Prepared by: Arzu Islam

MSc Aeronautical Engg.

PTL and Physics Teacher iSTEM
Visiting Lecturer SIMT
(Aeronautical)
O&A-level Physics Teacher (BACHA
English Medium School)
Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572
 ATOMIC PHYSICS
The Nuclear Atom and Radioactivity
The Nuclear Atom
In 1911 Geiger and Marsden performed series of experiments
under the direction of Rutherford which led to the planetary or
nuclear model of atom.
Rutherford’s experiment on the scattering of alpha particles:

 The radioactive material

kept inside a thick lead box
emits alpha particles.
 Beam of alpha particles are
then allowed to fall on a thin
gold foil in a vacuum place.
 While passing through the
gold foil, the alpha particles
are scattered through
different angles, but few
were repelled so strongly
that they bounced back.
Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572
Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572
  Rutherford concluded that the atom must be largely empty
space, with the positive charge and most of its mass
concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center.
 In his model much lighter electrons orbited the nucleus.

Atom
• Matter is made up of very small particles called atoms
• Each atom has a very small and very dense core called
nucleus. Most of the mass of atom is contained in the
nucleus
• The electrons move in orbits around the nucleus.
• There are a lot of empty spaces within atom
• A nucleus consists of a number of protons and neutrons.
• Protons and neutrons also known as nucleons.
• A proton has a unit positive charge.
• A neutron is an uncharged particle of about the same mass
as the proton.
• An atom is neutral because it contains an equal number of
negatively charged electrons. So the net charge is zero.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

 e

p
n

Helium

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

 Nuclide
A nuclide is an atom of a particular structure.
Each element has nucleus with a specific number of
protons.

Nuclide notation :
A = nucleon number (mass number)
Z = proton number (atomic number)
X = chemical symbol of the element

Example :

Proton number (atomic number) of carbon = 6, carbon nucleus has 6

protons. The nucleon number (mass number) of carbon is 12. So the
number of neutrons in carbon nucleus is 12 – 6 = 6
Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572
 Proton number (atomic number)
 Proton number, Z, is defined as the number of protons in a
nucleus.
 The number of electrons = the number of protons
 An element is identified by its proton number
 Nucleon number (mass number)
 Nucleon number, A is defined as the total number of protons
and neutrons in a nucleus.
Isotopes:
Isotopes are atoms with the same proton (atomic) number but different
nucleon (mass) number.
Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

Example: Isotopes of an element contain the same number of protons and

the same number of electrons. So isotopes have the same chemical
properties chemical reactions involve the electrons in an atom.
However they have different physical properties because their mass is
different.Some isotopes exist naturally. Isotopes can also be made
artificially.
Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572
 Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the spontaneous and random disintegration (decay) of
an unstable nucleus accompanied by the emission of energetic
particles or photons.

 The nuclei of some atoms are unstable. The nucleus of an unstable

atom will decay to become more stable by emitting radiation in the
form of a particle or electromagnetic radiation.

 Random process means there is no way to tell which nucleus will

decay, and cannot predict when it is going to decay.

 A spontaneous process means

the process is not triggered by
any external factors such as
temperature of pressure

There are three types of radiation

that is alpha (α), beta (β) and
gamma (γ).

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

Characteristics of alpha beta and gamma
Characteristic Alpha (α) Beta (β) Gamma (γ)

Nature Helium nuclei or Electrons, Electromagnetic

2 p and 2 n radiation.

Mass 4 1/2000 0
Charge +2e -e Neutral
Speed Slow Fast Speed of light
Ionizing ability High Medium Low
Penetrating power Low Medium High
Stopped by A few cm of air or a A few mm of A few cm of lead
piece of paper aluminum foil

Deflected by
electric and Yes Yes No
magnetic fields

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

Ionizing effect
 Radioactive emission has an ionizing effect
 The 3 types of radiation are highly energetic and use their
energy to remove electrons from the air molecules when they pass
through air.
 The ionization of an atom produces positive ion and negative ion
(electron)
 Due to their different charges and masses, they have different
ionizing abilities.
Penetrating power:
 The penetrating effect of alpha, beta and gamma radiation depends on
their ionizing power.
 Radiation which has a stronger ionizing power will have a lower
penetrating effect.
 The radiation emission loses some of its energy each time an ion pair
is produced.
 Alpha particles lose energy very quick as they move through a
medium. After a short distance in the medium, the alpha particles
would have lost almost all energy. So alpha particles have the lowest
penetrating power.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

  Alpha particles can be stopped by paper, beta particles can penetrate
through paper but can be stopped by thin metal (aluminum).
 Gamma rays can go through paper and metal sheet and can only be
stopped by thick lead or concrete.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

 Interaction with electric field

 Alpha and beta particles are deflected in an electric field

because they are charged. The deflections are in opposite
direction because they carry opposite charges.
 The deflection of beta is larger than alpha because mass of beta
is less than mass of alpha.
 Gamma rays are not deflected because they do not carry any
charge.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

 Interaction with magnetic field

 Alpha particles and beta particles are also deflected when they
pass through a magnetic field while gamma rays are unaffected.

 The direction of the deflection of alpha particles in the magnetic

field can be found using Fleming’s left-hand rule.
Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572
 Detectors for radioactive emissions
 Radioactive emissions can be detected with the help of
Geiger-Muller tube (GM tube), gold leaf electroscope, cloud
chamber and spark counter.

Geiger-Muller tube (GM tube)

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

  The radioactive emission enters the tube through the mica
window and ionizes the neon gas.
 The electrons and positive ions are attracted towards the anode
and cathode respectively.
 When electrons are collected by the anode, a pulse of current is
produces.
 The pulses of current are counted by a scaler or ratemeter.
 The scaler gives the number of counts over a certain period of
time that is counts per minute / counts per second.
 Initially the GM tube is switched on without the presence of any
radioactive substance. The reading displayed by the ratemeter is
known as the background count rates. When the GM tube is used
to detect radioactive emission, the background count rate is
subtracted from the count rate obtained.
Notes:
Background radiation gives reading to the GM tube even though
there is no radioactive source.
Background radiation is always present due to natural radioactivity
in the ground, bricks or buildings and cosmic radiation.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

Cloud Chamber

 It shows the path traveled by the ionizing radiation in air.

 The radioactive produces ions in the air that is saturated with
alcohol vapour.
 The alcohol vapour condenses on the ions to make the tracks of
the radiation visible. Alpha particles are best for this because it
ionization power is high.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

 Spark counter
 The spark counter consists of a wire gauze and a thin wire below it.
 A high voltage is applied between the gauze and the wire. The
voltage is adjusted until it is just below the value required to
produce sparks.
 When a radioactive source is brought near the wire gauze, the
radiation ionizes the air below it. The motion of the ions to the
gauze and the wire causes sparks to be produced.

 The spark can be seen and heard. Spark counters are suitable for alpha
particles. Beta particles and gamma rays produce too few ions to
produce sparks.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

 Safety precautions in handling radioactive substances:
 Alpha, beta and gamma radiation can all damage living cells. Alpha
particles, due to their strong ability to ionise other particles, are
particularly dangerous to human tissue.
 Gamma radiation is dangerous because of its high penetrating
power. However cells have repair mechanisms that make ordinary
levels of radiation relatively harmless.
 Radioactive substances must always be handled with the correct
procedures to prevent harmful effects to people and the
environment.

Safety precaution for handling radioactive

materials include:
 Use forceps or tongs for handling
radioactive sources – don’t hold them
directly.
 Do not point radioactive sources at
living tissues.
 Store radioactive materials in lead-lined
containers – and lock containers away
securely.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

  Wear laboratory coats, long pants, closed-toe footwear and gloves
when entering radioactive place.
 Stronger radioactive sources should be handled with robotic
control systems behind steel, concrete, lead or thick glass panels.

 Check the surrounding area for radiation levels above the normal
background levels.
Background radiation
 The radioactive radiation present around the environment because
of radioactive materials in the environment.
 Background radiation is always present due to natural radioactivity
in the ground, bricks or buildings, rocks and cosmic radiation
(radiation comes from stars and sun).
Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572
 Radioactive decay
 Radioactive decay is a self disintegrating process which an
unstable nucleus emits nuclear radiation like alpha beta or
gamma so as to become stable.
 When a radioactive nucleus decays, its nucleus breaks up, emits
an alpha particle or beta particle and energy, and forms a new
atom of a different element. A parent nuclide X changes into a
daughter nuclide Y.
Alpha decay
 When a nucleus emits alpha particle, the atomic number decreases by
2 units and it mass number decreases by 4 units. And high amount of
energy

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

Beta decay
When a nucleus emits a beta particle, the mass number does not
change but the atomic number increases by 1. and high amount of
energy released.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572
 Gamma decay
 Gamma emission does not change the structure of the nucleus, it
just makes the nucleus more stable. Gamma rays are emitted at
the same time together with either an alpha or beta particle.
 When a nucleus ejects an alpha or beta particle, there is often
some excess energy produced which will be released as gamma
rays.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

 Half –life
 The half-life T1/2 of a radioactive substance is the time for half
of the radioactive nuclei to decay.
 All radioactive substances decay with the same pattern, as
shown in the graphs below.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

  The graph shows that amount of substance decrease rapidly at
first and then more and more slowly.
 We cannot say when the last atom will decay. Different radioactive
substances decay at different rates some much faster than others.

Question 1: The count-rate from a radioactive source falls from 400 to

50 in 3.0 minutes.
What is the half-life?
Ans : 1minutes

Question 2: The half-life of a radioisotope is 2400 years. The activity

of a sample is 720 counts / s.
How long will it take for the activity to fall to 90 counts / s?
Ans: 7200 years

Question 3: The half-life of a radioactive material is 24 years.

The activity of a sample falls to a fraction of its initial value after 72
years.
What is the fraction?
Ans: 1/8
Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572
 Question 4: A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 6000 years.How
much time passes before the rate of emission from a sample of this
isotope falls to 1/16 of its original value?
Ans : 2400 years.

Question 5: Figure shows how the number of atoms of a

radioactive isotope changes with time. Determine the half-life of
the radioactive isotope.
Ans: 12 s

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

 Nuclear fission

 Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter

nuclei, when the nucleus of an atom is bombarded with a
neutron.
 The energy of the neutron causes the target nucleus to split into
two (or more) nuclei that are lighter than the parent nucleus,
releasing a large amount of energy during the process.

 When a neutron hits a uranium-235 nucleus, causes it to split producing

strontium-90, xenon-143 and three neutrons + energy.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

Use of nuclear fission

 Electricity can be generated from the energy released by

fission reactions. A nuclear power station consists of a nuclear
reactor and a generator.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

 Nuclear fusion

 Nuclear fusion is the combining of two lighter nuclei to form a

heavier nucleus, releasing a vast amount of energy during the
process.

 Nuclear fusion is believed to be the process by which energy is

released by the Sun. When two hydrogen-2 nuclei moving at high
speeds collide, they can join together to produce heavier
nucleus. A large amount of energy is released.
Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572
  A hydrogen bomb uses the principle of
nuclear fusion for its design.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

Formation of star
 Distribution of hydrogen and interstellar dust in space may
accidentally become so dense that they contract under their own
gravity, causing temperature and density to rise.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

  When the mass starts to give a red glow, a protostar is formed.
When temperatures at the center of the mass increase to ten-
million degrees Kelvin, hydrogen will fuse to form helium in
nuclear fusion reactions.
 Unlike ordinary chemical reactions we are familiar with, nuclear
reactions convert one chemical element into another such as
from hydrogen (H) to helium (He), releasing a lot of energy, which
causes the temperature to rise further.
 The energy causes the surface to heat up, and eventually, energy
escapes from the mass as radiation (heat and light). At some point
in time, the state is steady in that the amount of energy released
from fusion reactions equals to the amount lost by radiation, and
we call such a collection of mass a star.

Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572

 Carbon dating
 Radioactive substances decay at a rate we can determine, we
can use them to discover how old objects and animals are. The
best-known example of this is radiocarbon dating.
 All living things contain carbon. Plant get this from atmospheric
carbon-dioxide, which they use in photosynthesis. Plant-eating
animals get it from the plants they eat to build their bodies. Meat
eating animals get it from their prey.

 Most carbon is carbon – 12 ( ), which is not radioactive. A tiny

fraction is radioactive carbon – 14 ( ), with a half-life of 5370
years. (It emits beta radiation)

 The idea of radiocarbon dating is this. When a living organism dies, the
carbon – 14 in its body decays. As time passes, the amount remaining
decreases. If we can measure the amount remaining, we can work out
when the organism was alive. There are two ways to measure the amount
of carbon – 14 present in an object.
 By measuring the activity of the sample using a detector such as a Geiger
counter. By counting the number of carbon – 14 atoms using a mass
spectrometer.
Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572
Md Arzu Islam , Head of Physics and PTL iSTEM Bangladesh, 01921957566/01778056572