Book 3 Module 11A

CATEGORY B1.1
STRUCTURES 1

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Licence By Post © Copyright B1.1 EASA 66 11A.2 11A.3 ISSUE 05 0213

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AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority
(the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local
procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/
guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company,
national safety authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Principles of design 1
Materials 5
Anti corrosive treatments 8
Structures theory 9
Structures general 14
The fuselage 17
Pressurised hulls 26
Airframe location systems 30
Windows/windscreens 35
Hatches and doors 38
Cabin sealing 46
Baggage handling and cargo systems 49
The tail skid 56
Mainplanes 57
Tailplane & fin 60
Airframe major sections 61
Major component attachment points 62
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

The subject of Structures is split into two books: Structures 1 and Structures
2.

Written for the B1.1 engineer who should have a good all round knowledge of
the airframe structure (fuselage, wings, tailplane, fin, pylons etc) and the
structural attachments for major components. This knowledge should include
the theory of structures, their function and construction methods, and the
legal requirements.

The subject matter covers the structures syllabus 11A.2 and 11A.3. Repairs
are part of module 7A. In that respect you are advised to consult the book on
structure repairs in module 7A for any related information. There is also
related information in the Fuel Systems book of this module covering integral
fuel tank sealing. Also there is information in the book in this series on
Equipment and Furnishings and further information can be found on Weight
and Balance related to cargo loading in module 7A.

Script in italics is intended as back-ground reading and is not part of the

module 11A syllabus – but maybe part of the EASA syllabus for other modules.

Some CAA publication changes relating to the subject matter in this book.

CAP 747 GR 7 (was AN89) provides for the inspection and continuing
structural integrity of ageing aircraft. These are defined as certificated
transport aircraft over 2730kg MTWA having exceeded their design life or are
over 15 years old.

It states the procedures for continuing structural inspection and the

responsibilities of the Operator and the Type Certificate Holder.

CAP 747 GR 21 (was AN92) provides for the approval of cargo containers – self
contained or built-in to the aircraft. It states that they must comply with the
current regulations regarding strength requirements as laid down in
BCAR/EASA/JAR regulations.

CAP 747 GR 3 (was AN79) deals with access to emergency exits (type III and IV)
on passenger transport aircraft over 5700kg MTWA. Specifies seat/s position/s
around the immediate vicinity of the exit.

cont
Throughout this module reference will be made to various publications/
acronyms. To help in their identification some of them are listed below.

CAP Civil Air Publication. Issued by the CAA.

 CAP747 A publication containing generic (common to many)
requirements for aircraft.
CAP562 Civil Aircraft Airworthiness Information and Procedures
(CAAIPs). Up-to-date version available on the net on the
CAA’s website. Do check it and have a look at the contents.
BCAR British Civil Aviation Requirements. Issued by the CAA and
are being replaced by EU drafted regulations (EASA) for civil
aircraft in the UK. BCARs are still current in some countries
who originally came under their jurisdiction.
JAR Joint Airworthiness Requirements. Brought in when aviation
requirements became common throughout the EU. Issued
by the JAA (Joint Aviation Agency).
EASA European Aviation Safety Agency. Taking over the role of the
JAA. There are many EASA regulations/specifications.

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES – PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

Structures are concerned with the airframe of the aircraft, ie the fuselage,
wings, fin, tailplane or stabiliser, engine mountings, attachment brackets etc.
The airframe is built to very specific requirements since it comprises about
40% of the total aircraft mass and provides all the aircraft strength. These
requirements are:

* Adequate strength.
* Adequate stiffness.
* Minimum mass.
* Adequate mechanical properties such as toughness,
fatigue resistance etc.
* Smooth aerodynamic shape.

Principles of Design

All aircraft must be built to the requirements laid down by the authority of the
country in which they are built. In the UK this is the CAA. The requirements
are published in British Civil Airworthiness Requirements (BCARs) (older
aircraft) and European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Certification
Specifications (CS) requirements. These include:

* CS 23 Light aircraft.
* CS 25 Large aircraft.
* CS 27 Small rotorcraft.
* CS 29 Large rotorcraft.

The structure must meet stringent requirements and the CAA will be involved
both during the design and the construction stages of the airframe.

EASA CS 25 specifies the structural requirements that the airframe of large

turbine powered aircraft must meet. These requirements must be met before
the issue of a C of A. The requirements are extensive and listed below are just
a few examples of the areas dealt with.

Factor of Safety. The normal specified minimum is 1.5 but can be changed
(with authority). This means that an airframe part/substructure must be made
1½ times stronger than the maximum load it is likely to meet in service.

Deformation of the structure must not be significant under normal maximum

loadings.

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Fatigue. (Cyclic stressing that weakens the structure even though the stresses
are well within the normal maximum stress levels the material will bear).
Fatigue limits are laid down and the structure must pass both static and
dynamic fatigue testing. More of this later.

Gust Loads. The aerodynamic loadings which the aircraft experiences in flight
and the conditions under which they are applied are specified.
Fuel & Oil Loads. Applied to the airframe by fuel and oil uptakes (mass) and
inertia loads. In many cases fuel tank loads are considerable and the airframe
must be capable of withstanding these – with the appropriate factor of safety.

Engine, APU and Landing Gear Loads. The landing gear produces large
compressive loads on landing and has a significant weight consideration when
the aircraft is airborne. Engines, of course, put a considerable stress onto the
airframe locally, caused by their weight and the thrust they produce.

Pressurisation Loads. The stress (cabin differential pressure) can be as high as

8psi (in some cases even higher). This means that on a square meter of
pressurised fuselage (fractionally more than a square yard) the loads can be in
the region of 10,000lbs (4545kg). [psi = pounds force per square inch]

Towing and Ground Movement Loads. Maximum loads are specified.

Emergency Landing Loads. These maximum loads apply to all the airframe
structure.

Lightening Protection/Static Charge Build-up. This is usually achieved, for the

structure, by having the airframe electrically bonded, so that when lightening
strikes the whole airframe will be at the same electrical potential (voltage). For
bonding purposes ordinary metal to metal joining is considered satisfactory.

Fig. 1 TYPICAL BONDING ARRANGEMENTS

-2-
Where metal to metal joining is not used, or where it might be considered
electrically unsatisfactory, bonding strips are used (braided copper or
something similar). This requirement applies to both metal and composite
aircraft.

Electrical/electronic equipment is also regulated for lightening protection.

Static discharge wicks are provided for discharge of static electrical potential
build-up.
Flying Controls, Landing Gear & many other systems/subsystems. Strength
requirements are related to both static and fatigue strengths and in all cases a
factor of safety is built in. The factor of safety may not be great, as in civil
engineering, as high factors of safety carry a mass penalty.

Static Strength

Such as compressive, tensile, and shear forces. These must have a factor of
safety sufficiently high to ensure a long structure life under all expected
maximum load conditions, plus the ability to withstand certain abnormally
high loads on a once or twice-off basis.

Fatigue Strength

This is the ability to withstand cyclic loading at normal (or low) level. Try
breaking a steel paper clip by hand in one go – not normally possible. Then try
breaking it by a gentle to and fro bending motion – after a while it will fatigue
and break.

Fatigue will cause the paper clip to fracture at loads well below its normal
breaking limits. Again a factor of safety is involved with aircraft structures to
ensure that the fatigue limit is never reached.

In severe cases fatigue failure can occur and it may not be obvious why the
metal has failed - as the loads are well within the normal maximum limits.

Fail Safe Construction

Fail safe may be used in system design. For example, if the computer
controlling the cabin lights on the 747-400 fails then it automatically fails with
the lights on. Annoying if you are trying to get to sleep but in an emergency, or
when simply serving meals etc, the cabin is always well lit.

-3-
In structure design ‘fail safe’ is normally associated with the prevention of
crack propagation. The best way to stop a crack from developing is to design a
discontinuity within its path.

In composite materials the 'discontinuity' is provided by the fibres - which

means that a crack will not normally develop across the fibres but will develop
along them.

Comment. Have you noticed how clothes tear? The tear (a crack if you like) will
develop along the weave (cutting weft or warp yarns separately – but not both
together) it will not develop at 45° to the weave cutting both simultaneously.
That’s why a tear will normally produce an L shaped tear. Back to ‘Fail Safe’.

Fig. 2 SPAR WITH FAIL-SAFE DESIGN

It is more common to use the term ‘fail safe’, in relation to a single structural
component. On a single piece of metal should a crack start, it will develop until
it reaches the side of the metal – by which time it may well have failed. From a
design point of view, if a discontinuity is built in to the metal the crack will
stop at that. This will mean that it will be stopped before the component is
weakened to the extent that failure could occur.

One way of doing this in metal structural components is to make the

component of more than one part. If the crack starts in part A it is unlikely to
spread to part B. Figure 2 shows a simple example of a two part spar bolted or
riveted together using Butt or Double Plates. If a crack was to start in one part
of the web it would be unlikely to spread into the other part.

Fail Hard

Mainly associated with primary structures where failure or fracture would be

catastrophic.

-4-
Safe Life

This is a basic design certification philosophy - mainly associated with primary

structure to limit the life of a component (normally in flying hours) to a safe
life. This safe life is normally independent of:

* Any detected defect.

* Fail safe provision.
* Redundant load path provision.
Total safe life is published by the airframe manufacturer and when reached
the component is replaced irrespective of condition.

Redundant Structure

This term is usually associated with structure that has many members, ie
there are several load paths. Should one member in the structure fail then the
load that it took will be shared by the other members. This structure has a
poor strength/weight ratio but has a good safety margin.

Damage Tolerant Structure

All structure has some damage tolerance. Highly stressed primary structure
may have little damage tolerance and, in some cases damage such as a small
scratch or dent can be serious (eg aluminium alloys are very notch sensitive).

This damage might be classified as Negligible (which will need some attention
anyway), but check the SRM (Structure Repair Manual). Some structures will
tolerate a considerable amount of damage - notably secondary structure -
while still bearing normal in-flight and landing loads.

Critical Parts

A Critical Part is any part which, if it should fail, will have a catastrophic effect
on the aircraft. A Critical Parts List must be provided by the manufacturer
with special provision made to ensure each part’s continued airworthiness –
special inspections etc.

MATERIALS

Materials are covered in Module 6 but you should have knowledge of them and
it is good revision.

-5-
Metals

Aluminium alloys. Copper based - damage tolerant - used in fatigue critical

areas of the airframe - pressurised fuselage and wing skins - 2000 series.

Zinc based (7000 series). Boeing 747 400, Airbus A320, 340 etc. Offers
increased strength and weight saving. Used on the A320 for large machined
structures and compression designed components.

Aluminium/lithium alloys being developed which are stronger and have

greater stiffness.
Steels. Used in high stress areas such as wing to fuselage joints, engine
attachments, gear box attachments, bolts, hinge pins etc. Like all aircraft
structural parts they are so designed to have a high strength/weight ratio
whilst maintaining a long fatigue life.

Titanium Alloys. Good in tension and with a density lower than that of steel is
used to replace steel in certain applications. Titanium is nearly half the weight
(half the density) of steel - size for size, has a higher melting point, and may
have the same strength - but high tensile steel (HTS) is much stronger.
Titanium alloys resist corrosion well.

Magnesium Alloys. Lighter by half (half the density) again than titanium alloys
- and lighter than aluminium alloys - size for size. Prone to corrosion, poor
tensile strength, but casts well and fairly good in compression. Will burn
under some circumstances.

Fig. 3 A320 STRUCTURE – ALUMINIUM ALLOY USE

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Non-Metals

Wood. Some woods have a good strength/weight ratio. Are easy to fabricate
into structural components and easily joined, but are prone to warping, insect
and fungal attack, and various rotting processes. Used extensively in the
construction of airframes and propellers in the early days of flying and up to
about the late 1950s. Still seen today on older aircraft.

GRP - Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic. Used for honeycomb panels, ducts,
radomes, aerials, and internal decor panels and finishings. Is strong and tough
and used as primary structure on some aircraft. Will not corrode.

The structure of the Slingsby Firefly training aircraft is nearly all GRP.
CFCs - Carbon Reinforced Composites. Have a good strength/weight ratio and
high resistance to damage and fatigue. CFC structures are of similar
construction to GRP but the material used is carbon filament. CFC is used in
structural parts of airframes to include completed airframes such as the
Boeing 787 Dreamliner.

Kevlar. An increasingly common material used for structures, fairings, internal

furnishings and carpets. It is tough, has good tensile strength, is self-
extinguishing and generates little smoke when burning.

Varieties are used for electrical cable insulation.

Kevlar 49 is laid up in sheets and made into solid laminates or bonded into
honeycomb.

Nomex. This is Kevlar honeycomb sandwiched between glass fibre or carbon

fibre sheets.

Fibrelam. Produced by Ciba Geigy and used extensively on aircraft floors,

bulkheads, and internal fittings. The Airship 500 has its fins made of
Fibrelam.

Carbondec. Similar to Fibrelam using a Nomex honeycomb core sandwiched

between carbon fibre sheeting. It has a greater wear and impact resistance
than glass fibre.

Glare. This is a metal/composite sandwich construction using (typically) three

thin layers of aluminium alloy sheet (2024-T3) sandwiching two layers of pre-
preg glass fibre cloth (all bonded together). It is 10% less dense than Al alloy
with greater fatigue and damage resistance. Used for skin panels on the
fuselage of the A380.

-7-
Composite Structures

Whilst aircraft have been flying for many years with parts made from
composites the trend is towards more components being made from these
materials. There are already all plastic aircraft - the Beech Starship and the Af
Tak 400 for example. The Airbus A350 XWB has over 50% of its structure
made from composite. Some military aircraft have all composite structure.
Some sailplanes are also all composite as well as helicopter rotor blades, and
some helicopter structures.

An all composite structure has the following advantages over a conventional Al

alloy structure:

* Higher strength/weight ratio.

* Better fatigue strength.
* Water and air tight.
 * No corrosion.
* No differential expansion rates (different parts joined together in
metal construction).

ANTI-CORROSIVE TREATMENTS

Except for painting and organic treatments (oil etc) the following are normally
applied by the metal/component/aircraft manufacturer only, or at an
approved base maintenance facility. But at any rate the CAA would expect you
to have a reasonable knowledge of all these treatments.

Electro-Plating. The surface of the part is covered with a thin layer of metal by
being exposed to a solution of metallic salts which is decomposed by
electrolysis. Copper, nickel, chromium, lead, cadmium, tin, zinc and precious
metals are used for plating. Cadmium plating is used extensively for steel
parts on aircraft.

Hot Dipping. The part is immersed in a bath of molten metal thereby acquiring
a covering of that metal. Plating metals for this process have relatively low
melting points, eg tin (tinning) and zinc (galvanising).

Cementation. The part is coated with a plating metal by being heated whilst in
contact with a dust or powder of that metal, eg aluminium (calorising) and zinc
(sheradising).

Metal Spraying. Molten particles of the plating metal are sprayed onto the part.
The particles impinge upon the work to form an adherent coating. Aluminium,
brass, copper, nickel and zinc are used as spraying metals. The actual process
is like spraying silver coloured paint with almost no heating effect to the part
being sprayed.

-8-
Phosphating. The part is immersed in a bath of boiling acid phosphate
solution. The solution reacts with the surface of the metal to convert the
surface and form a metallic phosphate which is highly anti-corrosive.

The process is applied to ferrous metals and may be known by various names
eg parkerising, walterising, etc.

Anodic Oxidation. Usually called anodising but may be known by other names.
The part is placed on the anode bar of an anodising bath and immersed in the
electrolyte. With current flowing the surface of the part is chemically converted
to an oxide layer. Used extensively on aluminium and its alloys.

Chromatic Treatment. The part is placed in a bath of chromating solution

which produces a protective chromate film on its surface. Applied to
magnesium alloys and zinc exposed to humid atmospheric conditions.

Cladding. A mechanical process of rolling one metal onto another, eg a thin

layer of aluminium rolled onto both sides of duralumin to produce Alclad.
Paints and Enamels. May consist of protective compounds held in suspension
in a suitable liquid eg chromates in primers. Applied by brushing, spraying or
dipping and are often used as additional protection to those listed above.

Organic Treatments. Oils, greases, lanolin, jellies – are often used as

temporary processes and sometimes as an additional protection to those listed
above.

STRUCTURES - THEORY

Structure Loading

Since the structure mass must be kept as low as possible, the safety factors
are also low and reserves of strength are minimal. Every structural item fitted
to the aircraft is essential and must be capable of withstanding the various
stresses set up due to the loadings.

These stresses will vary in flight and will be more concentrated in some areas
than others.

The type of stress within the structure will also vary, some members must
resist bending, others stretching, shear, or compression. Some have to resist
twisting and some have to resist a combination of all these loads.

QUESTION Define stress. It is part of the Physics module 2 (1 min).

-9-
ANSWER Stress is defined as force per unit area.

Stress = LOAD
AREA

In imperial units it is lbs force per square inch = psi

In SI units it is Newtons per square metre = N/m2

= Pa (Pa = Pascal)

In scientific notation σ = Pa

where Pa = Pascal
σ = Stress (the Greek letter sigma)

It is worth pointing out that the Pascal is a very small unit. There are nearly
7000 Pascals to just 1psi (the unit of stress and pressure are the same).
 Fig. 4 TYPES OF STRESS

It is worth noting that the easiest stress to cope with, and the one most liked
by design engineers, is tension. Most materials behave better in tension than
with any other type of load.

Try pulling a piece of string (tension) – it copes with it well. Now try pushing it
- compression. It would not withstand the compressive load at all, but
provided it was strong enough, took the tensile load very well. A bit of an
extreme example but the same principle applies to almost all other materials.

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Compressive stresses are more difficult to deal with in aircraft because they
require the use of struts which have to have a large cross-sectional (with
increased mass). A member will try to bend if it is put under compressive
stress and to prevent it bending it must be given a large cross sectional area -
this means that it is heavy (for the load that it has to take) and aircraft
engineers are not happy about this.

Hoop Stress

This is stress normally felt in the wall of a tube like structure (the hull of a
pressurised fuselage for example) when under pressure. It acts tangentially to
the perimeter of the transverse section.

Strain

This is a measure of how much a material deforms under load. All components
change shape when a load is applied. It is usually not noticeable but no matter
how light the applied load some change in shape occurs. For a compressive
load the component gets shorter. For a tensile load the component gets longer.
Provided the deformation is within the elastic limit of the component, when the
load is removed the component will go back to its original shape. If the load is
high enough the component will go past its elastic limit and permanent
deformation will take place – or the component may even fail. Under normal
design conditions all structural members are loaded well within their elastic
limits.

Strain (E) has no dimensions and is calculated as change in length (
L) (delta
L) over original length (L). The units of length (L) can be in feet, inches, metres
etc provide the same units are used throughout the equation.

E =
L
L

Fatigue

As we have already seen, fatigue is the cyclic loading of a component. The

stress level of the loading is normally well within the maximum stress level
that the component will take as a normal stress. But continued cyclic loading
will cause changes in the metal structure and it will start to weaken.

Symptoms of this weakening can include:

* Cracks.
* Buckling.

- 11 -
* Corrosion - (fatigue corrosion).
* Fretting.
* Discolouration around rivet heads and along edges
of metal plates.
* Sheared rivets, bolts, etc.
* Component failure.

Of course, most of these symptoms can be caused by other things as well eg,
heavy landing, incorrect maintenance, etc.

It would be interesting, at this point, to look at how fatigue is tested for in the
laboratory. There are several ways of doing it, but a common method is
described below:
 Fig. 5 FATIGUE TEST

The method entails placing a bar of circular cross section in a chuck which is
rotated by an electric motor. A bearing race is fitted at the free end of the bar
with a mass carrier fitted to the race.

The mass carrier always hangs vertically downwards so when the motor rotates
the test piece, the test piece is put through one complete cyclic loading for each
revolution.

A heavy mass is placed on the mass carrier. The motor is switched on and it
rotates the test piece.

When the test piece fails (usually after many thousands of revolutions), the mass
carrier falls down, contacts the cut-off switch and stops the motor. The rev
counter shows the number of revs ( N) (and hence cyclic loads) that has occurred
to failure. This value (N) is plotted on a graph against stress(σ). Stress is
calculated as the force in Newtons (kg x 9.81) divided by the cross sectional unit
area of the test piece.

- 12 -

Fig. 6 GRAPH OF STRESS AGAINST CYCLES

(PLAIN CARBON STEELS)
Another (identical) test piece is fitted in the chuck, the mass is reduced slightly
and the whole process repeated. The result is an increased value for N which is
also plotted on the graph.

The test is repeated again and after many tests the points on the graph are
joined up (figures 6 and 7).

Fig. 7 GRAPH OF STRESS AGAINST CYCLES

(NON FERROUS METALS & AUSTENITC STEELS)

QUESTIONS 1. Why was the word MASS used and not WEIGHT when
referring to placing masses on the mass carrier? (1 min)

2. What is the SI unit of mass and force? (1 min)

- 13 -
3. Explain the fundamental difference between plain
carbon steels and non-ferrous metals in relation to fatigue?
(10 mins)

ANSWERS 1. Mass is the correct term in the SI system of units.

2. The SI unit of mass is the kg and force it is the Newton (N).

3. The main difference is that if the stress levels are reduced

enough then the fatigue limit is reached with plain carbon
steels and it is NOT reached with non ferrous metals. This
means that with a low enough stress level plain carbon steels
will not fail due to fatigue. But stress levels can be reduced to
almost zero for non-Fe metals and fatigue failure will still
occur. (Non-ferrous metals are those metals that do not have
 an iron base and austenitic steel is stainless steel that is non-
magnetic.)

STRUCTURES – GENERAL

Aircraft Structure Classification

Owing to the difficulty of formulating repair instructions for structural

members or parts of similar size but designed to take different loads, the
airframe structure is divided into three general classifications:

Primary Structure. These parts are highly stressed and, if damaged, may cause
catastrophic failure and loss of life, eg wing spars and engine mountings.

Secondary Structure. Parts of an airframe that are highly stressed but if

damaged have provision for alternative load paths. Ancillary frames designed
to support components, some skin panels etc are examples. It is difficult to
give good examples for this one as a frame on one type of aircraft might be
classed as primary while on another it could be secondary.

Tertiary Structure. Lightly stressed parts such as fairings, wheel mud guards
and minor component brackets. Failure of which would not be serious.

Structural Members

Ties. Designed to withstand tensile stresses. Usually a solid rod of small cross
sectional area. Good examples of tensile bearing members are control cables
(not strictly structures) and cross-bracings on non-monocoque structures
(older aircraft). Good examples of ties on modern aircraft are difficult to find.

- 14 -
Struts. Designed to withstand, mainly, compressive loads. Unless it is very
short a strut will tend to bend or buckle under load before failure. If the strut
has to be long then it must have a large cross sectional area to withstand the
bending. This means a weight penalty.

Good examples of struts can be found on landing gear and floor support struts
(figure 8), but as with most struts there are few that take purely compressive
loads only. Most will also be subject to bending loads and, as we shall see, a
bending load involves other forms of stress.

The metal in the centre, during bending, is subject to very little load, and for
this reason some struts are designed as hollow tubes (yacht masts, push-pull
control rods etc). Struts that are designed to bend in one direction only are
made in the form of I section beams with most of the material on the outside
edges of the strut. When a component is designed to withstand, mainly,
bending loads it is called a Beam.
Figure 8 shows the floor support struts of the A320. Note their comparatively
large diameter (to resist bending) and the fact that they are hollow.

Fig. 8 FLOOR SUPPORT STRUTS – A320

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Beams. Designed to withstand bending loads in one direction. The main spar
of a wing is a good example. It has to withstand considerable bending upwards
(due to lift) when flying and downwards due to its weight when stationary on
the ground.

A beam has the highest stresses on its outside with the least stresses on the
middle (along its longitudinal centre line). Beams, therefore, are designed with
most of the material on the outside - tubes, I section girders etc. (Some small
aircraft have a single continuous tube for a main spar, most large aircraft have
I section main spars or box spars.)
 Fig. 9 BEAM THEORY – WING MAIN SPAR

Bending, of course, is a function of the applied load and the distance the load
is applied along the beam from the point of attachment such as with a
cantilever wing. (Cantilever = attached at one end only).

To allow for some bending relief on the wing the engines on many aircraft are
spaced out along the wing. In this way the weight of the engine produces a
downward bending moment while the lift from that part of the wing produces
an upward bending moment.

Fig. 10 CROSS SECTION OF AN I BEAM

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Fig. 11 STRESSES IN A PURELY BENDING BEAM

Of course, the lift has the greater bending moment but there is still
considerable bending relief achieved using this form of design.

I section beams may also be used in the construction of main spars in

tailplanes, fin, etc. The I section beam details shown in figures 9, 10 and 11 is
designed to withstand bending in one plane only, ie up and down, so its mass
is concentrated in those areas that take the most load – at the top and at the
bottom (the flanges). When airborne the top flange is in compression and the
bottom is in tension with the web taking very little load (which is a shear load).

If it has to be able to withstand bending in more than one plane (example - a

yacht mast being bent in all directions - fore and aft and sideways - by the
wind), then it may be designed as a square hollow section or a tube. In very
general terms this is similar to an aircraft fuselage.

Most structures are never in pure tension, or pure compression, or pure

bending (or pure torsion) and stress analysis shows a complex stress pattern
in all members under load. Main spars are no different and they are never in
pure bending in one plane only, so they have to cope with other loads as well
and in other planes.

All structural parts can be analysed in this way. For example, if honeycomb
structure is considered it can be seen that it is not too unlike beam theory
with the centre being made of a low density material and the outsides being
made of a strong material – to take the loads.

THE FUSELAGE

The fuselage of an aircraft may be considered as a beam (lengthwise) and as a

tube or hoop in cross-section. On the beam theory it is designed to withstand
loads in more then one plane. In the early years it was designed on beam
theory learnt from bridge construction. Longerons (4) were placed at the four
corners of the fuselage to take most of the compressive and tensile loads.

- 17 -
 Fig. 12 WARREN GIRDER TYPE FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION

They were kept apart by cross-members, ideally most of them being in tension,
but some compressive loads were experienced. Figure 12 shows a typical older
type of fuselage structure. The fuselage might have N, X, or W (Warren) cross-
bracing to cope with the loads from the fin (lateral loads) and tailplane (vertical
loads) and the weight of the fuselage.

This cross-bracing was mostly in tension and took up internal space. The
whole structure was comparatively heavy. To complete the fuselage,
streamlining had to be added (called secondary structure) which added
nothing to the strength, increased the weight but provided aerodynamic
streamlining. This secondary structure was attached to the Primary Structure
and the whole lot was fabric covered and doped to provide a smooth
aerodynamic shape. A significant improvement came with the advent of
Stressed Skin construction.

Stressed Skin Construction

We have already seen that a tube resists bending in all directions (which is
what a fuselage has to do) and has a good strength/weight ratio because the
low stress area (in the middle) is removed.

Most modern fuselages are built on the cantilever tube principle with the
fuselage skin taking all or most of the stresses. The fuselage may be of
monocoque or semi monocoque construction. Stressed skin construction:

* Has a high strength/weight ratio.

* Provides a large unobstructed internal volume.
* Provides the largest volume/surface area ratio possible (a tube).
* Can be easily formed into streamlined shapes.

- 18 -
Monocoque Construction

In this type of stressed skin construction the skin takes all of the stress and
there is no internal support structure. It is very much like a tube – although
tapered for some aircraft towards the rear. The de Havilland Mosquito (WW2
British fighter bomber) is an early example. It is made of sandwich
construction balsa and plywood with no internal frames or stringers. Modern
high performance sailplanes are another example and the Boeing 787 yet
another. Also helicopter rear fuselages may be monocoque structure.

The Boeing 787 is an all composite airliner and its fuselage is made in 3
sections that are bolted together after manufacture. Each fuselage section is
made up of carbon fibres wound onto a large (the diameter of the fuselage of
course) rotating mandrel and the fibres injected with epoxy resin. The whole
section is then placed in an autoclave (large pressurised heated oven) to cure
the resin. After curing the complete assembly is removed, the mandrel is
collapsed to reduce its diameter, and it is removed. Apertures for windows,
doors etc are cut and the section is then bolted to the other sections to form a
complete fuselage.

Semi Monocoque Construction

In this form of construction the skin takes some of the load and is supported
internally by structure such as stringers, longerons etc. Semi monocoque
(pronounced “monocock”) construction is the most common form of aircraft
construction. It is still stressed skin construction.

The skin of a semi monocoque fuselage is strengthened by:

(a) Longerons. These run fore and aft along the fuselage and give bending
strength and resistance to end compressive loads. Figures 12 and 13
show fuselage construction using 4 longerons. Some manufacturers
have all the longitudinal members the same and call all of them
longerons. Check the AMM/SRM (Aircraft Maintenance
Manual/Structure Repair Manual).

(b) Stringers - to stiffen and support the skin against buckling. Similar to
longerons but lighter in construction. Stingers and longerons normally
pass through frames – but not always. Stringers may be used in the
construction of mainplanes.

(c) Frames - cross members usually in the form of rings or hoops to resist
shear loads and to stiffen and give shape to the fuselage. Fitted at close
intervals in high stress areas and may also be of heaver construction.

- 19 -

Fig. 13 SEMI MONOCOQUE STRUCTURE

(d) Bulkheads - mainframes across the fuselage to resist shear loads and to
give shape. Solid and may be fitted with cut-outs for doors and hatches.
For pressurised aircraft they form the front and rear pressurised
bulkheads and are often curved to help resist the pressure.

All of the above are attached to the aircraft skin by riveting, bonding or by
being integrally machined.

Fig. 14 FRAME

Heavy frames are fitted to certain areas of the fuselage where there are
additional stresses - main and nose landing gear attachments - front and rear
spar attachments – engines etc. These may be machined out of solid block.

- 20 -
Longerons

The fuselage may be fitted with four or more of these, and some manufacturers
call all their fore and aft fuselage members longerons. They may be of "bent
metal" construction or, as on most modern aircraft, they are extruded. Their
cross sections vary and a selection are shown in figure 15.
 Fig. 15 EXAMPLES OF LONGERONS/STRINGERS

Stringers

Where possible, stringers run the complete length of the fuselage (the complete
span on mainplanes) passing through small cut-outs in the frames, bulkheads
(ribs) etc.

The stringers do not usually pass through pressure bulkheads however, since
any apertures in these create a sealing problem.

Stringers are made from rolled sheet or extruded aluminium alloy, in a variety
of cross sectional shapes, the most common of which are Z section, Top Hat
section and U section. The size and thickness of stringers may be reduced
towards the rear of the fuselage in line with the diminishing structural loading.

Considerable care is used in the sealing of the faying (contacting) surfaces of

stringers, frames etc. Take a minute or two and study figure 16 which shows
details of sealing/anti-corrosion methods employed on the Airbus aircraft.

- 21 -
Fig. 16 TYPICAL STRINGER ATTACHMENT & SEALING

Fig. 17 PRESSURE BULKHEAD – AFT SECTION B747

- 22 -
Bulkheads

Structural bulkheads are used where more strength is needed than can be
provided by a frame and where passage through the fuselage is not required.
They are often fitted in the rear fuselage and carry the tail-plane loads and for
local strengthening of the fuselage.

This type of bulkhead may incorporate a bolt-on door panel to permit through
access for maintenance purposes.

Fig. 18 FIREPROOF BULKHEAD

Pressure Bulkhead. Pressure bulkheads form the strong, air-tight ends of the
pressurised cockpit or passenger compartment or pressure hull. Large
pressure bulkheads are often domed so that they can withstand the pressure
loading without deformation.

Fuel Tank Bulkheads. Where part of the fuselage is used to house flexible fuel
tanks, or where the tanks are an integral part of the fuselage structure (rare
on civil aircraft), a bulkhead is fitted at the ends of each tank compartment.
For an integral tank these will be completely sealed with provision made for
the attachment of fittings for refuelling, engine supply lines, fuel tank gauging
etc.

Fireproof Bulkheads. These are used to isolate a fire hazard zone, such as an
engine compartment, from the rest of the fuselage. They are mandatory. Fitted
across the fuselage when engines are fitted in the fuselage and fitted into
pylons with pylon mounted engines.

Floors

On small aircraft these may be nothing more than an aluminium alloy panel
riveted to horizontal cross-members and strengthened locally to support seats,
controls and cockpit equipment etc. They may be painted black to reduce
internal glare and on some aircraft they may be carpeted. The carpet either
being a close fit, or fitted with press studs, or bonded to the floor panel.

- 23 -
On larger aircraft the floor is usually the structure separating the cabin area
from the baggage/cargo hold. This means that it may not have additional
supports over much of its width from wall to wall and is subject to high
bending stresses. It may be made of al alloy or CF composite or metal
honeycomb. The floor must have a reasonable thickness (to resist the bending
loads) and is supported on cross members (beams) usually made of al alloy.
These are usually of I section or made up of top and bottom members
separated by web members.

For passenger aircraft the floor will house seat rails and have provision for the
fitting of carpets. On pressurised aircraft the floor area/sidewall area will
contain pressure equalisation holes/vents to allow pressure to equalise
between the passenger area and cargo bay area. The floor may also have
emergency lighting fitted to assist passengers crawling to an exit in a smoke
filled cabin (some aircraft have the emergency lighting fitted to aisle seats).

Fitted to the underside of the floor structure may be equipment cables,

ducting, control cables, pipelines, electrical cables, smoke detectors, and fire
proofing (mandatory for cargo bays).

Fig. 19 FLOOR/FUSELAGE DETAIL

Drains

The fuselage - as with other parts of the structure - will have drain or vent
holes (usually underneath) to allow any water to drain to atmosphere. This
helps to prevent corrosion. Always ensure they are clear, particularly after a
paint respray and after using de-icing fluid. The manual will usually have an
inverted picture of the aircraft showing the position of all drains/vents.

- 24 -
Many drain holes have valves that are pressure operated closed to prevent air
lose in pressurised hulls once pressurisation is selected.
Drain Masts

These are electrically heated (to prevent icing) and are fitted to allow ‘clean’
water (sometimes called grey water to distinguish it from blue water that
comes from the toilets) to drain from galley sinks, toilet sinks, water extractors
etc. They are fitted in such a way as to allow the water to get cleanly away into
the airflow, and you would not think that they have been the cause of several
near disasters - but they have.

If not fitted correctly or have been damaged, discharged water can be sprayed
onto the underside of the fuselage and at altitude freeze into a sheet of ice.

Fig. 20 SELF SEAL DRAIN VALVE

Fig. 21 THE BASIC AIRFRAME STRUCTURE

- 25 -
When removed by the airflow this sheet of ice can cause (and has caused)
serious damage to tailplanes, other parts of the structure and rear mounted
engines.
The moral to this story. Ensure that the heaters work, but more importantly
make sure the masts do not leak and are securely fitted and correctly aligned
(rearwards) (see the book in this series on toilets and galley systems).

Figures 21 & 22

Figure 21 shows the ‘skeleton’ of a basic airframe. Locate the component parts
and ensure you can memorise their location and function. Details of the
structure of the mainplanes and empennage (fin and tailplane) are given later.
In figure 22, note the frames, windscreen structure, door structure, window
cut-outs, landing gear bay and radome non-pressurised area.

PRESSURISED HULLS

Pressurised aircraft have fuselages that are sealed as much as possible to keep
the air in. This is achieved in several ways, eg:

* Wet assembly (jointing compound) of the al alloy skin to

longerons, frames, stringers etc with subsequent internal sealing
applied.
* Sealed pressure bulkheads fore and aft.
* Flying control systems sealed where they pass through the
pressurised bulkheads/pressure hull.
* All other services (cables, ducting etc) sealed as they pass through
the pressure bulkheads/pressure hull.
* Windows and windscreens sealed around their edges.
* Pilot’s dv (direct vision) window fitted with a rubber seal.
* Rubber seals on passenger and emergency exit doors.
* Rubber seals on cargo doors.
* Drain holes in the bottom of the fuselage fitted with automatic
sealing valves.
* Systems that lead from/to the pressure area to outside are sealed.
(eg, Toilet systems – though they are sealed to keep their contents
in rather than to help seal the pressure hull. Pitot static systems –
again sealed for the purpose of ensuring that air data is not
corrupted going to the instruments, Air Data Units, Digital Air
Data Computers etc. Non return valves (NRVs)/check valves in the
cabin air supply systems to ensure no air can escape back
through the system in the event of system failure. Air leakage
though toilet and galley sink drain plugs).

- 26 -
Keel Beam

On some aircraft the fuselage is built around a strong box that runs along the
keel (bottom) close to that part of the fuselage where the wings are attached.
This section is called a Keel Beam. Figure 23 shows a typical keel beam.
 Fig. 22 A320 FUSELAGE NOSE STRUCTURE

Fig. 23 KEEL BEAM

- 27 -
Wing Attachment

The wings maybe attached by nuts and bolts at the front and rear spars to
main frames on the fuselage. Fairings (often tertiary structure) are used to
cover the wing join and provide a smooth aerodynamic shape. On other
aircraft the attachment maybe by butt straps running along the top and
bottom of the wing skin. This attachment is to a locally strengthened part of
the fuselage using heavier frames, thicker skin material and possibly a centre
box section (figure 24).

Fig. 24 CENTRE WING BOX

Accidental Cabin Depressurisation

Fortunately this is rare. But when it does happen it can be catastrophic (the
DC10 disaster in France where everyone died because of a cargo door blow-
out, for example, where a cargo door was blown out by the pressure as it was
not locked properly and the pressure differential across the cabin floor caused
the floor to collapse and all the flight controls were severed). It can occur for
many reasons, most of which are related to the cabin air conditioning/
pressurisation system. And are therefore outside the scope of this book.
Sometimes, however, depressurisation can be caused by loss of integrity of the
hull – door/window blown open – structural failure etc.

Loss of integrity of the hull is, fortunately, rare but it has happened. On one
occasion it was a poorly carried out repair – it caused the rear bulkhead to fail
and the aircraft crashed with all on-board lost. It was a Boeing 747.

- 28 -
On another occasion the top of the fuselage of a large passenger airliner was
blown of and became detached exposing all the passengers in that area to the
atmosphere.

The aircraft made a safe landing with only one fatality – a stewardess who was
sucked out by the airflow. The investigation of this accident reported that this
was a maintenance error in that there were several cracks in the fuselage
structure that had gone un-detected even though it had had several
inspections specifically in this area.
This all goes to show that inspection and repair should always be carried out
to the highest standards – as laid down by the aircraft manufacturer.

In the context of this section of the book there must be adequate pressure
equalisation between compartmented areas of the aircraft that are pressurised
– toilet – stowage compartments – cargo holds etc.

For stowage and toilet compartments in the main cabin area air grills are
provided which will allow air either way through the grill. For under floor
compartments other provision must be made.

Rapid Depressurisation Panels

Decompression panels are fitted in the wall linings of the cargo hold. The wall
linings have cut-outs for the frames onto which the decompression panels are
fitted with special release fasteners.

Fig. 25 A330 RAPID DECOMPRESSION PANELS

- 29 -
Should the cabin depressurise quickly then the panels will be forced open
(released by the fasteners) by the differential air pressure (blow-in pressure on
the A330 0.5psi (3447Pa), allowing air from the hold into the cabin. Should the
hold rapidly depressurise then they will be released in the opposite direction –
allowing air to move from the cabin to the hold (operate at a blow-out pressure
of 1psi [6895Pa] on the A330). This action should prevent differential pressure
occurring across the floor and prevent its failure – inwards or outwards.

AIRFRAME LOCATION SYSTEMS

Structure location/component location may be achieved by using a:

* Zonal location system.

* Stringer/frame location system.
* Fuselage stations (FS) system.
* Water line (WL) system.
* Buttock line (BL) system.
* Aileron station (AS) system.
* Flap station (FS) system.
* Nacelle station (NS or NC) system.

These systems may be used on their own or used together on the same aircraft
– it is up the aircraft manufacturer. The system/s in use will be laid down in
the AMM/SRM/IPC.

The Zonal System. The zonal location system (specified in ATA100) relies on
giving each zone on the aircraft an identification number. The stringer/frame
station system relies on numbering all the frames and all the stringers.

Some manufacturers will give zonal location diagrams and frame/rib/stringer

station numbered diagrams. In this way an area of the airframe can be located
precisely. Zonal locations tend to be less precise than station locations.

Figure 26 shows the zonal location system of the B777 and what follows is
based on the B777.

The eight Major Zones have Subzones and the Subzones have Zones. A three-
digit number shows the major zone, subzone, and zone as follows:

* Major zone – the first digit is a number from 1 to 8 followed buy two
zeros.
* Subzone – the first digit is the Major Zone number, the second digit is
the Subzone number form 1 to 9 and the third digit is a zero.
* Zone - the first two digits are the Major Zone and Subzone numbers and
the third digit shows a component or group of components in the Zone.

- 30 -
The following is the number sequence for the zones and subzones:

* Fuselage
Major Zones
100 - Nose area and bottom half of fuselage.
200 - Flight compartment and top half of fuselage.
Fuselage zones numbered front to back and away
from the floor line.

* Tailplane Major Zone 300

Subzones
310 - Empennage (tail section).
320 - Vertical stabilizer (fin).
 Fin and rudder zones numbered root to tip.
330 - Left horizontal stabilizer.
340 - Right horizontal stabilizer.
Horizontal stabilizer and elevator zones numbered
inboard to outboard and front to back.

* Powerplants Major Zone 400

Subzones
410 - Left powerplant.
420 - Right powerplant.

* Wings
Major Zones
500 - Left wing.
600 - Right wing.
Wing zones numbered inboard to outboard and front
to back.

* Landing Gear Major Zone 700

* Doors Major Zone 800

Subzones
820 - Cargo.
830 - Passenger left.
840 - Passenger right.
Access door panels have five digit alpha-numeric
codes. The codes have the following parts:

+ First three digits. Aircraft zones.

- 31 -
+ Fourth digit. A letter that identifies each access door
or panel in a zone. If there are more than one access
panels in a zone, they have letters (A, B, C etc). The
letters increase inboard to outboard, bottom to top,
and forward to aft.
+ Fifth digit. A letter that gives additional location
information if the access door or panel is on the top
(T), bottom (B), left (L), right (R) or internal (Z).
 Fig. 26 B777 MAJOR ZONES

Stringer/Frame Location System. The stringers are numbered – some

clockwise starting at 12 o’clock, others clockwise and anti-clockwise starting
at 12 o’clock (figure 28). The frames are numbered starting at frame 1 at the
front (usually). Each frame may be given a station number which may not start
at 1 (figure 27).

blank

- 32 -
 Fig. 27 FRAME LOCATION – A310

Fig. 28 STRINGER LOCATION - AIRBUS

Ribs in the wing, tailplane and fin are also numbered (in-board to out-board
for mainplane and tailplane and bottom to top for the fin) as are also the
stringers. Ribs will be dealt with later, they are used to give shape to the
aerofoil and are not too unlike frames in function.

- 33 -
To locate any part of the fuselage structure for example, the stringer number
above and below the area in question is quoted as well as the station
number/frame number in front of and behind. In this way an area of about a
square foot (0.1m2) can be specified – on even the largest aircraft.

Fuselage Stations. FS numbers are not too unlike frame locations but often
start from a theoretical position in front of the aircraft.

Water Line System. The WL system is based on an imaginary horizontal plane

often well below the structure and all vertical locations are measured from it.
(The author could not find a WL system for a fixed wing aircraft so a helicopter
system is shown – figure 29). Example – the WL of the cargo floor on the B777
is 122.5 and the WL of the passenger floor is 200.5.

Buttock Line System. This is a width measuring system used for location
either side of a centre line – to the left and right of the centre line of the
fuselage. An example are the engine locations of the B777 as viewed from the
front, which are right BL 381 and left BL 381.

Aileron Station System/Flap Station System. A location system measuring out-

board from, and parallel to, the in-board edge of the aileron/flap.

Fig. 29 WL LOCATION SYSTEM FOR THE SEA KING

Nacelle Station System. Measurements taken forward of or behind the front

spar.

Other systems exist such as Horizontal Stabiliser Stations (HSS), Vertical

Stabiliser Stations (VSS) and Power Plant Stations (PPS) – but check your
AMM.

- 34 -
WINDOWS/WINDSCREENS
Windows are those transparent panels fitted to the side of the fuselage
normally for passenger use. Windscreens are generally considered to be those
fitted at the front of the cockpit/flight deck. They have better optical qualities
than windows and also have higher strength requirements as well as some
form of ice prevention/mist prevention – usually.

Windscreens may be of all glass construction or all polymer (acrylic or Perspex)

construction or may be of sandwich construction with glass layers interleaved
with butrol or vinyl.

Some windscreens have a dry air sandwich between the inner and outer panes
to help prevent misting on the inside pane. Many windscreens are electrically
heated to prevent ice formation on the outside (heater elements on the inside
of the outer pane) and also to increase the toughness of the windscreen at low
ambient temperatures. Some windscreens have electrical demisting heaters on
the inner pane as well.

Anti icing heater elements are placed on the inside of the outer glass layer as a
gold film (and in some cases, fine heater wires). Demisting heater elements are
fitted on the front side of the inner glass layer to prevent misting. (Some
windscreens may be anti-iced by the use of externally sprayed fluids or the use
of externally applied hot air. Many windscreens have internal hot air to prevent
misting – like most road vehicles).

The windscreen must meet bird strike requirements (as must the fuselage in
front of the pilot, and the jet engines) and is therefore fitted into a substantial
frame. This frame may be of milled construction.

The windscreen, frame and front part of the fuselage in front of the pilot must
withstand an impact of a 4lb bird at the aircraft’s designed cruising speed at
sea level.

When fitting windscreens it is important to follow the instructions in the

manual - using correct fitments and screws - and to have it seated correctly in
its seal or jointing compound.

QUESTION In general no part of the screen should be allowed to touch the

airframe - Why? (5 mins)

ANSWER There are several reasons.

(a) Vibration. By being seated in rubber/jointing compound

it is protected from airframe vibration.

- 35 -
(b) Sealing. The rubber/sealing compound provides a seal -
for pressurised aircraft.
(c) Expansion. The fuselage expands at a different rate to the
 windscreen when the temperature changes which could
cause the windscreen to crack.

Fig. 30 A310 WINSCREEN MOUNTING

QUESTION Which has the higher coefficient of linear expansion - the

aluminium alloy structure or the windscreen? (1 min)

ANSWER The structure – if the windscreen is mainly glass.

When the windscreen is correctly seated connect all the electrical connections
properly and test the heater system/s prior to signing the Certificate of Release
to Service (CRS).

If the aircraft is pressurised it is advisable to carry out a pressurisation check

to check for leaks.

- 36 -
Figure 30 shows the windscreen fitting of an Airbus aircraft. Note the various
layers of the windscreen – glass – butyral – glass – glass – heater element –
glass. This form of sandwich construction is so designed as to provide good
optical qualities, good wear characteristics (rain, hale, wiper blades rubbing on
the outer panes), and strength and toughness against bird strike. Note the
position of the heater element for anti-ice.

Fig. 31 TYPICAL PRESSURISED CABIN WINDOW

Windows are usually made of a polymer (Perspex or acrylic) and are of the air
sandwich type for larger aircraft. The inner pane has a small hole drilled
through it to allow the air gap between the pains to "breath", with the pressure
being maintained by the outer pain.

Windows can usually be dismantled into their component parts (whereas

windscreens cannot). The window can be dismantled to an inner retainer,
inner pane, spacer or seal and outer pane. This allows for servicing and the
replacement of an unserviceable item.

- 37 -
Figure 31 shows a typical window of a passenger aircraft. The acoustic panel
which is part of the cabin internal decor panel is not shown. This is a thin
transparent panel which is part of the cabin décor. Included as part of its
fitment is a blind that can be closed by the passenger.
 HATCHES & DOORS

The minimum number of emergency passenger hatches and doors fitted to a

large aircraft cabin is laid down in EASA CS25. They are called exits and are
typed mainly according to their size.

* Type A Minimum 42” wide x 72” high. Be at floor level with an

unobstructed passageway for passengers.
* Type I Minimum 24” wide x 48” high.
* Type II Minimum 20” wide x 44” high.
* Type III Minimum 20” wide x 36” high.
* Type IV Minimum 19” wide x 26” high.
* Ventral At the bottom of the aircraft. Must allow the same
passenger movement as a type 1 with the landing gear
extended.
* Tail cone At the rear of the aircraft. Must have an obvious
means of operation.

Some of the above also must meet requirements such as escape shoot
provision, wing slides, internal access routes, means of operation etc.

Hatches

Usually provided for emergency escape and constructed similar to that of the
fuselage.

They usually open inwards on pressurised aircraft and are often without
hinges. They are sealed to prevent air leakage from the cabin and may be fitted
with windows, stringers, strengthening members and support brackets.

They will usually have sound proofing and décor panels fitted.

The latch mechanism is such that it can be operated from inside as well as
outside the cabin - with the outside handle fitting flush with the fuselage skin
in the locked position.

Proximity detectors/micro switches may be fitted to give the crew warning that
the hatch is not properly secured. Operating instructions are displayed inside
and outside the aircraft – as well as shown in on-board safety notices.

- 38 -
Doors

On small unpressurised aircraft the doors are simple structures that open
outwards on external pin or piano type hinges. There is a single catch that is
operated by a handle inside and outside the aircraft.
The door may be lined or be fitted with a décor panel. It is usually fitted with a
window - part of which may open inwards - or part of which slides.

On larger aircraft doors are more complex and EASA25 states all the
parameters that the door has to meet. For normal operation the minimum
number of doors per cabin is one but for emergencies many other exits must
be fitted – many being fitted and used as normal entry and exit doors.

On pressurised aircraft the doors are quite complex structures and must meet
the requirement that they must not be openable in flight due to the failure of
one component and must be openable from both the inside and outside of the
aircraft.

Inadvertent operation must be extremely improbable which means that many

are designed so that they are of the 'plug type' door. This means the door fits
into the fuselage door frame as a “plug” from the inside so that the effect of
pressurisation tends to push the door more firmly into the closed position.

Trying to open the door when the aircraft is pressurised is impossible. The
door release latches might be operable (with a warning on the flight deck) but
the pressure would be too great to actually allow the door to be pulled away
from its door-frame.

The 'plug type' effect can be achieved in several ways:

* Using a tapered door opening inwards. The door opened by being

pulled in and sliding up into the cabin ceiling on runners. Or it
may have hinges on the top or side. For the hinged type internal
space is needed so reducing the total number of passenger seats.

* Tapered door opening inwards initially then turning about a

vertical axis and opening outwards to a position against the
outside of the fuselage (common).

* Non tapered door that lowers downwards into position from the
outside with fixed lugs engaging with fixed lugs on the door frame.

The ‘plug type’ door is inherently more safe as its design prevents its
inadvertent opening in flight as the act of pressurisation will cause it to sit
more firmly shut.

- 39 -
 Fig. 32 PLUG TYPE DOOR

External doors must meet the requirements of EASA 23/25 and there must be
at least one per passenger compartment. The door must have provision for
visual indication to the appropriate flight crew that it is locked. This system to
be of the fail-safe type, that is, if the indication system fails it will show the
door as not safe. This prevents the possibility of the system failing, showing
the door as locked and safe when in fact it is not.

If there is a door failure, but it locks securely shut, the aircraft can be
dispatched provided the passenger compliment is reduced and passengers are
not seated near that exit. Check the MEL for the specific aircraft.

The door itself can be a complex structure and can include:

* A hinge mechanism - top, bottom and middle hinges working on

the pantograph linkage principal. Some quite complex.
* Structure such as part frames, part stringers, brackets etc.
* A window.
* Lock bolts/brackets.
* Door stops.
* Pressure sensing flap (small flap that opens inwards when the
opening handle is operated). Prevents lever being operated when
aircraft is pressurised.

The equipment on the door can include:

* Proximity detectors/micro switches.

* Visual inspection windows for checking the engagement of locks.
* Door seal.

- 40 -
* Locking mechanism - with handles inside and out – the outside
one will lock (with a key) and fit flush.
 * Arm and disarm mechanism for the escape slide/chute.
* Slide/chute stowage.
* Slide/chute inflation system.
* Door opening cylinder - pushes the door open when chute is
armed and door being opened.
* Insulation.
* Décor panel with inspection windows for door locks, chute locks,
chute operating bottle pressure gauge etc.
* Hand held fire extinguisher.
* Torch.
* Window reveal and a blind for the window.
* Lights – emergency evacuation and normal lighting.
* Airstairs.

The following pages show some doors from specific aircraft and many of them
are typical of their type.

Figure 33 shows the cargo door locking mechanism for the A310. Note the
number of latches on the larger door and the indicator flag viewed from the
out-side. Note the operating handle and the switch unit for flight deck
indications.

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 Fig. 33 CARGO DOOR LOCKING MECHANISM – A310

Figure 34 shows the arm/disarm mechanism for a passenger door. When in

the disarm position the escape chute is not armed and the door will open
normally. When in the armed position the sliders on the end of the girt bar are
engaged with the locking plates fitted to the floor.

In the armed position, when the door is opened the slide pack swings out with
the door but the girt bar is held to the floor locking plates. This causes the
release of the pressure from the operating bottle to the slide pack which will
open out and inflate to the ground with the top connected to the floor of the
aircraft.

- 42 -
During fitting the apron of the chute (chute attached to the inside of the door)
is passed around and secured to the girt bar. When the door is opened (on
some aircraft there is a gas operated jack that will operate to assist the door
open) the chute is pulled from its packing, inflates automatically and deploys.

Fig. 34 ARM/DISARM MECHANISM – A310

Figure 35 shows a typical door locking mechanism and figure 36 shows the
door hinges, stop fittings, gas operating jack etc. Note the operation of the
hinge mechanism. It allows the door to be pulled inwards and lifted upwards a
small amount when opening to allow the stop fittings to clear the fuselage
mounted locking plates. Once clear the door can be turned on its door hinge to
be swung out on its fuselage hinge to lay flat against the outside of the
fuselage.

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Fig. 35 DOOR LOCKING MECHANISM

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Fig. 36 HINGE MECHANISM - PASSENGER DOOR

Fig. 37 DOOR WARNING SYSTEM - A310

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Some plug type doors that close from the outside are lowered into position
with the fixed latch pins of the door locating behind the fixed lock brackets on
the fuselage. A small flap moves up to seal off the top part of the door after
final shutting.

Figure 37 shows an electrical/electronic door position warning system. It will

indicate to the pilot if any door is not locked shut and will give a warning if the
aircraft is not configured for take-off.

CABIN SEALING

Air leakage is possible wherever the cabin skin is discontinuous, thus every
rivet hole, skin seam, pressure-bulkhead to skin joint, every connection of (or
passage of stringer through) pressure bulkheads, and every inspection door,
emergency exit, entrance door, drain line, control run etc is a potential source
of leakage.

To reduce air leakage of the skin, sealing material may be applied to joints
prior to joining (wet assembly) and/or a liquid compound may be sprayed or
brushed in or over the joints from inside after assembly.

Doors

The sealing of inward opening doors presents little difficulty owing to the
assistance given by cabin differential pressure in holding them against their
seatings. They will usually have a soft rubber seal that the door bead pushes
against when the door is locked shut (figure 38).

For outward opening doors an inflatable rubber tube mounted on the door
frame or door is used, which in the closed position is located opposite a
shaped bead on the door or door frame (figure 39).

Fig. 38 SEALING - INWARD OPENING DOOR

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 Fig. 39 SEALING – OUTWARD OPENING DOOR

Transparencies

Figure 30 and 31 show typical methods of mounting a windscreen and window

on a pressure hull. To prevent internal misting for windows a sandwich
construction is used. The air supply to the ‘sandwich’ gap may be dried using
a drying agent such as silica gel crystals.

The dry air sandwich consists a spacer between two transparent panels,
forming a cavity which insulates the outside panel from the inside panel. The
complete transparency is usually mounted on rubber and secured with a
clamping strip and screws.

Aircraft Flying Controls

Control tubes or cables passing out of the pressure cabin must be sealed
against air leakage whilst allowing movement and self-alignment with a
minimum of friction. One such device consists of a rubber bellows which
moves with the control (figure 40). This arrangement is used with control
systems using twin cables (an out going cable returning via a pulley back into
the cabin). As the cabin pressure acting on the bellows causes a load on the
control so this must be balanced by an equal opposing load.

This seal provides a complete seal and allows for self alignment of the control
run.

An alternative method of permitting control rods or cables to slide through a

pressure bulkhead is a type of gland assembly. Some rely on packing rings
within a gland assembly, others employ a special rubber seal. Does not provide
a total seal and alignment is critical.

Some types require lubrication others must be kept dry. Always check the
AMM.

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 Fig. 40 BELLOWS CONTROL CABLE SEAL

Fig. 41 FRICTION TYPE RUBBER SEAL

Fig. 42 ROTATING CONTROL TUBE SEALING GLAND

If the movement through the bulkhead is rotary rather than linear, a rotating
seal can be used. A typical arrangement, shown in figure 42, consists of a
rubber seal clipped to and rotating with the control tube. Air pressure acting
on the splayed outer end of the rubber seal forms an airtight joint.

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 BAGGAGE HANDLING & CARGO SYSTEMS

Most aircraft take all passengers’ baggage in the cargo hold beneath the floor.
Commercial cargo may be carried in cargo aircraft such as the B474F, which
can carry a payload of up to 260,000lbs (118 metric tons) a distance of 4,000
miles. Cargo must be non hazardous cargo unless special provisions apply as
laid down by the CAA.

Cargo Holds

These are classified in accordance with EASA CS25 as follows:

* Class A Easily accessible by the aircrew in flight.

* Class B Accessible by the crew in flight with a hand fire

extinguisher and has a smoke or fire detection
system.

* Class C Not accessible by the crew in flight. Has a smoke or

fire detection system. Has a fire extinguisher system
with a means to exclude smoke, flames etc from the
passenger compartment. Often sealed with glass-fibre
liners.

* Class D Can completely contain a fire. Does not exceed

1000cu ft in volume.

* Class E On cargo only aircraft. Has a smoke or fire detection

system. Has means to shut off fumes etc from
entering the flight compartment.

Cargo Consignments

These are assembled on pallets/containers and maybe bound by netting to

prevent movement in transit. Consignments must have customs declarations,
have the weight clearly marked and have export/import authority if required.
They should not be in the class of ‘dangerous goods’ otherwise special flight
conditions will apply.

Mechanical rollers carry the containers from the make-up floor in the cargo
shed (or they are moved by forklift truck) to a pallet truck with a mechanical
roller platform. The truck transports the containers to the aircraft.

Cargo aircraft have reinforced floors usually with mechanised cargo-handling

equipment in the cargo area.

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 Fig. 43 FREIGHTER OR CARGO AIRCRAFT – LOADING THE B747F

Figure 43 shows a B747F with facilities for side loading through large cargo
doors using containers/palleted loads and platform vehicles with powered
rollers. Provision is also made for the complete nose of the aircraft to lifted
open (but not including the flight deck) to allow loading in the front of the
aircraft.

Equipment used for loading has powered rollers in the floor controlled by a
single ‘joy-stick’. This allows the cargo loader to move containers/cargo into
the aircraft where movement of the containers is taken over by the aircraft
powered roller system.

Pallets or containers are moved within the aircraft on a motor driven system
mounted in the floor.

Some aircraft are interchangeable as passenger/freighter and maybe called a

‘combi’ aircraft. They are designed so that blocks of seats and galleys can be
removed and roller equipped freight floors fitted in less than one hour.
Passengers will sit in one part of the cabin area whilst cargo will take up the
rest of the floor space – with a dividing décor wall of course.

Passenger Luggage

Apart from cabin (carry-on) baggage, luggage is handed over with the tickets at
the passenger check-in desk. After weighing and tagging (and security
checking) it is placed on a conveyor belt from where it is loaded into pallets or
containers.

The pallets/containers are towed or driven on trucks to the aircraft in the

ramp area. Here the luggage may be hand loaded into the aircraft baggage hold
individually or kept in the containers and the containers loaded into the
aircraft baggage hold complete.

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 Fig. 44 CARGO CONTAINER LOCATION – B747

Containers can be mechanically moved within the baggage hold or pushed into
position manually. They are then locked into position.

Loading Freight

Pallets are usually loaded by forklift truck or elevated truck/loader. The

loading doors are usually on the side of the aircraft at the front and/or rear.
Once the pallets are inside the aircraft the loader will manoeuvre them into
position either using rollers/motorised wheels, or move them manually. The
motorised wheels retract into the floor until required for use.

Loading Passenger Hold Baggage

The system will vary with the aircraft. For example, on the B747 (and many
other aircraft) the system is similar to the above. On the B757, for example,
each cargo hold is made up of a number of telescoping floor modules. To load
the aircraft they are moved by an electrically operated rotary actuator forward
to the door. Each floor module is mounted on rollers and as it is loaded with
luggage and secured it is moved back by the screwjack. The next module is
then loaded, secured, moved back and so on.

Any loose baggage is secured using traditional netting and the netting secured
using the tie down fittings.

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On small aircraft the cargo/baggage is loaded by hand into the aircraft and
secured, which may be in the nose of the aircraft, or in the tail, or under the
floor or in the actual passenger compartment.

Drive Wheel System

Figures 45 and 46 show the layout of an aircraft floor mounted drive wheel
system. Each wheel is connected to an electrically driven motor. They are
spaced along the loading area in a fore and aft direction, allowing each
container to be moved forwards or backwards. At the loading door position
there are transverse drive rollers to move the container into or out of the hold.

Each fixed drive wheel consists of a wheel and rubber tyre mounted on an axle
(figure 47). Fixed drive wheels are installed away from the doorway area with
transverse retractable units fitted in the doorway area.

Fig. 45 FLOOR MOUNTED DRIVE SYSTEM - GENERAL

The fixed drive wheels are powered by power drive units. The power is
transmitted through a drive pulley/shaft assembly and toothed neoprene drive
belts to the drive wheels. The tension of each drive belt is controlled by an idler
pulley. Two fixed drive wheels are powered by one power drive unit.

The system is controlled by a control stick accessed via a small external

maintenance panel near the loading door. Lateral movement of the control
stick will cause the two lateral drive wheels to rise and rotate in the direction
the stick has been moved – moving the container in or out. Movement of the
stick in a fore or aft direction will cause the two transverse wheels to retract
and power up the fore and aft wheels in the appropriate direction.

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Fig. 46 DRIVE WHEEL ARRANGEMENT

Fig. 47 DRIVE WHEEL DETAIL

Fig. 48 BALL PANEL

- 53 -
This means that a container can be guided into the cargo area using the
transverse wheels and then moved as far forward (or as far back) as the
previous container by the fore and aft wheels.

Containers are locked into position by wall-mounted brackets that latch in

with similar brackets on the container (to control lateral movement) and floor-
mounted stops (to control the fore and aft movement).

Fig. 49 BALL DETAIL

Figure 48 show details of the reinforced ball transfer panel. The container sits
on the spring-loaded balls and is moved by the power drive wheels. This way
the friction between the container and the panel is kept to a minimum and
power required for movement is also kept low.

Figure 50 shows an example of a tie-down area in a baggage hold. Note the

access door, the various netted areas and the tie-down fittings. Any individual
items of luggage not contained in a container must be secured in similar way.

Containers

Many aircraft use standard containers (which must meet CS25 requirements
or requirements acceptable to the CAA) but if special containers are
manufactured then these must be considered as an aircraft modification and
must meet EASA CS25 standards. See also CAP747 generic requirement
number 21 (GR 21) which states that containers must meet the requirements
of CS25. GR21 was transferred from Airworthiness Notices [AN 92).

Figure 51 shows how standard containers can be used on different aircraft and
figure 52 shows details of some of the standard containers available.

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- 54 -
 Fig. 50 TIE-DOWN AREA AT THE REAR OF THE B747

Fig. 51 CONTAINER USE

Notes

1. Cargo/baggage must be weighed and placed in the aircraft in such a way

as not to put the C of G out of limits. This may be done by working out
the moment arms of each container/item and calculating the aircraft’s
new C of G position once loaded. Aircraft must not exceed their MTWA.

2. All baggage/cargo must be properly secured using the securing points

on the airframe.

3. In general – and especially on small aircraft – heavy items of

baggage/cargo are loaded as close to the C of G as possible with lighter
items loaded progressively further away – fore and aft.

- 55 -
 4. On small commercial aircraft passengers as well as baggage are weighed
and the passengers are seated according to weight with the heaviest
nearest the C of G and the lightest further away – all recorded on the
loading record.

5. For more details on loading, total weight calculation, and C of G

calculation see our book on aircraft weight and balance in module 7 and
the book in this series on Equipment and Furnishings.

Fig. 52 CONTAINER DETAILS

THE TAIL SKID

Before leaving the subject of the fuselage as a structural entity the tail skin
should be mentioned.

Fitted to some nose wheeled aircraft to prevent damage to the rear fuselage
during high nose up attitudes at take-off or landing. They vary in design and
some may give a flight deck indication via a micro switch to show that the
aircraft has ‘tailed bottomed’. Figure 53 shows a rubber type shoe supported
on a shock strut and swinging arm enclosed within a composite fairing.

This should, of course, be inspected after each flight and if found damaged
action should be taken as laid down in the AMM.

Some nose wheeled aircraft have a small wheel fitted on the underside of the
rear fuselage and may have similar warnings indicated in the flight deck.

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 Fig. 53 TAIL SKID

MAINPLANES

These are the main lifting surfaces of the aircraft. In plan form they may be
straight, swept or of delta wing plan form. They may have a dihedral or
anhedral angle when viewed from the front and the aircraft may be a
monoplane or bi-plane. The wing may be made of metal or wood, but what-ever
type of wing the aircraft has, in general, it comprise the following:

Spars. These are spanwise cantilever beams often of I or box cross section
designed to resist mainly up and down bending loads. Most aircraft have a
front and rear spar, with some having a third centre spar somewhere between
the front and rear spar. Some have a single large box spar. The box spar has a
front and rear spar with a strong section along the top and bottom joining the
front and rear spars together.

The main spar is the main strength member of the wing.

Stringers. Spanwise members attached to the skin, to stiffen and support the
skin against buckling.

Ribs. Chordwise structures designed to resist shear loads and give the aerofoil
its shape. Ribs are usually split into Nose Ribs (forward of the main spar),
Centre Ribs (between the front and rear spars) and Trailing Edge Ribs (at the
rear of the main spar). They usually have flanged lightning holes to increase
stiffness and reduce weight.

Where an integral tank is to be built into the wing the ribs at each end of the
tank area have no lightning holes so the ribs can be used as the tank
structure. The front and rear of the tank structure is usually the front and rear
spars and after construction, the whole inside area of the tank is sealed with a
sealant.

- 57 -
Provision is made for fuel line connections, fuel quantity transducer
connections and maintenance access.

Spars, stringers and ribs are all used in the construction of mainplanes,
tailplanes and fins and are attached to the each other and the skin in the
same way that the fuselage is constructed.

A normal wing, in plan view, comprises a front and rear spar with ribs as
supporting members. In flight the wings will be subjected to drag loads tending
to bend them rearwards. If the engines are attached to the wings (as with most
civil airliners), the engines will cause thrust loads when under power and
weight loads (when on the ground) which will cause forward bending and
downwards bending forces respectively. When in flight lift will cause upwards
bending.

Fig. 54 TYPICAL MAINPLANE CONSTRUCTION

Fig. 55 BOX SPAR WING

- 58 -
 Fig. 56 A320 WING STRUCTURE

Figure 54 shows a typical mainplane construction where the ribs and stringers
are attached to the aluminium alloy skin by rivets. The ribs (centre ribs) are
also attached to the front and rear spars by rivets. The leading edge and
trailing edge sections are attached to the front and rear spars respectively.

In general terms, if the mainplane was fabric covered (old aircraft), the
structure would look similar, but there would be no stringers and the fabric
would be attached to the spars and ribs by being tied on with string (special
stringing of course) or may be bonded on with adhesive.

Figure 55 shows a box spar made up of a front and rear spar, ribs and a
sturdy machined skin section. Parts of this spar are machined and parts are
assembled by riveting.

Figure 56 shows the wing structure of the A320. Note the box spar
construction using front and rear spars and ribs. Note the sealed ribs that
make up the ends of the integral fuel tanks. Note also the reinforced sections
for attachments of landing gear, pylon (for the engine) and flap tracks. Notice
the strong centre section running through the middle of the fuselage.

The wing is attached to the centre section.

- 59 -
Box Spars
Modern mainplane construction uses the front and rear spars, joined by heavy
skin sheeting and ribs to form a rigid torsion box which is capable of resisting
bending and twisting loads whilst of relatively low mass.

An additional advantage is that the internal volume is usable for, in particular,

fuel storage (ideal as it is near the longitudinal C of G). The extra download
imposed by the fuel (laterally) gives bending relief during flight the same as
podded wing mounted engines. The leading and trailing edges are added to the
box after its construction.

Box spars are also used in the construction of fins and tailplanes.

TAILPLANE & FIN

The tailplane (horizontal stabilizer) and fin (vertical stabilizer) are similar to the
mainplanes in construction. They have the same type of basic framework
consisting of one or more spars, ribs and stringers (sometimes called
stiffeners). The fittings, attached to the lower end of the spars of a typical fin
structure (figure 57), are used to bolt the fin to the fuselage. After fitting the
fin, fairings are attached to aid aerodynamic streamlining.

Note the structure of the fin and the cut-out for the rudder.

Fig. 57 FIN STRUCTURE

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On some aircraft, however, the fin forms an integral part of the rear fuselage
and cannot be readily removed. The tailplane may be of one-piece construction
or built as separate port (left) and starboard (right) structures. Their
construction being similar to the mainplanes.

On some aircraft the fin and tailplane may be used for fuel storage using the
same techniques as used in the mainplane (in some cases the fuel being used
to trim the aircraft longitudinally by being pumped fore and aft to/from the
main tanks).

Figure 58 shows the tailplane for the A320. Note the box spar, attached
leading edges, elevators, their hinges and access panels.

Fig. 58 A320 TAILPLANE

With most modern aircraft aerodynamic longitudinal trimming is carried out

by varying the angle of incidence (and hence the angle of attack) of the
tailplane. This means that the complete tailplane is hinged at the rear with a
powerful actuator at the centre front spar position. Note the actuator
attachment in figure 58.

AIRFRAME MAJOR SECTIONS

Figure 59 shows the major sections of the A320. All large aircraft have similar
major sections. These are used to identify parts of the airframe, they are used
on the production line and also have their uses if the various parts are made
as ‘road/air transportable’. Take a moment to study figure 59 and locate all
the major assemblies.

- 61 -
 Fig. 59 MAJOR STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS – A320

MAJOR COMPONENTR ATTACHMENT POINTS

These are areas of the fuselage/mainplane where additional loading is

experienced due to the attachment of various fittings. With reference to
figure 59 it can be seen that these include:

* Engines.
* Engine pylons.
* Tailplane.
* Fin.
* Mainplanes.
* Landing gear.
* Flying control surfaces.
* One section of the fuselage to another.

The aircraft may be dismantled into its various major components for
maintenance purposes and to make it road/air transportable. The actual
attachment methods will vary from aircraft to aircraft but in all cases the area
and joining process is of critical importance.

Where parts are bolted or pinned together the bolts/pins are special to type
and close tolerance. The process of fitting and torque loading can be very
specialised.

- 62 -
The procedure as stated in the AMM must be strictly adhered to. The
component must be suitably supported and the bolts/pins inserted using the
correct tools without using any undue force.

Torque loading procedures must be followed which may involve tightening to a

specific value, slackening, then re-lightening to the correct value. Torqued
components may be torqued wet (lubricated) or dry, but it is CRITICAL which
one so check the AMM.

All appropriate locking should be completed and it is important to remember

that all faying surfaces, bolts, pins, holes etc, should be thoroughly inspected
for signs of corrosion, cracks, wear and deterioration prior to assembly.

On completion of the work do not forget to carry out a rigging check – and a
functional of any equipments on the re-fitted item (lights and radios for a fin
[with a antenna] – and an engine run for an engine etc).

These joints usually come under the classification of Critical Bolted joints and
are subject to special procedures stated in the AMM.

Engine/Pylon Attachment

These will vary from aircraft to aircraft. Where engines are buried in the wings
they will be attached usually at two main attachment points either side of the
engine with two additional attachment points towards the rear of the engine.
The main structural attachment points on the wing will be on the main spar.

For fin and rear mounted engines the fuselage/fin will be locally strengthened
and the engines bolted to structure such as a cradle (for rear mounted
engines) passing over the engine. This structure being constructed similar to a
spar.

Externally mounted on-wing engines are usually mounted on pylons that put
the engine forward and below the wing.

The pylons are mounted at locally reinforced strong points on the main spar
and consist, usually, of a highly stressed, strong box section and more lightly
loaded fairings.

Figure 60 shows the wing – pylon – engine attachment arrangements of the

A310. Note the two engine attachments with the forward one taking weight
and thrust loads and the rear one taking only weight loads. Note also the
primary structure and, what Airbus call Auxiliary Structure. Note all three
spars: forward, centre and rear.

- 63 -
 Fig. 60 A310 ENGINE PYLON

Shear pins/fuse pins are usually fitted to the engine attachment system so
that in the event of a crash landing the engines will shear off easily without
trying to tear off the complete wing or trying to pitch the aircraft forward onto
its nose.

Figure 61 shows the rib identification of the pylon.

Note that within the pylon itself will be all the services to and from the engine
to include systems related to pneumatics, hydraulics, electrics, engine
controls, fire prevention systems, engine instrumentation etc. The pylon will
also be vented to prevent any build up of fluids or gasses.

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- 64 -
 Fig. 61 PYLON RIB IDENTIFICATION

Fig. 62 A310 PYLON-WING REAR ATTACHMENT DETAIL

- 65 -
 Fig. 63 FRONT PYLON WING ATTACHMENT DETAIL – A310

Figures 62 and 63 show more detail of the front and rear attachment fittings.
The front fitting has a spigot which takes thrust and side loads while the fitting
lugs take mostly weight loads. Note the fail-safe design of the attachment bolts
and pylon lugs.

Figure 64 shows the engine mounting system for an aircraft where the engines
are mounted at the rear of the fuselage, either side. Note the sturdy front
mount which takes most of the weight of the engine and most of the thrust
loads.

- 66 -
 Fig. 64 FUSELAGE SIDE MOUNTED ENGINE FITMENTS

Landing Gear Attachments

Each main unit on a conventional aircraft (2 main gear and 1 nose gear) will
take about 45% of the aircraft’s total static weight, with the nose unit taking
about 10%. On landing the loads are increased on the main gear because the
main gear takes 100% of the load (each unit taking 50% of the static weight).
To add to this the main gear has to cope with the inertial downward landing
forces.

- 67 -
 Fig. 65 MAIN LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT TO STRUCTURE

These can be considerable. Also there are braking forces to be considered. This
means that the structure will have to be considerably strengthened locally to
allow for these higher stresses. Figure 65 shows an example of the structure
for the main landing gear. Local reinforcing/stronger frames, ribs etc will also
be needed for nose gear/tail gear. Though it will not need to be anywhere near
as robust.

The landing gear unit will be supported by tubular struts (to assist in locking it
down) and these will be attached to the fuselage or mainplane via bearings
(journal bearings) to allow for retraction.

- 68 -
These bearings will be supported in housings attached to strengthened areas
of the structure.

Wing Attachments

The main plane will be attached to the centre section of the fuselage and it
may use two main spar attachment bolts and two rear spar attachment bolts.
On some aircraft the wing is attached using several butt straps fitted around
the skin with additional butt straps for the front and rear spars.

Figure 66 shows the wing attachment for the BAC 111 using wing skin
attachment and butt straps.

Tail planes and fins will be attached in similar ways – ie bolted at the main/
rear spar positions or at skin positions using butt straps.

Fig. 66 WING TO FUSELAGE ATTACHMENT – BAC 111

”””””””””

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