EGYPTIAN ART

Art is an essential aspect of any civilization. Once the basic human needs have been taken care of such
as food, shelter, some form of community law, and a religious belief, cultures begin producing artwork,
and often all of these developments occur more or less simultaneously. This process began in the
Predynastic Period in Egypt (c. 6000 - c. 3150 BCE) through images of animals, human beings, and
supernatural figures inscribed on rock walls. These early images were crude in comparison to later
developments but still express an important value of Egyptian cultural consciousness: balance. Egyptian
society was based on the concept of harmony known as ma'at which had come into being at the dawn
of creation and sustained the universe. All Egyptian art is based on perfect balance because it reflects
the ideal world of the gods. The same way these gods provided all good gifts for humanity, so the
artwork was imagined and created to provide a use. Egyptian art was always first and foremost
functional. No matter how beautifully a statue may have been crafted, its purpose was to serve as a
home for a spirit or a god. An amulet would have been designed to be attractive but aesthetic beauty
was not the driving force in its creation, protection was. Tomb paintings, temple tableaus, home and
palace gardens all were created so that their form suited an important function and, in many cases, this
function was a reminder of the eternal nature of life and the value of personal and communal stability.

Early Dynastic Period Art

The value of balance, expressed as symmetry, infused Egyptian art from the earliest times. The rock art
from the Predynastic Period establishes this value which is fully developed and realized in the Early
Dynastic Period of Egypt (c. 3150 - c. 2613 BCE). Art from this period reaches its height in the work
known as The Narmer Palette (c. 3200-3000 BCE) which was created to celebrate the unity of Upper and
Lower Egypt under King Narmer (c. 3150 BCE). Through a series of engravings on a siltstone slab, shaped
as a chevron shield, the story is told of the great king's victory over his enemies and how the gods
encouraged and approved his actions. Although some of the images of the palette are difficult to
interpret, the story of unification and the celebration of the king is quite clear.

On the front, Narmer is associated with the divine strength of the bull (possibly the Apis Bull) and is seen
wearing the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt in a triumphal procession. Below him, two men wrestle
with entwined beasts which are often interpreted as representing Upper and Lower Egypt (though this
view is contested and there seems no justification for it). The reverse side shows the king's victory over
his enemies while the gods look on approvingly. All these scenes are carved in low-raised relief with
incredible skill.

This technique would be used quite effectively toward the end of the Early Dynastic Period by the
architect Imhotep (c. 2667-2600 BCE) in designing the pyramid complex of King Djoser (c. 2670 BCE).
Images of lotus flowers, papyrus plants, and the djed symbol are intricately worked into the architecture
of the buildings in both high and low relief. By this time the sculptors had also mastered the art of
working in stone to created three-dimensional life-sized statues. The statue of Djoser is among the
greatest works of art from this period.

Old Kingdom Art

This skill would develop during the Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2613-2181 BCE) when a strong central
government and economic prosperity combined to allow for monumental works like the Great Pyramid
of Giza, the Sphinx, and elaborate tomb and temple paintings. The obelisk, first developed in the Early
Dynastic Period, was refined and more widely used during the Old Kingdom. Tomb paintings became
increasingly sophisticated but statuary remained static for the most part. A comparison between the
statue of Djoser from Saqqara and a small ivory statue of King Khufu (2589-2566 BCE) found at Giza
display the same form and technique. Both of these works, even so, are exceptional pieces in execution
and detail.

Art in the Intermediate Period

The First Intermediate Period has long been characterized as a time of chaos and darkness and artwork
from this era has been used to substantiate such claims. The argument from art rests on an
interpretation of First Intermediate Period works as poor quality as well as an absence of monumental
building projects to prove that Egyptian culture was in a kind of free fall toward anarchy and dissolution.
In reality, the First Intermediate Period of Egypt was a time of tremendous growth and cultural change.
The quality of the artwork resulted from a lack of a strong central government and the corresponding
absence of state-mandated art.

The different districts were now free to develop their own vision in the arts and create according to that
vision. There is nothing 'low quality' about First Intermediate Period art; it is simply different from Old
Kingdom artwork. The lack of monumental building projects during this time is also easily explained: the
dynasties of the Old Kingdom had drained the government treasury in creating their own grand
monuments and, by the time of the 5th Dynasty, there were no resources left for such projects. The
collapse of the Old Kingdom following the 6th Dynasty certainly was a time of confusion, but there is no
evidence to suggest the era which followed was any kind of 'dark age'.

The First Intermediate Period produced a number of fine pieces but also saw the rise of mass-produced
artwork. Items which had previously been made by a single artist were now assembled and painted by a
production crew. Amulets, coffins, ceramics, and shabti dolls were among these crafts. Shabti dolls were
important funerary objects which were buried with the deceased and were thought to come to life in
the next world and tend to one's responsibilities. These were made of faience, stone, or wood but, in
the First Intermediate Period, are mostly of wood and mass produced to be sold cheaply. Shabti dolls
were important items because they would allow the soul to relax in the afterlife while the shabti did
one's work. Previously, only the wealthy could afford shabti dolls, but in this era, they were available to
those of more modest means.

Middle Kingdom Art

The First Intermediate Period ended when Mentuhotep II (c. 2061-2010 BCE) of Thebes defeated the
kings of Herakleopolis and initiated the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (2040-1782 BCE). Thebes now became
the capital of Egypt and a strong central government again had the power to dictate artistic taste and
creation. The rulers of the Middle Kingdom, however, encouraged the different styles of the districts and
did not mandate that all art conform to the tastes of the nobility. Although there was great reverence
for Old Kingdom art and, in many cases, an obvious attempt to reflect it, Middle Kingdom Art is
distinctive in the themes explored and the sophistication of the technique.

The Middle Kingdom is usually regarded as the high point of Egyptian culture. The tomb of Mentuhotep
II is itself a work of art, sculpted from the cliffs near Thebes, which merges seamlessly with the natural
landscape to create the effect of a wholly organic work. The paintings, frescoes, and statuary which
accompanied the tomb also reflect a high level of sophistication and, as always, symmetry. Jewelry was
also refined greatly at this time with some of the finest pieces in Egyptian history dated to this era. A
pendant from the reign of Senusret II (c. 1897-1878 BCE) which he gave to his daughter is fashioned of
thin gold wires attached to a solid gold backing inlaid with 372 semi-precious stones. The statues and
busts of kings and queens are intricately carved with a precision and beauty lacking in much of the Old
Kingdom artwork.

Later Periods & Legacy

The skills acquired would continue through the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 1069-525 BCE) and
Late Period (525-332 BCE), which are also negatively compared with the grander eras of a strong central
government. The style of these later periods was affected by the times and the limited resources, but
the art is still of considerable quality. Egyptologist David P. Silverman notes how "the art of this era
reflects the opposing forces of tradition and change" (222). The Kushite rulers of the Late Period of
Ancient Egypt revived Old Kingdom art in an effort to identify themselves with Egypt's oldest traditions
while native Egyptian rulers and nobility sought to advance artistic representation from the New
Kingdom.

This same paradigm holds with Persian influence following their invasion of 525 BCE. The Persians also
had great respect for Egyptian culture and history and identified themselves with Old Kingdom art and
architecture. The Ptolemaic Period (323-30 BCE) blended Egyptian with Greek art to create statuary like
that of the god Serapis - himself a combination of Greek and Egyptian gods - and the art of the Roman
Egypt (30 BCE - 646 CE) followed this same model. Romans would draw on the older Egyptian themes
and techniques in adapting Egyptian gods to Roman understanding. Tomb paintings from this time are
distinctly Roman but follow the precepts begun in the Old Kingdom.