Physical Quantities

• A physical quantity is one that can be measured and consists of a magnitude and
unit.

Are classified into two types: Base Name of Symbol

Base quantity Quantities Unit of Unit
is like the brick – the basic building block of a length metre m
house( There are7 base quantities) see next
page mass kilogram kg

Derived quantity is like the house

time second s
that was build up from a collection electric ampere A
of bricks (basic quantity) The current
quantity which we deduce from
base quantity is known as derived
temperature kelvin K
quantity. amount of mole mol
Unit: It is used to represent physical quantities substance
in a definite way , a set unit of which is luminous candela cd
internationally recognized is known as SI unit, intensity
•Example of derived quantity: area • Defining volume = length × width × height
Defining equation: area = length × width Units of volume = m × m × m = m3
In terms of units: Units of area = m × m = m2
Prefixes: It is used to write a very large or very small quantities in a simplified way.

Scalars and Vectors

•Scalar quantities are quantities that
•Scalar quantities are added or
have magnitude only. Two examples are
subtracted by using simple arithmetic.
shown below:
Example: 4 kg plus 6 kg gives the answer
Measuring Mass 10 kg
Measuring Temperature
• Vector quantities are quantities that have both magnitude and direction
100N Force

Magnitude = 100 N
Scalars Vectors
Direction = Right distance displacement
• Vector can not be added or subtracted
algebraically. We have to use vector rules.
speed velocity

•Parallel vectors can be added mass weight

arithmetically time acceleration

4N pressure force
energy momentum
4N
6N volume
2N
density
2N 2N

•Non-parallel vectors are added by graphical means using the

parallelogram law
– Vectors can be represented graphically by arrows
– The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the
vector
– The direction of the arrow represents the direction of the
vector
Direction = right

– The magnitude and direction of the resultant vector can be

found using an accurate scale drawing

•The parallelogram law of vector addition states that if two vectors acting at a
point are represented by the sides of a parallelogram drawn from that point, their
resultant is represented by the diagonal which passes through that point of the
parallelogram
 When two (2) vectors are PERPENDICULAR to each other, you must
use the PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
Example: A man travels 120 km east
then 160 km north. Calculate his
resultant displacement.

c 2  a2  b2  c  a2  b2

c  resul tan t  120 2

 160
2
 the hypotenuse is
called the RESULTANT
FINISH

c  200 km
160 km, N

VERTICAL
COMPONENT

S 120 km, E
R
T
T
A

HORIZONTAL COMPONENT
• In the example, DISPLACEMENT asked for and since it is a VECTOR quantity,
we need to report its direction.
 N

W of N E of N
N of E
N of W
N of E
W E
S of W S of E
NOTE: When drawing a right triangle that
conveys some type of motion, you MUST
W of S E of S
draw your components HEAD TO TOE.
S
• Table below shows the range and precision of some measuring
instruments

Instrument Range of Accuracy

measurement
Measuring tape 0−5m 0.1 cm
Metre rule 0−1m 0.1 cm
Vernier calipers 0 − 15 cm 0.01 cm
Micrometer screw gauge 0 − 2.5 cm 0.01 mm
 Key Concept:
1. The metre rule and half-metre rule are used to measure
lengths accurately to 0.1 cm.
2. Vernier calipers are used to measure lengths to a precision
of 0.01 cm.
3. Micrometer are used to measure length to a precision of
0.01 mm.
4. Parallax error is due to:
(a) incorrect positioning of the eye
(b) object not being at the same level as the marking on
the scale
5. Zero error is due to instruments that do not read exactly zero
when there is nothing being measured.
6. The time for one complete swing of a pendulum is called its
period of oscillation.
7. As the length of the pendulum increases, the period of
oscillation increases as well.
 Gradient of distance time graph gives speed of the object.

Area under the speed time graph gives distance travel by the object
 Free fall
When an object is released near to the surface of the Earth, it falls under the
influence of gravity. This is known as free fall.
 The acceleration of free fall or acceleration due to gravity is denoted by g.
 The acceleration due to gravity is 10 m/s2.
 This is true in the absence of air resistance.

The experiment below shows, all the air has been removed from the tube. Both
feather and lead ball dropped from same height and reaches bottom of the tube
at the same time. This is because all the objects in the absence of air resistance,
accelerates towards the earth at same rate that is10m/s2.

TERMINAL VELOCITY
• When any object falls through air, due to the gravitational force
or weight the object will experience a resistive force. This
resistive force increases as the object moves faster. And after
some time the resistive force and weight of the object becomes
equals, so the object moves with constant speed, this is known
as terminal velocity.
Consider a parachutist jumping from aircraft:
 When the parachutist jumps from the
aircraft, his speed increase
downward due to weight of his body
or gravitational force

• As his speed increases his air

resistance will also increases in
the opposite direction of fall.

• After sometime air resistance will be

big enough to balance the
parachutist’s weight. At this point the
forces are balanced so his speed
becomes uniform - this is called
terminal velocity.
• When he opens his parachute the air
resistance suddenly increases and
the speed decreases.

• After some time again air resistance

decreases until it balances his weight.
The parachutist has now reached a new,
lower terminal velocity.
 Speed-time graph of a parachutist is shown below…

Acceleration Parachute opens – diver

speed
decreasing slows down
Speed
increases…

Terminal
velocity
reached…

Time

New, lower terminal Diver hits the ground

velocity reached
Force
Force is a push or a pull.
Force can change the size, shape and motion of a body.
Unit of force is NEWTON (N).
Force can be measured with a spring balance.
Examples: Friction, weight, air resistance, electrostatic force,
magnetic forces.
Balanced forces
If the forces acts on a body is balanced:
it stay at rest or it moves with constant speed.
If the forces acts on the body is balanced, then the resultant force is zero.
Example 1:

Resultant force = 6000 − 6000 = 0 N

Unbalanced forces
Unbalanced forces causes
a stationary body to move or a moving body to change its velocity
Newton’s first law of motion
If the forces acting on a body is balanced, then
If it is at rest, it will continue to stay at rest.
If it is moving, it will keep on moving at a constant speed in a straight line.
Newton’s second law of motion
The acceleration of the body is directly proportional to the direction of force applied
and inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
The greater the mass of an object, the smaller acceleration it is given by a particular
force.
The force, mass and acceleration can be combined into
the following equation:
Force = mass × acceleration
F = ma

Newton’s third law of motion

• To every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.
• If object A exerts a force on object B (action), then object B will exert an equal
but opposite force on object A (reaction).
Examples: firing gun, hammering a nail, book kept on a table and launching rocket.
Friction
Friction is the force which opposes motion. i.e., stopping
force
It always acts opposite to the direction of travel.
Friction can be reduced by adding lubricants.
e.g. lubricating oil, grease.
Cause of friction
Molecules in materials have a tendency to stick to each
other when materials are pressed or rubbed together

Nature of the surface: rough surfaces have more

friction due to up’s and down’s which catch each
other.
Advantages of friction Disadvantages of friction
Friction helps us to walk Machine parts rub together and
Friction helps us to hold the objects become lose
Friction helps us to stop a moving Shoes and clothes wear and tear
object. It heats up the moving parts and some
energy is wasted in the form of heat.
Thinking distance (How far object travels just before brake applied.)
If the vehicle is having more tyre surface, thinking distance will be less.
If the vehicle is having less tyre surface, thinking distance will be more.
If the road is having rough surface, thinking distance will less.
If the road is having smooth surface, thinking distance will be more.
If the vehicle has more mass or loaded, thinking distance will be more.
If the vehicle has less mass, thinking distance will be less.
If the vehicle travels with high speed, thinking distance will be more.
Braking distance (How far object travels after brake applied.)
If the vehicle is having more tyre surface, braking distance will be less.
If the vehicle is having less tyre surface, braking distance will be more.
If the road is having rough surface, braking distance will less.
If the road is having smooth surface, braking distance will be more
If the vehicle has more mass or loaded, braking distance will be more.
If the vehicle has less mass, braking distance will be less.
If the vehicle travels with high speed, braking distance will be more.

Stopping distance = Thinking distance + Braking Distance

 Circular motion
When any object is moving in a circular path, then the object is in circular motion
Objects are moving in circular path due to constant force acting towards center of
the circle. This force is called centripetal force.

The centripetal force will increase:

If the mass of the object increased
If the speed of the object increased
If the radius of the circle reduced.

• The planets are orbiting around the sun due

to constant gravitational force acting towards
the sun
• The electrons are orbiting around the nucleus due to constant
electrostatic force acting towards nucleus of the atom.
MASS
 Mass is a measure of substance in a body.
 SI unit of mass is Kilogram (kg) and other units are gram (g), milligram (mg)
and tonne.
 Mass can be measured using beam balance and electronic balance.

 Mass of the body will remain same everywhere.

 Mass of a body resists to change from its state of rest or motion,

this is called inertia.

 A body is resists to change its motion due to inertia. Greater the

mass greater inertia. So that’s why the heavier objects are difficult
stop when it is in motion.
 WEIGHT
 Weight of a body is attractive force exert on it due to gravity.
 SI unit of weight is newton (N).
 Weight of an object can be measured by using spring
balance (newton meter).
 Weight of a body varies in different places. It depends on
gravitational field strength.

Gravitational field

 Gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a force due to

gravitational attraction.

 Gravitational field on the surface of the Earth is 10N/kg. This means that a
gravitational force of 10N is exerted on an object of mass 1kg. Near to the
surface of the moon is 1.6 N/kg.
Relationship between mass, weight and gravitational field
Weight = mass × gravitational field strength.
w = mg
 What is Density ?
If you take the same volume of different substances, then they will weigh different
amounts.
Q) Which has the greatest mass and therefore the most dense?

• Density is the Mass per unit Volume .

Density =mass/volume
Wood Water Iron

1 cm3 1 cm3 1 cm3

0.50 g 1.00 g 8.00 g

Unit of density: kg/m3 or g/cm3

m
• If the different size of object has same density
means all the objects is made up of same
material.  V
• DENSITY OF A REGULAR SOLID
• DENSITY OF AN IRREGULAR SOLID
• Find the Mass of the solid
on a balance.
• Measure the length, breath
and height and calculate
the Volume.
(ie V = l x b x h )
• Calculate the Density.

m = 360 g
 Find the Mass of the irregular solid by using
electronic balance.
Add the known volume of water into the
80 measuring cylinder and this initial volume.
cm3
 Put the irregular solid into measuring
cylinder. Measure the volume of water and
50 cm3
this final volume.
 Find the volume of the solid by subtracting
initial volume of the water from final volume
of the water. (80 − 50 = 30 cm3 )
 Calculate the density of the solid using the
formula:  = m
V
• DENSITY OF A LIQUID
Mass of Liquid = (Mass of Measuring Cylinder and Liquid – Mass of
empty Measuring Cylinder)

• Find the Mass of an empty Measuring Cylinder.

• Add a certain Volume of Liquid.
• Find the Mass of the Measuring Cylinder and Liquid
• Calculate the Mass of Liquid.
• Calculate Density of Lquid.
• DENSITY OF A GAS

To vacuum flask
• Remove the air from a flask of a
known Volume, using a vacuum
pump.
• Find its Mass.
• Add the gas to be tested.
• Reweigh.
Before 170.0 g • The difference is the Mass of gas.
1000 cm3 After=150.0 g • Calculate Density.
 Moment
• Turning effect of a force about a pivot is called moment.
• Example: Opening a door, Losing and tighten nut using spanner or wrench,
• Lifting a load with wheelbarrow
• Lifting a heavy object using crowbar/lever

Moment of a force can be calculated by using the formula:

Moment of a force = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot to force
m=F×d
Unit of moment is Newton meter (Nm) or Newton centimeter (Ncm)
The moment of a force can be increase:
• by applying higher force
• increasing perpendicular distance from
pivot
Principle of moment
• If an object is in equilibrium: the sum of the clockwise moments about any point is equal to
the sum of the anti-clockwise moments about that point.
total clockwise moment = total anti-clockwise moment
F 1× d1 = F2 × d2
Conditions for equilibrium
When a beam is balanced, we say that is in equilibrium. If an object is in
equilibrium:
• the force on it must be balanced (no resultant force)
• the turning effects of the forces on it must also be balanced (no resultant
turning effect).
Centre of gravity (centre of mass)
Centre of gravity (mass) of a body is the point about which the entire weight
(mass) of the body seems to act.
• The centre of gravity may be regarded as the point of balance.
• The centre of gravity of a body is in the same position as its centre of mass.

• The centre of gravity of regular and uniform (made all of the same
material) objects are at their geometrical centers’.
• For a uniform ruler, C.G is at the centre and when supported at this point it
balances and when supported at any other point it topples.
• Finding center of gravity of irregular shape lamina

You are provide with

• Irregular lamina
• Thread and a bob
• Nail clamped in a stand
Procedure:
• Make three hole A, B and C on the lamina. First hang it on the point A, so that it can swing
freely on a nail clamped in a stand. To locate the vertical line through A tie a plumb line to
the nail as shown above.

• When the plumb line comes to the rest, draw line of plumb line by using ruler and pencil.
Mark it as line AD as shown below.
• Then repeat the same procedure with point B and C, Where the line AD, BE and CF
intersect is the center of gravity of the lamina as shown below.
 Stability can be increased by

• Lowering the centre of gravity of the object

• Increasing the base area of the object
• Racing cars low centre of gravity and a wider wheel base for higher stability
Pressure
• Pressure is the force acting per unit area perpendicular to the surface.
Pressure= Force/Area
Unit of pressure N/cm2 or N/m2
SI unit of pressure is Pascal or (N/m2

• Pressure of a force depends on the area in which it acts. If the area is higher
pressure will be lower and if the area is smaller the pressure will be higher.
 • Everyday examples
of how pressure
varies with force and
area
• The area under the
edge of the knife’s
blade is small.
Beneath it, the
pressure is high
enough for the
blade to push
easily through the
material
• The end of the pin is very
sharp, it provide great pressure
to the objects and so easy to
put into objects

• Skis have a large area to

reduce the pressure on the
snow so that they do not
sink in too far
Pressure in liquids

In a liquid such as water, pressure does not simply act down wards – it equally
in all directions. This is because the molecules of the liquid move around in all
directions, causing pressure on every surface they collide with.

• Factors affecting the pressure in a

liquid:
• Depth of the liquid
The deeper the liquid, the higher pressure

• Density of the liquid

The more dense the liquid, the higher
pressure at particular depth

• Pressure of the liquid doesn’t depend

shape of the container.

• The pressure on the liquid can be calculated by using the

following equation:
Pressure on the liquid = density of the liquid × gravitational field
× depth of the liquid
P = ρgh
Hydraulic System
In some machines, the forces are transmitted by liquids under pressure
rather than by levers or cogs. Machines like this are called hydraulic
machines. In hydraulic machine the following properties of the liquids is
used:
• Liquids are virtually incompressible- they cannot be squashed.
• If a trapped liquid is put under pressure, the pressure is transmitted all
parts of the liquids.
Hydraulic Jack
• Pressure can be transmitted throughout a liquid in hydraulic presses and
hydraulic brakes on vehicles.
The figure below shows a simple hydraulic system.
Hydraulic brakes on vehicles
• The diagram below shows a braking system of a vehicle.
When the brake pedal is pushed the master piston
provides the pressure on the brake fluid and this pressure
transmit through the brake fluid to slave pistons. As a
result slave pistons pushed outward and cause brake shoe
to rub against the brake drum.
• The hydraulic system shown above when the 15N force applied to the piston 1, it
provides pressure of 1500Pa to the hydraulic oil. (P = F/A = 15/0.01 = 1500Pa).
This pressure flows through the hydraulic oil and acts on piston 2. As a result the
piston 2 produces the larger output force of 150N. (P = F/A, F = P × A = 1500 × 0.1
= 150N). So sometimes hydraulic system is also called force multiplier.
Pressure measurements
The barometer
• Simple mercury barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure. The
barometer contains liquid metal mercury. Atmospheric pressure has pushed
mercury up the tube because the space at the top of the tube has no air in it.
• It is a vacuum. Normally the height of the mercury column found to be about
760 millimetres of mercury (760mmHg).
• Since the value of the mercury column reflects the value of the atmospheric
pressure, atmospheric pressure can be express in terms of the height of the
column of the mercury.

• Height of the mercury column (h) = 760mm

that is 0.76m.
• Gravitational field strength (g) = 10N/kg
• Density of the mercury (ρ) = 13590kg/m3
• So standard atmospheric pressure or
1atm = ρgh
Standard atmospheric pressure or 1atm = 13590
x 10 x 0.76
= 101 300Pa, in calculators for simplicity,
you can assume that 1atm = 100 000Pa
The manometer
• Manometer is an instrument used to measures pressure difference. The gas supplied tube is
filled with mercury. The height difference shows the extra pressure that the gas supply has in
addition to atmospheric pressure. This extra pressure is called excess pressure. To find the
actual pressure of the gas supply, add atmospheric pressure to this pressure. Standard
atmospheric pressure is 1 atm.

How to measure gas pressure?

• First measure the height difference of the
liquid column.
(Height difference of the liquid column= 60 –
30 = 30mm or 0.03m)
• Then calculate the pressure difference of the
liquid column.
(Pressure difference of the liquid column = ρgh
= 13590 × 10 × 0.03 = 4077Pa)
• Pressure of the gas supply = pressure
difference of the liquid column +
atmospheric pressure.
(Pressure of the gas supply = 4077 + 100 000
= 104077Pa)
Pressure – volume relationship
The diagram below shows a syringe fill with air and end of the syringe is
connected with pressure gauge. When the piston of the syringe is pushed inward
the volume of the air trapped inside the syringe decreases but pressure of the air
increases. The pressure increases because the air molecules hit the wall of the
syringe more frequently.

Boyle’s law
• For a fixed mass of a gas at a constant temperature, pressure of the gas is
inversely proportional to the volume of the gas.
• Which means if the temperature of the gas is constant, when the volume of the
gas is decreased the pressure of the gas increases.
• If you plot the graph pressure of the gas against the volume of the gas you will
obtain a smooth curve as shown below.
• The following equation is derived from this law:
Initial pressure × initial volume = final pressure × final volume (P1V1 = P2 V2)