MET152 EXERCISE - 2

Question 1

1.1. When it comes to the use of shipboard meteorological instruments, define the
term air temperature. (2)

• Air temperature is the temperature indicated by a thermometer exposed to the air in a

place sheltered from direct solar radiation.

1.2. What is the purpose of a Liquid Thermometer, and what are the units of
measurement used? (2)

• Its purpose is to measure air temperature, either in Celsius (°C) or Kelvin (K) or
Fahrenheit (°F).

1.3. What care should one take when reading a Liquid Thermometer? (2)

• When reading the thermometer, one should stand at a reasonable distance so that one’s
body heat does not affect the thermometer, and one should keep one’s eye at the same
level as the end of the column or top of the liquid in a glass tube otherwise, there will
be an error due to parallax.

1.4. What care should one take when placing or positioning a Liquid Thermometer
onboard a vessel for weather observations? (2)

• The thermometer should be positioned in a well-ventilated screen with good protection

against radiation and placed as far away from any artificial source of heat as practicable
and away from the ship’s funnel(s), hold ventilators, skylights, etc.,

1.5. What is the purpose of a hygrometer? (2)

• Hygrometer is used to measure the humidity or amount of water vapour in the air.

1.6. What is the depression of the wet bulb? (2)

• It is the difference between the readings of the wet bulb and the dry bulb thermometers.

1.7. What care should one take when using a hygrometer; list at least five (5) measures
or things to consider. (5)

• The Stevenson's screen should be on the windward side of the vessel, in the open air,
away from artificial sources of heat and from the funnel, hold ventilators, skylights,
etc.,
• It should be far away from metal bulkheads, etc., which will cause heat radiations that
can affect the readings.
• The muslin should be clean -free of dust or salt particles carried by sea spray. If not,
the wet bulb thermometer will give a higher than-correct reading.
• In any case, the muslin and strands of the wick must be changed once a week or
whenever necessary. This is because solid particles left behind by the evaporating water

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 can prevent free evaporation; consequently, the wet bulb reading will be higher than
the correct reading.
• The water bottle should be washed, and the distilled water in it renewed once a week
or when necessary.

1.8. Refer to the Meteorological Tables already provided to determine the Relative
Humidity of the air when a dry bulb from a Marine Screen reads 21°C and a wet
bulb reads 20°C. (4)

• Relative Humidity is 91%

1.9. Refer to the Meteorological Tables already provided to determine the Dew Point
Temperature of the air when a dry bulb from a Marine Screen reads 21°C and a
wet bulb reads 20°C. (4)

• Dew Point is 19°C

1.10. What care should one take when using a Whirling psychrometer; list at least five
(5) measures or things to consider. (5)

• The muslin should be clean and free of dust or deposit left behind by water during
evaporation, and if not, the dirt or deposit will not allow free evaporation, and the wet
bulb reading will be higher than the correct reading. To ensure this, the muslin should
be changed at least once a week or whenever necessary.
• Only one drop of water should be dropped on the muslin, and this should soak into it.
If it does not readily soak, it means that the muslin needs changing.
• Never touch the muslin with a finger. If touched, body oils present on the finger would
get transferred to the muslin and make it water-resistant.
• When the muslin does not soak water readily, the muslin must be renewed.
• Always swing the instrument in the open air on the windward side of the ship, away
from direct sunlight.
• While swinging the instrument, care should be taken to ensure that it does not strike
against any obstruction, resulting in broken thermometers.
• The instrument should be swung for at least two minutes. The readings of the
thermometers should be made soon thereafter while out in the open air, using a torch if
necessary. If brought under the chartroom light for reading, the reading will be altered.

1.11. What is a purpose of an anemometer? (2)

• It measures relative wind speed, and relative wind direction, simultaneously.

Question 2

2.1. The barometer aboard the vessel reads an uncorrected barometric reading of 1015
mb (millibars)/hectopascals (hPa) at a height of 20m above Mean Sea Level (MSL)
with the latest index error of 3 mb low. What will be the corrected reading at Mean
Sea Level? (4)

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 Barometer reading: 1015 mb/hPa
Height Correction: +2 mb/hPa
1017 mb/hPa
Index error: +3 mb/hPa low
Corrected reading: 1020 mb/hPA
2.2. What is the purpose of a Barograph? (2)

• The Barograph records atmospheric pressure on graph paper attached to a revolving

drum.

2.3. What is the purpose of an Aneroid Barometer? (2)

• Aneroid Barometer is a nonliquid Barometer that measures atmospheric pressure.

2.4. Where should an Aneroid Barometer be located onboard a ship? (5)

• Away from undue vibration or sudden jerks.

• Away from draughts of air.
• Away from places liable to experience abnormal or sudden changes in temperature.
• As close to the centre line of the ship as practicable as this would minimise
fluctuations caused by changes in height above sea level during rolling.
• At eye level for ease of observation.

2.5. What must one do before reading an aneroid barometer? (2)

• Tap the face of the instrument lightly to release any sticking of levers or of a pointer
due to friction.

Question 3

3.1 Explain the following terms:

a. Adiabatic temperature change (2)

b. Dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) (2)
c. Saturated adiabatic lapse rate(SALR) (2)
d. Stable air (2)
e. Unstable air (2)

a. Adiabatic temperature change (2)

When a body of air is subject to an increase in pressure, it undergoes

compressional heating as opposed to thermal heating. If the same body of air
is subject to a reduction in pressure, it undergoes expansional cooling as

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 opposed to thermal cooling.

b. Dry adiabatic lapse rate(DALR) (2)

When unsaturated air is forced to rise through its environment, it cools at a

constant rate of 1°C per 100m.

c. Saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) (2)

The upward motion of saturated air results in condensation of excess water

vapour. The process of condensation releases the latent heat of vapourisation
which warms the air and reduces expansional cooling. Always less than
DALR.

d. Stable air (2)

If air which has been forced to rise (or fall) from its initial level tends to return
to that level, it is said to be stable. This condition occurs when the
environmental lapse rate is less than SALR.

e. Unstable air (2)

If air which has been forced to rise (or fall) from its initial level tends to
continue its upward or downward movement, it is said to be unstable. This
condition occurs when the environmental lapse rate is greater than the DALR.

3.2. Describe the main causes of the initial uplift of air (10)

• Thermal uplift

Is the result of the air temperature being raised through contact with a warmer
surface.

• Turbulent uplift

Air flowing horizontally over a rough surface sets up horizontal and vertical
eddy currents. When the surface air is forced up above the condensation level,
clouds will form.

• Orographic uplift

Occurs when an airstream meets an obstructing coastline or barrier of hills and

is forced upwards, irrespective of whether the air is stable or unstable. Clouds
form above the condensation level.

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 • Frontal uplift

Occurs mainly within depressions. Warm air overriding cold air and vice versa.

• Convergent winds

When the horizontal inflow of air exceeds the horizontal outflow, the surface
air is forced upwards mechanically.

Question 4

4.1. Write a brief summary of the physical processes which result in cloud formation
(5)

• When unsaturated air is forced to rise, it will expand and cool adiabatically.
• If the ascent continues long enough, it will reach its dew point and become saturated.
• The further upward motion will result in the condensation of excess water vapour in the
form of a cloud.
• Therefore, moist air gives a relatively low cloud base, while dry air has a relatively high
cloud base.

4.2. Name 3 (three) main cloud groups including heap clouds and their corresponding
approximate heights in metres, and corresponding cloud types. (20)

CLOUD GROUP AVERAGE HEIGHT RANGES CLOUDS

(For middle latitudes)

LOW-LEVEL CLOUDS From near-surface level to Stratus (St)

about 2,000 metres. Nimbostratus (Ns)
Stratocumulus (Sc)

Clouds of marked vertical From near-surface level to Cumulus (Cu)

extent (heap clouds) about 14,000 metres. Cumulonimbus (Cb)

MEDIUM LEVEL About 2,000 metres to about 5,500

CLOUDS metres. Altocumulus (Ac)
Altostratus (As)

HIGH-LEVEL CLOUDS About 5,500 metres to about 14,000 Cirrus (Ci)

metres. Cirrocumulus (Cc)
Cirrostratus (Cs)

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