitted during the night is
caught under the “inversion lid.”

Source: (Iyyanki V. Muralikrishna, Valli Manickam, 2017) Image: (Ruth F. Weiner, Robin A. Matthews, 2003)

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 Turbulence Inversion
• When quiescent air overlies turbulent
air.

• Upper part of turbulent layer cools

due to vertical mixing.

• The unmixed air above is not cooled

and thus inversion exists.

Source: (www.britannica.com)

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 Subsidence Inversion
• This is associated with a high-pressure
system and is caused by the
characteristics sinking or subsiding
motion of air in a high-pressure area
surrounded by low pressure area i.e.,
anti cyclones.
•
Temperature profile
Up to 1.5 km
• It is also called mechanical inversion.

Source: (Iyyanki V. Muralikrishna, Valli Manickam, 2017) Image: (lotusarise.com)

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 Combination of subsidence inversion and
radiation inversion
The subsidence and radiation
inversion may occur simultaneously,
known as double inversion,

Source: (Iyyanki V. Muralikrishna, Valli Manickam, 2017) Image: (lotusarise.com)

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 Frontal Inversion
• A frontal inversion occurs
when a cold air mass
undercuts a warm air mass
and lifts it.
• Warm air above and cold air
below and thus inversion.

Source: (www.britannica.com) Image: (S290 Unit 6 part 1, University of Alaska, Fairbanks)

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 Valley Inversion

• Thermal inversion where the

sides of the valley contain the
cool air near the ground.

Source: https://www.qld.gov.au

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Conclusions
• The movement of an air parcel depends upon the
atmospheric stability conditions.

• The relation between temperature and the altitude can be

understood by lapse rate.

• The environmental lapse rate (ELR) and the Dry Adiabatic

lapse rate (DALR) determines the stability conditions in
the atmosphere.

• The Inversion phenomena traps the pollutant, inhibiting

dispersion which increases the air pollution.

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References
• Stull, R., (2017), "Practical Meteorology: An Algebra-based Survey of Atmospheric Science" -version 1.02b, Univ. of
British Columbia, 940 pages, ISBN 978-0-88865-283-6
• Harold F. Hemond, Elizabeth J. Fechner,(2015), “Chapter 4 - The Atmosphere”, Chemical Fate and Transport in the
Environment (Third Edition), pp. 311-454, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-398256-8.00004-9.
• David A. Randall, (2009), The Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate, Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State
University, http://hogback.atmos.colostate.edu/group/dave/pdf/Moist_adiabatic_lapse_rate.pdf
• Ruth F. Weiner, Robin A. Matthews,(2003), Chapter 18 - Meteorology and Air Pollution, Environmental Engineering
(Fourth Edition), https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-075067294-8/50018-X.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978075067294850018X)
• Iyyanki V. Muralikrishna, Valli Manickam,(2017), Chapter Fourteen - Air Pollution Control Technologies,
Environmental Management, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811989-1.00014-2.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128119891000142)
• National Science Teaching Association, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QBnsls12MRA. Accessed on 12 th Oct.
2021

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Thank You

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