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Introduction to Urbanization
The term urbanization is commonly used in demography as well as in geography. The most common measure of urbanization is
the proportion of the total population of an area that lives in the urban areas as defined in the census. The process of
urbanization has been going on since pre-historic times.
However the range of urbanization rose sharply in the 19th and 20th centuries. During 1800, there were 27 million urban
dwellers, in the world 3% of the total but that time umber has increased 40% of the total population. In the developed world
65% are dwelling in urban areas but in the developing world 25% are urban dwellers and this may be expected 45% till 2010.
So, we can see that urban population is increasing day by day. This process of increase
is called urbanization.
Meaning of Urbanization
Urbanization means the inflow of rural people to urban areas. It is the movement of the people from the rural areas to urban areas.
Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, "the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban
areas", and the ways in which each society adapts to the change.
It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in
central areas. The United Nations projected that half of the world's population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008. It is
predicted that by 2050 about 64% of the developing world and 86% of the developed world will be urbanized. That is equivalent to
approximately 3 billion urbanites by 2050, much of which will occur in Africa and Asia. Notably, the United Nations has also recently
projected that nearly all global population growth from 2016 to 2030 will be absorbed by cities, about 1.1 billion new urbanites over the
next 14 years.
DEFINITION
Urbanization is a process by which a society’s population increases its concentration in urban areas such as town and cities. It short,
the increase in urban population cither by migration from rural areas or by their internal growth is called urbanization .
The process of making an area more urban. The quality or state of being urbanized or the process of becoming urbanised. The
process by which towns and cities are formed and become large r as more and more people begin living and working in central
areas.
WHY URBANISATION REQUIRES
Because of human population growth, urbanization of rural land has become a necessity, along with the accompanying
development of infrastructure to support it.
One of the major trends we see in developing nations like Cambodia is an increase in urbanization, when people living in rural
areas move to cities where there is more opportunity to earn a living.
The increase in farming technology has decreased the amount of farmers needed to produce our food supply, leading to rapid
urbanization in modern-day America.
An increase in a population in cities and towns versus rural areas. Urbanization began during the industrial revolution, when
workers moved towards manufacturing hubs in cities to obtain jobs in factories as agricultural jobs became less common.
Urbanization is relevant to a range of disciplines, including geography, sociology, economics, urban planning, and public hea lth.
The phenomenon has been closely linked to modernization, industrialization, and the sociological process of rationalization.
Urbanization can be seen as a specific condition at a set time (e.g. the proportion of total population or area in cities or towns) or
as an increase in that condition over time. So urbanization can be quantified either in terms of, say, the level of urban
development relative to the overall population, or as the rate at which the urban proportion of the population is increasing.
Urbanization creates enormous social, economic and environmental changes, which provide an opportunity for sustainability with
the “potential to use resources more efficiently, to create more sustainable land use and to protect the biodiversity of natu ral
ecosystems.”
Urbanization is not merely a modern phenomenon, but a rapid and historic transformation of human social roots on a global
scale, whereby predominantly rural culture is being rapidly replaced by predominantly urban culture. The first major change i n
settlement patterns was the accumulation of hunter-gatherers into villages many thousand years ago. Village culture is
characterized by common bloodlines, intimate relationships, and communal behavior whereas urban culture is characterized by
distant bloodlines, unfamiliar relations, and competitive behavior. This unprecedented movement of people is forecast to continue
and intensify during the next few decades, mushrooming cities to sizes unthinkable only a century ago.
Today, in Asia the urban agglomerations of Osaka, Karachi, Jakarta, Mumbai, Shanghai, Manila, Seoul and Beijing are each
already home to over 20 million people, while Delhi and Tokyo are forecast to approach or exceed 40 million people each withi n
the coming decade. Outside Asia, Mexico City, São Paulo, New York, Lagos, Los Angeles, and Cairo are, or soon will be, home
to over 20 million people.
Urbanization rapidly spread across the Western world and, since the 1950s, it has begun to take hold in the developing world as
well. At the turn of the 20th century, just 15% of the world population lived in cities. According to the UN the year 2007 witnessed
the turning point when more than 50% of the world population were living in cities, for the first time in human history.
Major causes of urbanization: Following are the main causes of urbanization, Various reasons have led to the growth of cities.
They are as follows:
Industrial revolution: Industrial employment catches the attention of people from rural to urban areas. In the urban areas,
people work in modern sector in the occupations that assist national economic development. This represents th at the old
agricultural economics is changing to a new non-agricultural economy. This is the trend, which will build a new modern society.
i. Industrialization:
Industrialization is a major cause of urbanization. It has expanded the employment opportunities. Rural people have migrated
to cities on account of better employment opportunities.
ii. Social factors:
Many social factors such as attraction of cities, better standard of living, better educational facilities, need for status a lso induce
people to migrate to cities.
iii. Employment opportunities:
In rural sector people have to depend mainly on agriculture for their livelihood. But Indian agriculture is depending on
monsoon. In drought situations or natural calamities, rural people have to migrate to cities.
iv. Modernization:
Urban areas are characterized by sophisticated technology better infrastructure, communication, medical facilities, etc. People
feel that they can lead a comfortable life in cities and migrate to cities.
v. Rural urban transformation:
It is an interesting aspect that not only cities are growing in number but rural community is adopting urban culture, no longer
rural communities are retaining their unique rural culture. Rural people are following the material culture of urban people.
Urban rural transformation can be observed in the following areas.
vi. Economic opportunities:
It is general perception that living standard of urban area is superior as compared to village areas. People consider that mo re
job opportunities and more jobs are offered in the city instead of rural area. Besides, the income also will be higher.
viii. Human Migration :
Human migration is different compared to the animal migration. It is the movement of people from one place to another to seek
permanent or semi-permanent residence. The movement usually happens across the political boundary. It coul d be a semi-
permanent movement, if you are a seasonal farm laborer. The movement can be voluntary and involuntary. Migration can be
intercontinental, intercontinental, interregional or rural to urban migration. In 2014, the United Nations reported highest level of
59.5 million forced migrations of people due to violence, conflict and persecution. These figures of human migration in 2013 were
51.2 million (noticeable increase of 8.3 million). A decade ago this figure was 37 million. As of 2015, one of every 122 humans is
a refugee seeking asylum or internally displaced.
With population explosion, the problem of housing has become more serious. Proper housing is must as it catapults the
productivity of labour and it is also a basic human right.
The Government policy of housing has been more or less passive throughout the 50 years since Independence because of
resource constraint.
In 1960, National Building Construction Corporation (NBCC) incorporated as a Public Sector Undertaking was set up. In 1969,
National Co-operative Housing Federation of India was set up.
In 1970, HUDCO was set up as a fully owned Government Company In 1976; National Institute of Urban Affairs was set up. In
1985, National Capital Region Planning Board was constituted. In 1996, National Slum Development Programme (NSDP)
launched. In 1997, the Union Cabinet approved the Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rojgar Yojana.
A new Housing and Habitat Policy 1998 has been approved and laid before the Parliament on 29 July, 1998. Its objective is to
create surpluses in housing stock and facilitate construction of 2 million additional dwelling units each year in pursuance of
National Agenda for Governance.
Under the new economic reforms, there is a scheme of Infrastructure Development in mega cities i.e., Mumbai, Chennai,
Calcutta, Hyderabad and Bangalore in operation from 1993-94.
The Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act came into force in 1976 to provide equitable distribution of land in order to
subserve the common good. The Urban Land (C&R) Repeal Bill, 1998 was introduced on 11 June 1998.
In National Housing and Habital Policy 1998, the government decided to repeal the Act through an Ordinance and the Urban
Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Repeal Ordinance, 1999 was accordingly notified on 11 January, 1999.
Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme was launched midway during the Eighth Plan period in March 1994 to provide
safe and adequate water supply facilities to the entire population of towns having population less than 20,000 (as per 1991
census) in the country.
Meaning of Housing:
Generally speaking, housing may be defined as an architectural unit for accommodation in order to protect the occupants from
the forces of nature. But in wider meaning housing covers all the ancillary services and community facilities which are essen tial
to human well being. In addition to the physical structure, it includes water supply, sanitation, and disposal of water, recreation
and other basic amenities of life. Thus housing can be defined as a component architectural structure within a total system
consisting of various settlement variables.
Role of Housing:
Housing is closely associated to the process of overall socio-economic development. It provides shelter and raises the quality of
life. It generates conditions which are congenial to the achievement of social objectives such as health, sanitation and
education. It provides employment opportunities to the rural and urban people. Moreover it helps to imp rove urban rural
equality by narrowing down the difference in the standard of living. Thus housing performs multiple functions including many
social needs of the household.
Socio-cultural Variables in Housing:
The socio-cultural factors decide the quality and quantity of housing in India. The caste divide in Indian rural society mainly
affects the distribution of houses and the quality of housing. In Indian villages, the division on caste basis has given rise to
division of housing.
Generally houses of upper castes are situated in better areas while houses of lower castes especially scheduled castes and
some backward classes are situated in periphery of the village. These peripheral regions are mostly low lying a reas and
unhygienic. Kinship and family structure are other variables which affect the quality and quantity of housing. For example,
there is shift from joint family system to nuclear families. This tendency puts pressure on the available land for housing. In
Punjab and Haryana this pressure is visible. In Rajasthan where dispersed settlement pattern exists, this pressure may not be
felt so far.
The household size is also important variable of housing quality and quantity. Urban families are small in compar ison to rural
area. The land is more costly in urban areas. So urban houses are small in size as compared to village houses. The occupational
pattern and tradition also affect the housing layout. Generally, housing structure in rural areas use locally available building
material, technology and man power except well to do rural families. In urban areas, building materials used are of industria l
origin and durable.
Magnitude of the housing problem:
The magnitude of the problem of housing in India is quite wide. The problem has both quantitative and qualitative dimensions.
According to 1991 census, the housing shortage was 18.5 million dwelling units, out of which 13.7 million for rural areas and 4.8
million for urban areas 41.6 % was living in pucca houses, 30.9% was living in semi-pucca houses and 27.5% was living in kutcha
(kachcha) houses.
The total housing shortage at the end of tenth plan has officially been assessed as 24.71 million dwelling units for 67.4 mil lion
Households, where 98% of this shortage was in the Low Income and Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) segment. The
situation even at the end of 11th Plan, despite efforts envisaged to be implemented, is also not projected to improve, but
rather this shortage is expected to escalate to 26.53 million houses for 75.01 million households.
1. Connectivity – For Affordable Housing to be truly sustainable, it is important for both development and throughput to be
speedy and large scale. However, the lack of affordable and adequately sized land parcels in inner urban localities has driven
the development of Affordable Housing to urban peripheries. This is turn often poses a challenge to the Affordable Housing
customer, who requires efficient connectivity to areas of work in city business districts. The development of effective mass
rapid transit systems is the solution to facilitate easy commute and reduce travel time.
2. Financial literacy – Unable to produce formal pay slips and other relevant documentation to establish creditworthiness, EWS
and LIG categories often find it difficult to secure formal housing finance. Financial assistance and financial literacy trai ning is
thus the need of the hour for the segment, and Non-Banking Financial Companies have stepped in to provide the needful
assistance to such customers in securing home loans.
3. Cost of ownership – Lack of affordable land, various forms of taxes and levies like VAT, Service Tax, Stamp Duty etc.
constitutes anywhere between 30% to 35% of the home cost, whic h increases the cost of home ownership. This is in addition
to the inefficiencies that is brought to a project by local development rules which are more attuned to premium housing.
Moreover, the lack of affordable land options within the city pushes the Affordable Housing corridors to the peri-urban areas
which, when coupled with the lack of mass rapid transit systems, makes it difficult for the Affordable Housing customer to ta ke
the all-important decision of owning his/her first home. Positive intervention by respective state governments along with help
from the central government will go a long way in increasing supplies within the city limits till at such time as last mile p ublic
infrastructure like mass rapid transit, water, electricity, sewage disposal facility, etc. is established in peri urban areas.
The recently announced Housing for All missions is a significant step in the right direction to transform the Affordable Hous ing
paradigm in India. Some of the initiatives like the redefining of EWS/LIG c ategories, interest subvention schemes and incentives
to private players are definitely great first steps taken in addressing the housing deficit challenge facing the nation today . For
example, the interest subvention scheme of 6.5% is expected to substant ially reduce the cost of home ownership for end users
as the effective rate of interest can be as low as 3.5% to 4%, post accounting for the subvention up to a loan amount of firs t 6
Lakhs, which again has a scope to be relooked at for raising the limit of the loan size eligible for subvention. This can motivate
the real target segment to overcome their hesitation and take that crucial first step towards formal home ownership.
(i) Homelessness:
Homelessness is a complex problem; the circumstances of homeless people vary greatly. Homelessness is sometimes a product
of shortage of houses, but in some cases homelessness is caused due to other reasons also. Four main issues are found to be
the causes for homelessness:
(ii) Shortages of housing:
If there are not enough places for people to live, then someone has to go without and those who are excluded are generally the
poorest people.
(iii) Entitlement to land:
People erect temporary shelters rather than be homeless. Squatters usually build temporary shelters at first, but over time
these settlements are given concrete shape and become more established.
(iv) Entitlement to housing:
If people are not entitled to use the houses which exist, they may be homeless, even when there is no apparent shortage. Some
people are excluded because of their circumstances—street children are an example. The main reason for exclusion, however,
is financial—homeless people are those who cannot afford the housing which is available.
(v) Personal situation of homeless people:
Homelessness is often attributed to the characteristics of the homeless person, such as alcoholism and psychiatric illness; o r to
the social situation of homeless people, such as unemployment and marital breakdown (this condition mostly happens with
women in India). People in these situations only become homeless if they are excluded from housing, or do not have enough
resources to secure alternative housing.
(vi) Congestion:
Many households in urban areas have to cope with increasingly crowded conditions, although this is certainly not true for
everyone. The housing conditions improve when people build high buildings, sometimes more than five storeys, to increase t he
number of houses. Many urban centres have very high population densities. The house owners therefore rent out numerous
rooms to migrants. Poor migrants five under the most crowded condi tions. They do not have access to ancestral residential
land.
The government has also introduced some schemes to curb the housing problem. They are as
follows.
i. Subsidized industrial housing scheme:
This scheme was started in September 1952, to provide houses to the labourers who worked before 1948 and 1952. The
Government of India gave loans to the extent of 65 per cent to various industries, state government, legal housing construction
societies and cooperative societies to construct houses for the labourers. The labourers could purchase these houses according
to the rules framed by the government.
But these houses could not be sold or alienated without prior permission of the government. But this s cheme did not succeed
much because of the lack of cooperation of mill owners. In the third Five -Year-Plan, it was made obligatory for mill owners to
provide housing facilities to their labourers. In the fourth Five -Year-Plan, a provision of Rs. 45 crore was made for this purpose.
The fifth plan also included similar provisions. Apart from the central government, state governments have also formed variou s
Housing Boards and implemented societies and various schemes.
ii. LIG housing schemes:
This scheme was started in 1954. Persons who have income less than Rs. 600 per annum could get a loan up to 80 per cent.
Local and cooperative bodies are given such loans.
iii. Slum clearance and improvement scheme:
This scheme was started in the year 1956 to give financial assistance to the state governments and local bodies for improving
the slum areas. It was estimated then that about 12 lakh houses were not fit for dwelling. Hence, the long -term and short-term
schemes were started. But as it was not possible to provide houses to all the people living in slum areas, this scheme could not
progress satisfactorily.
iv. Middle-income group housing scheme:
Under this scheme, the people of middle-income group are given loans for constructing the houses. The state government also
gives loans on low rates of interest.
vi. Rental housing schemes:
This scheme was started in 1959 to provide houses on rent to the state government employees.
vi. Land acquisition and development scheme:
The government felt that the LIG and middle-income group people could construct houses if land was made available to them
on a reasonable price. For this purpose, a plan was set up under which the state governments could acquire land and plots at
suitable places, develop them and give them away to the needy people.
1. Large Brick Making Program: A large brick making program involving setting up of about 100 giant -size mechanized brick
making plants each producing 100,000 to 200,000 bricks per day in various parts of the country, approximately 4 such plan ts in
each state.
2. Low cost Cement Plants: The second program required is for cement making along with surkhi and lime are required for
conventional construction of buildings as well as new type of brick or block making Blocks like lime -concrete, Aerated concrete,
foam concrete are new concepts of brick making where clay is not available. Cement for low cost housing can be made in small
plants using VSK (Vertical Shaft Kilns).
3. Set up Large Size Float Glass Plants: Glass sheets can be made in existing or new glass plants to be set up specifically for
building and housing projects. Though there are automatic or semiautomatic glass plants in India both in container and tube a nd
bulb making sectors, the number of sheet and plate glass plants are only a few. All efforts to set up large size Float glass plants
have not yet been fully successful in India. More efforts should be made to either manufacture Float glass in India on a very large
scale or partly substitute it with imported glass sheets at a cheaper rate from China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and other South- East
Asian countries.
4. Modernization of Mud Houses: For rural and cheap housing several authorities should be set up modernizing mud housing
partly replacing with brick walls with roofs made of clay tiles, Asbestos and corrugated galvanized iron sheets.
Conclusion
Thus a huge and massive Housing program should be made by central Government along with all state Governments so that by
2050 all people can have some sort of housing and may not stay in dilapidated, thatched, straw made, bamboo made, made of
leaves & bamboos.
The people in slum areas and foot paths should also be brought under some sort of housing schemes so that India can as a
whole ensure that none of people is houseless in this country.
Possible remedy for the urbanization issues and problems at global level
The most effectual way to resolve issues of urbanization is to make the economy of village and small scale fully viable.
Economies must be revitalized if government undertakes huge rural development program. It is suggested that surplus
manpower must be absorbed in village in order to migrate to urban areas. It is needed to control traffic congestion in urban
region and people must be encouraged to use public transport. India must improve the traffic control system to avoid
accidents. It is necessary to implement resilient clean-up campaign. Government must make polices to construct low cast multi -
storied flats in order to accommodate the slum dwellers. Government should provide funds to encourage entrepreneurship and
also find solution for pollution in the nation. Reports of WHO stated that the health cities proposal aimed to develop the
physical, mental, environmental, and social welfare of people who live and work in urban centers. People from different
backgrounds, including community members to government representatives, from cities were organized and encouraged to
come together and work together in order to deal with the problems that emerge in urban environments. This association of
people shared strategies, success stories, and resources to tackle the concerns of the local society. WHO reports indicated that,
"A healthy city is one that is continually creating and improving the physical and social environments and expanding the
community resources that enable people to mutually support each other in performing all the functions of life and in
developing to their maximum potential."
To summarize, Urbanization is the substantial expansion of urban areas due to rural migration and it is strongly related to
modernization, industrialization, and the sociological process of rationalization. Urbanization commonly occurred in developing
countries because government has keenness to accomplish a developed city status. As a result, almost all area in the city has
been developed and in the worst case scenario, even the green areas are also turned into industrial or business area. It
illustrates that speedy urbanization has many unconstructive implications especially towards social and environmental aspects .
While the process of urbanization occurs at global scale, it is more visible in developing countries. This growth has led to
concerns about the sustainability of these urban centers. Explosive growth in the world population and migration of people to
in urban centers is causing major concern about the quality of life in these urban centers and the life-supporting capacity of the
planet ecologically and communally.
The government should not be keen to develop a city without considering the impacts towards the social and environmental
aspect. Instead, the government should modify the urban development process in order to accomplish a developed city and
make efforts to lessen the possibility of problems that might arise. In order to triumph over urbanization issues and problem s,
Khosh-Chashm (1995) recommended that the society should work together closely with the authorities to assist in modernizing
life in urban area. The changeover from a rural to urban wealth is very rapid in historical terms for most economic systems. The
task to fulfill all the demands for jobs, shelter, water, roads, transport and other urban infrastructure is overwhelming.
Presently, India already has numerous mega cities. Many researchers believe that urbanization is good for the financial growt h
of country but careful planning is required to develop cities and offer basic amenities for healthy living.
Conclusion
The government has now started focusing on providing housing facilities but has not thought much about solving problems that
are connected with human settlements, such as the problems of improving and managing the civic services, constructing
inexpensive houses and conserving energy and recycling waste. Lack of proper water supply and sanitation facilities for
drainage system and garbage disposal are major problems in most of the modern urban centers of today.