¾ What are the underlying cause of motion?

What
CHAPTER II
Dynamics of Material Point
§1. Newton’s laws of motion
§2. Applying Newton’s laws
§3. Momentum and impulse
makes bodies move the way they do? → to give the
answers to such questions is the subject of
dynamics
¾ To analyze the principles of dynamics, along with
the kinematic quantities as displacement,
velocity,acceleration, we need two new concepts:
force and mass
¾ Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727) published Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica (“Mathematical
Principles of Natural Phylosophy”) in 1687. In this
work, he proposed three “laws” of motion

When is Newton’s first law valid?

§1. Newton’s Laws of Motion
– In Figure 4.11 no net force acts on the rider, so
™ Law 1: An object subject to no external forces is the rider maintains a constant velocity. But as
at rest or moves with a constant velocity if viewed seen in the non-inertial frame of the accelerating
from an inertial reference frame. vehicle, it appears that the rider is being pushed.
™ Law 2: For any object the acceleration of an – Newton’s first law is valid only in non-accelerating
object is directly proportional to the net force acting inertial frames.
on it, and inversely proportional to Gthe mass of
G the G
object.
∑
Fnet = F = ma
™Law 3: Forces occur in pairs (for every all
action there’s an equal and opposite
reaction)
• These are the postulates of mechanics
• They are experimentally,not mathematically,justified
• They work, and NEED DEFINE what we mean by
“forces”.
 Concept of Force Types of forces
• In physics, we abstract and quantify the action of the
environment on the motion of an object using the concept of 1. Contact forces:
force
- Normal force (always perpendicular to contact surface); it’s
• Force is a vector the basic “push”
- Tension (force through a string, cable, rope, etc):
it’s the basic “pull”
• It has both magnitude
- Friction (appears when two surfaces slide or try to slide
and direction one against the other)

• A force can be 2. Action at distance or non-contact forces:

decomposed into (The fundamental forces of Nature!)
components - Gravitational
- Electric and Magnetic
- Weak force (important in subatomic world)
• Unit: Newton (N)
- Strong force (important in subatomic world)

There are four common types of forces There are four common types of forces

– The normal force: – Friction force:

When an object pushes on a surface, This force occurs when a surface

the surface pushes back on the object resists sliding of an object and is
perpendicular to the surface. This is a parallel to the surface. Friction is a
contact force. contact force.
 There are four common types of forces II There are four common types of forces II

– Tension force: – Weight:

A pulling force exerted on an object by a The pull of gravity on an object. This is a long-
rope or cord. This is a contact force. range force, not a contact force, and is also a
“field” force.

What are the magnitudes of common forces?

Newton’s Three Laws with force concept

1. Any object remains at rest or in motion along

a straight line with constant speed unless acted
upon by a net force.
G G G
2. Fnet = ∑ F = ma
all
G G
3. Forces occur in pairs: Fon B by A = −Fon A by B
For every force (or action) there is an equal
but opposite force (or reaction)
 Applying Newton’s Third Law: Objects at
Newton’s First Law rest
• An apple rests on a table. Identify the forces that act on
it and the action-reaction pairs. [Follow Conceptual
Any object remains at rest or in motion along
Example 4.9]
a straight line with constant speed unless
acted upon by a net force

This law tells you what happens in the absence of any

force, for instance in outer space

A paradox?
Applying Newton’s Third Law: Objects in motion
• A person pulls on a block across the floor. Identify the – If an object pulls back on you just as hard as you pull
on it, how can it ever accelerate?
action-reaction pairs. [Follow Conceptual Example
4.10]
 Relative motion Describing motion :Kinematics

• Define a reference frame

• Motion of an object can be described by
specifying its position as a function of time
• Position vector: (x(t), y(t), z(t))
K
Notation: r (t ) = x(t )iˆ + y (t ) ˆj + z (t )kˆ
• Displacement : change in position (in a given
time interval)
K K K
Notation: Δr = r (t2 ) − r (t1 )

Reference Frames Relative Velocity

Any measurement of position, distance, or speed must be made with respect to In this case, the relationship between the three
a reference frame. velocities is:
For example, if you are sitting on a train and someone walks
down the aisle, their speed with respect to the train is a few
miles per hour, at most. Their speed with respect to the ground
K
is much higher. v BS : velocity of boat
relative to the shore

K
v BW : velocity of boat
relative to the w ater

K
vW S : velocity of w ater
relative to the shore
 Flying in a crosswind
Some examples of Relative motion
• A crosswind affects the motion of an airplane.
• Follow Examples 3.14 and 3.15.
• Refer to Figures 3.35 and 3.36.

Galilean transformations Galilean transformations

G G G
We always need to refer positions (and therefore velocities and rP,A = rP,B + rB,A
accelerations) to a frame of reference.
= relation between the description of a particle in two frames d
which are moving with respect to each other.

y G
↓G dt

G
P
rP,B v P,A = v P,B + vB,A
rP,A
y x
d
rB,A
z
B
G G G G
↓G dt

G
A rP,A = rP,B + rB,A aP,A = aP,B + aB,A
x
z
 Example: Moving Sidewalk Example: Airport race

A person walking on moving sidewalk: You can have vperson,background = 0 Two bored kids stuck at the airport (flight delays) decide
(not moving relative to a picture on the back wall): to race. Both kids walk with speed vw. One kid (A) will walk
on the ground while the other (B) will walk on the “moving
Picture on the sidewalk” that moves with speed v0. The race is roundtrip.
vp,f = v i background Which kid wins the race?

A. Kid A

vf,,bg = v i
bg: background
s: moving sidewalk
B. Kid B
Clearly velocity is a reference-frame dependent quantity! C. Tie

What are some frame Mass, time, temperature…

D. Depends on the ratio vw/v0
independent quantities?
E. Depends on the sign of v0

Two bored kids stuck at the airport (flight delays) decide to race. Both kids
walk with speed vw. One kid (A) will walk on the ground while the other (B) will Faster than light?
walk on the “moving sidewalk” that moves with speed v0. The race is roundtrip.
Which kid wins the race?

d Let d = length of Two cars driving at 50 mph head toward each other on a highway. What is their relative
Time for roundtrip, kid A: tA = 2 the moving sidewalk. speed?
vw Answer: 100 mph

Time for roundtrip, kid B: tB = tagainst SW + twith SW

Two spaceships moving at 200,000 km/s relative to Earth head toward each other
somewhere in the galaxy . What is their relative speed?

vkid B relative to ground = vw − v 0 vkid B relative to ground = vw + v 0 Answer: 400 000 km/s

⎛ ⎞ This is faster than light (300 000 km/s) !! Is

⎛ ⎞
this possible??? No.
d d ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
tB = 2v d 2v d 1 ⎟ ⎜ 1 2
+ = 2 w 2 = w2 ⎜ = t ⎟
vw − v 0 vw + v 0 vw − v 0 vw ⎜ v 2
0 ⎟
A
⎜ v0 ⎟ Special relativity (postulated by A. Einstein): Nothing can travel faster
⎜1 −v2 ⎟ ⎜1 −v2 ⎟ that light in vacuum (c ~ 3 × 108 m/s) in any frame of reference.
⎝ w ⎠ ⎝ w ⎠
1 The fix: Galilean transformations are OK for speeds v << c only. For high
If v 0 < vw , then > 1, so tA < tB (answer A) speeds, we need to use the so-called Lorentz transformations (which
v 02
1− 2 become the Galilean transformation in the limit of small v).
vw
Example: A boat can move at 5 m/s relative to the water and is Satellites and “Weightlessness”
trying to go across a 100-m wide river to a point on the oppo-
site shore and right North of its starting position. The river The satellite is kept in orbit by its speed – it is
flows due West at 3 m/s. How long does the trip take? continually falling, but the Earth curves from
N
A. 20 s underneath it.
B. 25 s v bw W E
v bg S
C. 33 s

v wg
Δx g = 100m G G G
vbg = vbw + vwg
vbw = 5 m /s
vwg = 3 m /s vbg = (vbw )2 − (vwg )2 = (5m / s )2 − (3m / s )2 = 4m / s

vbg − ? Δxg 100m

Δt = = = 25s
Δt − ? vbg 4m / s

When is Newton’s first law valid?

Example: Period of a satellite motion – In Figure 4.11 no net force acts on the rider, so the rider
maintains a constant velocity. But as seen in the non-inertial frame
g of the accelerating vehicle, it appears that the rider is being
v2 pushed.
R a= v2
R =g – Newton’s first law is valid only in non-accelerating inertial frames.
2 a=g R
g ≈ 9.8m / s
R ≈ 6400km
2πR R
v = gR T=
v
= 2π
g

v = gR = 9.8m / s 2 * 6400 *1000m = 8 *103 m / s = 8km / s

6400 *1000m 5000 s

T = 2π 2
≈ 2π * 800 s ≈ 5000 s = ≈ 83 min
9 .8 m / s 60 min
Let us answer the question: Is the
Earth an IRF? Why a mass can be at Proof: Let ‘s calculate the centripetal acceleration
of a point on the Earth (corresponding to it’s
rest on a horizontal table? rotation):
The answer:
* In this case, the net force ( ∑ F ) is equal to 0 T = 1 day = 8.64 x 104 sec,
R ~ RE = 6.4 x 106 meters .
* The Earth is not completely IRF, but is
approximatly IRF. We obtain
a =0.034 m/s2 ( ~ 1/300 g)
which is close enough to 0 that we will ignore it.

Newton’s Second Law EXAMPLE: Pushing a box on ice.

G G
The net force applied to an object
is proportional to its acceleration:
Fnet = ma A skater is pushing a heavy box (m = 100 kg) across a
sheet of ice (horizontal and frictionless). He applies
a horizontal force of 50 N on the box. If the box
Units: 1 N = 1 kg m/s2 starts at rest, what is its speed v after being
pushed over a distance d = 10 m?
(1 lb = 4.448 N)

a
This is in fact the definition of mass!

a a/2 F = 50 N
m = 100 kg

F F
2m v0 = 0 d = 10 m v?
m DEMO:
Toy truck
A skater is pushing a heavy box (m = 100 kg) across a sheet of ice (horizontal and
frictionless). He applies a horizontal force of 50 N on the box. If the box starts at rest, How to denote a force—Figure 4.3
what is its speed v after being pushed over a distance d = 10 m?

F = 50 N – Use a vector
m = 100 kg
arrow to
v0 = 0 d = 10 m v?
indicate
target magnitude
and direction
v 2 − v 02 = 2a Δx
of the force.
F 2Fd
v = v 02 + 2a Δx = 0 + 2 Δx = = 3.2 m/s
m m

Fnet F
a= =
m m

Remember: What is proportional to

the acceleration is the NET force. Decomposing a force into components
Several forces acting on a point have the same effect as
their vector sum acting on the same point. Fig 4-4

•We refer to the vector sum or resultant

as the “sum of forces”

•Fnet = F1 + F2 + F3 … Fn = ΣF.
 An object undergoing uniform circular motion
Example: Circular motion
– As we have already
A 2.0-kg ball at the end of a 1.5-m long string moves uniformly in
seen, an object in
horizontal circles. The force exerted by the string is 48 N. What is uniform circular
the speed of the ball? motion is
accelerated toward
a = R ω2 direction to the center of the circle
the center of the
F = ma = mR ω 2 circle. So the net
force on the object
F must point toward
ω=
mR the center of the
(48 N) circle. (Refer to
= = 4.0 rad/s
(2.0 kg)(1.5 m) Figure 4.14.)

Weight EXAMPLE 1: Block on table

A block is placed on a horizontal surface. What forces are acting

The weight of an object is the force of attraction of
on the block?
gravity by Earth on the object (usually near the Earth). It
is observed that, near the surface of the Earth:
G m Nby table G
G Fnet = 0 ⇒ N = W
W = mg m
W
G
g ~ 9.81 m/s 2
W
direction: toward the center of the Earth Wby Earth

m
Weight and mass are not the same thing!! If weight was the only force, there would be a net force on the
WMoon
box pointing down → an acceleration pointing down!
The direction and magnitude of weight (vector) changes in
different places. Mass (scalar) is always the same. There has to be another force to achieve Fnet = 0.
(On the Moon, for instance , g = 1.67 m/s2)
 EXAMPLE 2: Block on two tables Example: Box on an incline (I)
A block is balanced in the space between two tables as shown
below. What forces are acting on the block? A box of mass m is released from rest on a frictionless incline
G that makes an angle θ with the horizontal. Find:
Fnet = 0
a. The acceleration of the block
Nby left table Nby right table ⇓ b. The magnitude of the normal force exerted by the incline
W NB,I
Wby Earth NR = NL =
2
(½ with enough symmetry)

G
If the block rests on 100 mini-tables,
each table exerts a relatively small Fnet
force: G
Neach table =
W a
DEMO:
Nail bed 100 WB,E
θ

x : mg sin θ = max
EXAMPLE: Elevator moving up
y : N - mg cos θ = may = 0
A 200-kg elevator begins moving up with an acceleration
of 3.0 m/s2. Find the magnitude of the force exerted by
ax = g sin θ the cable.
N = mg cos θ Not mg !!
F
Draw a figure and select axes.
NB,I G G
Newton’s second law: Fnet = ma a
+
F − mg = ma
Wx = mg sinθ F = m (a + g ) =
mg
mg cosθ = Wy θ = (200 kg)(9.8 m/s2 + 3.0 m/s2 ) =
= 2560 N
WB,E = mg Checks: If a increases, F increases.

θ For a = 0, F = mg
 Back to Free Fall Sometimes we know what the acceleration must look like.
Imagine an object moving along the following trajectory at
constant speed:
If we neglect friction, only one force is acting: We know the acceleration must be
G G a like this (if speed is constant).
What does the net force vector
Newton’s second law: Fnet = ma mg look like?
Fnet
mg = ma
a = g = 9.81 m/s2 Example: Circular motion.
We know from chapter 1 what is the correct direction of acceleration in
All falling bodies have the same acceleration of 9.81 m/s2 because: each of these cases. Many forces might be acting on the object. But we
know the result of all these contributions must point in the direction of the
• The m in mg and the m in Newton’s second law are the same acceleration.
(Equivalence of Gravitational and Inertial Mass. This is the basis of
General Relativity!). Fnet Fnet
• Weight is the only force acting!
Fnet
NOTE: Weight will always be there –in problems near the Earth-, but most of
the time, it is NOT the only force. So the acceleration will NOT be 9.81 m/s2.
Constant speed Speeding up Slowing down

Newton’s Third Law Newton’s third law: Action and Reaction

For every force, or action there is an equal

Example: Gravitation. You attract Fg
but opposite force, or reaction. you,Earth
the Earth!
F g you,Earth = Fg Earth, you
Forces ALWAYS happen in pairs. Fg Earth, you

G G
FAB = −FBA But the acceleration that this produces on the
Earth is
your weight ( 70 kg )( 10 m/s 2 )
a = ≈ ≈ 10 − 22 m/s 2 ,
M Earth 6 × 10 24 kg

nothing to be too proud of…)

 EXAMPLES
On Saturn, On magnet,
Helpful notation: the first subscript is the object that the force is being exerted on; by Mars by car
the second is the source.
This need not be done indefinitely, On the car,
but is a good idea until you get by magnet
On Mars,
used to dealing with these forces.
by Saturn

(4-2) On exhaust
On rocket, by On bullet, On gun,
particles, by
exhaust particles, by gun by bullet
rocket

Rocket Ship A Book on a Table

Newton’s third law implies that if a rocket

Normal on book
accelerates forwards, something must be by table
pushed backwards. In outer space, there isn’t
much else around besides its own fuel.

rocket
 Book on Table – The full story
Normal on book
by table
NBT Action-Reaction Pairs
Normal force between book and table
WBE NBT = –NTB
Gravitational force between book and earth
NTE WBE = –WEB
Normal force between table and earth
NTE = –NET
WTE NTB
Gravitational force between table and earth
WTE = –WET
WET WEB
The book does not accelerate WBE+NBT=0
Normal on table
by book The table does not accelerate WTE+NTB+NTE=0
NET Does the earth accelerate?

Slide 59

SP1 Physics Film Classics I, Side B, Ch. 29

Setting limits to Newton’s Laws

Soeren Prell, 1/29/2012

G G G
Galilean transformations for accelerations: aP,A = aP,B + aB,A
When system B is accelerated in relation
to A, funny things happen…
Imagine an object moving in a straight line at constant speed relative to B
(aP,B = 0). If B is accelerated relative to A, the object will appear to have a
non-zero acceleration from the point of view of A!
SP1
…and this could result in a curved trajectory!!

Tricky puck on air table.

Other examples:
Standing in a bus that brakes sharply (passenger “falls forward”).
Acceleration simulator (astronaut feels “pushed against the seat”)
 Inertial and Non-inertial frames of
Where do Newton’s Laws Work?
reference

Inertial frame of reference: moves at constant velocity relative to Newton’s laws are true in Inertial Reference
the fixed stars (Mach’s Principle: “funny things” don’t happen → Frames (IRF).
Newton’s laws hold)
In a non-inertial ref. frame, you can have an
Non-inertial frame of reference: is accelerated
with respect to an inertial frame of reference
acceleration without having a force → we
(and “funny things” happen → Newton’s laws don’t think there’s a force (we’re applying the 2nd
hold). law!) . These are “fictitious” forces (the most
popular one: the “centrifugal” force).
They can be very tricky!!
Is Ames a good IRF?
2
DEMO: ⎛ 2π ⎞
aAmes = R ω 2 = R ⎜⎟
Passenger ⎝T ⎠ → aAmes ≈ 0.034 m/s2 << 9.8 m/s2
on “bus” where T = 1 day = 8.64 × 10 s
4 (pretty decent IRF)

REarth ≈ 6.4 × 106 m

Solving problems: Free-body diagrams

• A sketch then an accounting of forces Free Body Diagram

It is a diagram with all the forces acting

on one
one object.
NB,I
NBT NTE

WBE θ
WTE NTB WB,E

You should always draw a free-body diagram before

attempting an application of Newton’s second law!!! *

* This instructor declines all responsibility for a failed question and will
disregard any whining if a free-body diagram has not been drawn.
 John has a mass of 100 kg and standing on a scale in an elevator which is
Example: Apparent weight accelerating upwards from rest at 2 m/s². What will the scale read?

John has a mass of 100 kg and standing on a scale in an NJS −WJE = mJ a

elevator which is accelerating upwards from rest at 2 m/s².
What will the scale read? NJS − mJ g = mJ a Non John, by scale
What does a scale measure? Non John, by scale a
The magnitude of the normal force NJS = mJ g + mJ a
on the scale by John, |NJS|= |NSJ| a = mJ ( g + a ) =
= (100 kg)(9.8 m/s2 + 2.0 m/s2 ) Won John, by Earth
(not part of John’s Won John, by Earth = 1180 N
free body diagram)
NJS 1180 N
If the scale is in kg, it will read: = = 120 kg
g 9.8 m/s2
Newton’s 2nd
NJS −WJE = mJ a Non scale, by John
law on John: Check: When the elevator is at rest (a = 0), the scale must read the “correct”
John moves with weight, 100 kg (980N).
the elevator

A hand keeps a 35-kg box from sliding down a frictionless incline. The plane
Example: Box on an incline of the incline makes an angle θ = 25° with the horizontal. What is the
magnitude of the force exerted by hand?
A hand keeps a 35-kg box from sliding down a
frictionless incline. The plane of the incline makes an mg sin θ − F = 0 ( ax = 0)
angle θ = 25° with the horizontal. What is the N − mg cos θ = 0 ( ay = 0)
magnitude of the force exerted by hand?
y F = mg sinθ
• Draw the free-body
A. 35 N diagram
NB,I = (35 kg)(9.8
• Choose axes (draw m/s2)sin(25°)
B. 311 N them!) FB,hand (Answer D)

• Use Newton’s 2nd law in

= 145 N
C. 343 N x
the x and y-directions. Wx = mg sinθ
D. 145 N
mg cosθ = Wy θ
E. 100 N θ
θ
WB,E
 Movie from Apollo 17

Applying Newton’s Laws

We’ll assume ideal (constant length), massless strings (i.e,

“String Theory” mass much smaller than the rest of the masses in the
system).

Consider a segment with mass m of a rope with an acceleration a to the right.

Tension: magnitude of the force acting across a cross-section If we neglect gravity, the forces on the segment are:
of the rope/string/cable at a given position (it’s the force you
would measure if you cut the rope and grabbed the ends).
T1 m T2

a
T2 −T1 = ma ⇒ T2 >T1
If m = 0, T2 −T1 = 0 ⇒ T2 =T1
(also, then the weight of the segment
really is negligible)
 Massless string: EXAMPLE: Box hanging from the ceiling.
• The tension is the same throughout the string.
• It can only pull in the direction of its length.
A box of mass m hangs from the
ceiling. Determine the tension on
T T the string.
This makes our lives a lot easier (and it is
a good approximation most of the time).

Tbox,string T − W = ma = 0
Constant length string:

• All objects attached to it move together (same acceleration and T = W = mg

velocity) Wbox,Earth

A little more difficult: two boxes. What if the boxes hang from the ceiling of
an accelerated elevator?
String 1 Upper box:

Ts1,ceiling T1 − T2 − WU = mUa = 0
String 1

String 1
Upper box:
TU,s1 T1 = WU + T2 TU,s1
= WU + WL
= (mU + mL) g T1 − T2 − WU = mUa
WU,E Ts1,U
WU,E a
TU,s2 TU,s2
String 2

String 2 String 2 Simply keep the a

Lower box: in the equations!
TL,s2 T2 − WL = mLa = 0
TL,s2 Lower box:
Ts2,U
T2 − WL = mLa
T2 = WL = mL g

WL,E Ts2,L WL,E

Fbd strings
 Slide 77
DEMO: SP

Example: Cable
SP2 MS2 Forces to lift a 5 lb weight
Sharing the Soeren Prell, 1/29/2012

weight

Find the tension in the cables.

θ θ
y
T T
m

mg x

(x : T cos θ −T cos θ = 0 )
mg Small θ,
y: 2T sin θ − mg = 0 T =
2sin θ large T

It is impossible for a real cable (m > 0) to be completely horizontal

(it would require infinite tension, and then the cable snaps).

Pegs and pulleys

Fbd
pulley Nby pivot Atwood’s Machine
Used to change the direction of forces. Reasonable direction of motion:
Take + in this direction

2mg −T = 2ma
Ideal massless pulley or ideal smooth peg: T T − mg = ma
T ⇒ T = m (a + g )
changes the direction of the force without
changing its magnitude. (Mg = 0) 2mg − m (a + g ) = 2ma
T
T T g 4
T a= ; T = mg
m 3 3
T 2m
mg
T Note that: mg <T < 2mg
W It’s what I need to get the net force in
2mg the right direction to each box!
 Example: Pulley
orange pulley: T2 − 2T1 = 0
How much force does the worker green pulley: T3 − 2T1 = 0 T2
have to exert in order to support
the mass M at constant height h mass M : T3 − Mg = 0 T1 T1
off the ground?

T2 =T3 = Mg = 2T1
A. Mg T1 T1
B. Mg/2 T3
⇓
C. Mgh T3
M
D. Mg/h Mg
h T1 = Mg
E. Mg/(2h) 2

T1

T
Example: Pulleys T T3

T T T4 T2
T T
A sack of weight w hangs
motionless from a system of
T4
pulleys. All ropes and pulleys T T
are massless. What is the
w
magnitude of the force is
exerted by the worker? T2
T1 = T2 = T3 = T4 = 2T T 2 + T4 = w
T?
w
w = 4T T =
4
 In practice, just count the Going 2D: Incline and pulley
number of ropes providing
support.
Find the acceleration of the boxes when the system below is
released. Friction is negligible.

w 2 Same acceleration for both

T = 3 (they move together)
4
1 4 2m

m
35°

DEMO:
Pulleys

1. Draw free body diagram for both boxes. 4. Solve equations

2. Select axes ⎧T − mg = ma T = m(g + a )

⎨
⎩2mg sin θ −T = 2ma
3. Write Newton’s 2nd law
2mg sin θ − m ( g + a ) = 2ma
T − mg = ma
2 g sin θ − g − a = 2a
⎧2mg sin θ −T = 2ma
⎨ g
⎩N − 2mg cos θ = 0
g
N a = (2sin θ − 1 ) = (2sin35° − 1 ) = 0.049 g = 0.48 m/s2
T 3 3
y
2m
a
x T
x y
If θ <30°, a < 0 2m
m
2mg 35° x
x
m
mg θ
 Springs The classical scale
Hooke’s law: The force exerted by a spring is proportional to the
distance the spring is compressed/stretched from the relaxed position.

Fx = −k Δx k = spring constant
F −W = 0
F kΔx − mg = 0
Δx = 0 Δx = 0 F=0 k
m = Δx
F g
Δx > 0 F<0
Δx
F W
Δx < 0 F>0
Δx

EXAMPLE: Cable Vertical: 2T cos θ − mg = 0

Horizontal: T sin θ −T sin θ = 0
Estimate the force exerted by each of the arms of an θ θ
athlete performing the still ring cross.

T T

FIG Apparatus Norms

mg
Height of rings: 280 cm T =
Length of cables: 300 cm 2cos θ
Distance between cables: 50 cm

mg
 50 cm
mg
T =
2cos θ

50 cm Friction.
θ θ sinθ ≈ ⇔ θ ≈ 10°
θ 280 cm Dynamics of Circular Motion
280 cm
T = 0.51mg
mg
A little above because 10° is small.
2
150 cm For θ ≈ 45°, T = 0.7mg

Friction Surface friction is caused by the

“microscopic” interactions between
Friction always opposes relative motion.
the two surfaces
v
fk box, table

It is caused by “microscopic” interactions between two “surfaces”.

Solid-solid Surface friction (kinetic or static)

Solid-fluid Drag forces

Fluid-fluid Viscosity
 Surface friction (solid-solid)
Kinetic friction: When the relative motion between the
two objects is not zero. It “slows down” the sliding motion.
Example: A box sliding on a horizontal table will eventually stop.
Static friction: When the relative motion between the
two objects is zero. It prevents the sliding motion from
happening.
Example: A box on an incline that
doesn’t slide down.
Kinetic friction
When the relative motion between the two objects is not zero.
It “slows down” the sliding motion.
Experimentally, it is observed that the kinetic friction force
between two surfaces:
• Is parallel to the surface (and thus perpendicular to the
normal)
• Its magnitude does not depend on the speed (except when
v = 0) or on the area of the contact surfaces.
• Its magnitude is proportional to the magnitude of the
normal force between the two surfaces:
Use the correct one!!! (N is NOT always mg)
fk = μk N μk = coefficient of kinetic friction
(depends on the materials)

EXAMPLE: Box on incline with x: Wx – fk = ma mg sinθ – μk N = ma

mg sinθ – μk mg cosθ = ma
Y: N – Wy = 0 N – mg cosθ = 0
friction
A box slides down an incline with angle θ = 45°. The coefficient of a = g (sinθ – μk cosθ ) = 5.5 m/s2
kinetic friction between the box and the plane is μk = 0.2. Find the
acceleration of the box. NB,I
fk B,I

Wx

Wy θ
θ WB,E θ
 Experimental facts about static
Static Friction
friction
When the relative motion between the two objects is • It is found that fS MAX = μSN, so:
zero. It prevents the sliding motion from happening.

Example: A box on an incline that

doesn’t slide down.
fS ≤ μSN μs = coefficient of static friction
(depends on the materials)

• Its magnitude does not depend on the area of the

F (push) contact surfaces.
Example: Pushing on a heavy
box that does not move…
fS • μS ≥ μk (Otherwise things would not keep moving!)
…unless you push hard fS has a maximum value (then
enough
the pushing force “wins”)

Example: Trying to move a trunk Car

The static friction between the tire and the road pushes
the car forward.

friction Fby you ffSk by

by floor
floor

μsN
Rotation of DEMO: Tire
the tire
μkN

Fby you
Static friction on tire by road
Static friction Kinetic friction
 Braking
When you brake normally,
the kinetic friction between
the brake pads and the
rotors (disks that turn with
the tires) slow you down.
If you block the tires (no
ABS!), you skid on the road.
The kinetic friction between
the road and the tires slows
you down.
This is less effective (pads
and disks are designed to
have a huge μK and the
normal force between them
is also very large) ―and very
bad for your tires…
Who exerts the centripetal
force?
Dynamics of circular motion
Conceptually, there’s nothing new. All we need is an appropriate net
force to produce the appropriate acceleration.
ω fk To have circular motion, we always need the centripetal acceleration:
• directed toward the center
• with magnitude a =
v2
r
We will always need a force:
fk • directed toward the center
Be careful: This is not some
ω=0 v 2 additional force!
• with magnitude F = m (called " centripetal force" )
r
Highway Curves
If the frictional force is insufficient, the
car will tend to move more nearly in a
straight line, as the skid marks show.
 What if the string breaks? A car rounds a flat curve
• If the string breaks, no net force acts on the ball, • A car rounds a flat unbanked curve. What is its
so it obeys Newton’s first law and moves in a maximum speed?
straight line. • Follow Example 5.21.

A car rounds a banked curve Uniform motion in a vertical circle

• At what angle should a curve be banked so a car • A person on a Ferris wheel moves in a vertical
can make the turn even with no friction? circle.
• Follow Example 5.22. • Follow Example 5.23.
 Little Jacob (15 kg) sits on the edge of a merry-go-round of radius
EXAMPLE: Merry-go-round 1.0 m while big sister makes it turn… faster and faster. How fast
can the system go before Jacob takes off if the coefficient of
static friction between Jacob’s pants and the merry-go-round is
0.5?
N DEMO:
Little Jacob (15 kg) sits on the edge of a Not enough
fs
static friction
merry-go-round of radius 1.0 m while big sister
makes it turn… faster and faster. How fast can
mg
the system go before Jacob takes off if the
coefficient of static friction between Jacob’s Static friction provides the needed radial acceleration: fS = mrω
2

pants and the merry-go-round is 0.5?

Maximum speed → Maximum static friction: μS mg = mr ωMAX
2

μS g (0.5)(9.8 m/s2 ) 1
ωMAX = = = 2.2 rad/s ≈ turn/s
r 1m 3

N
Example: Bucket R mg
mg + N = m
v2
A stone of mass m sits at the bottom of a bucket. A string R
is attached to the bucket and the whole thing is made to DEMO:
move in circles. What is the minimum speed that the Bucket with
water
bucket needs to have at the highest point of the
•If v increases, N needs to be larger (if v becomes too large, since
trajectory in order to keep the stone inside the bucket? N is also the force on the bucket by the stone, the bottom of the
mg + N = ma bucket might end up broken…)
N
mg •If v decreases, N needs to be smaller. But at some point, N will
R v2 become zero! This is the condition for the minimum speed:
a needs to be a =
R
v min
2

v2
mg = m ⇒ v min = gR
mg + N = m R
R R
The speed cannot get any smaller or the trajectory will not
be a circle anymore (because the remaining forces –mg-- will
produce an acceleration that is too strong for a circle of If v < vmin, the stone will do
radius R ―at that speed) something like this...
 Example: Trying to move a trunk
Example: Curve
For “small” forces, the trunk Fby you
A car of mass m with constant speed v drives through a curve of does not move. So there must
radius R. What is the minimum value of the coefficient of static be a friction force fS = Fby you
friction between the tires and the road for the car not to slip?
fS by floor
v2
Fnet = ma fs = m Fby you You increase the applied force,
R but the trunk still does not move:
fs ≤ μS N = μS mg static friction is increasing too.
a fS by floor
v
fs v2
v 2
You increase the applied
m ≤ μS mg μS ≥
R gR force even more. Fby you
Eventually, the trunk
moves. Static friction
cannot be larger than a And then friction
certain value. becomes kinetic!
fSk by
by floor
floor

Example: Climber
A 49 kg rock climber is climbing a “chimney” between two fS feet fS back
rock slabs. The coefficient of static friction between her fS back
N
shoes and the rock is 1.2; between her back and the rock it fS feet N N
is 0.80. She has reduced her push against the rock until
her back and her shoes are on the verge of slipping. What y
is her push against the rock? N
A. 480 N x w
w
B. 240 N x: N - N = max = 0
y: fS,back + fS,feet − mg = may = 0
C. 400 N
D. 600 N If the climber does not slip or move up, the value of the
E. 720 N sum of frictional forces is fixed:
fS,back + fS,feet = mg
 fS,back + fS,feet = mg with fS ≤ μSN
⇒ If N is large enough, both forces will be less than μSN

As N decreases, the ma ximum static friction gets closer More Applicatios of Newton’s Laws
to the actual value of friction.
Eventually, N is just enough so that fS = μSN . If the
climber pushes less than this, the friction will not be
enough to compensate her weight.

μS,backN + μS,feetN − mg = 0
mg (49 kg)(9.8 m/s2 )
N = = = 240 N
( μS,back + μS,feet ) 1.2+0.80
Answer B

EXAMPLE: Incline and pulley, Does the system move at all?

with friction Net force, along the direction of motion, without friction:
Fnet = 2mg sin35° − mg = 0.15mg
Same system, but μS = 0.2 and μk = 0.1 Maximum static friction force:
What happens when the system is released?
fS,MAX = μSN = μS 2mg cos35° = 0.33mg

Motion It does not move!

2m without
fS N
friction
y
m T 2m
35° x T μS = 0.2
x
m μk = 0.1
2mg 35°

mg
 a
Example: Box on truck NB,T Direction of motion
relative to the truck in
A box with mass m = 50 kg sits on the back of a fS B,T
the absence of friction

truck. The coefficients of friction between the box

and the truck are μK = 0.2 and μS = 0.4.
Not slipping: static WB,E
What is the maximum acceleration that the
truck can have without the box slipping?
A. 2.0 m/s2 fS = mBa fS MAX = mBa MAX
B. 3.1 m/s2 N-W = 0
C. 3.9 m/s2 a
m fS ,MAX μS N μS mB g
D. 4.9 m/s2 amax = = = = μS g = 0.4 g = 3.9 m/s2
mB mB mB
E. 9.8 m/s2 Answer C

DEMOS:
Parachutes /
Drag forces Terminal speed Marbles in
corn syrup

For solid-fluid relative motion, the friction force (called Acceleration of a suitcase that falls from a fD
“drag force” or “resistance”) depends on the relative plane:
speed: mg − fD = ma
k and D depend on the
fD = kv for low speeds
geometry and the Increases with v
fD = Dv 2 for high speeds materials. Eventually, fD = mg , so a = 0!
mg
When this happens, the system has reached its
terminal speed:
mg − Dv terminal
2
=0
This is how
This is why this is mg parachutes work!
going to hurt! v terminal =
D
EXAMPLE: Pulling yourself up
A kid with mass m = 30 kg has 2T − (m + M ) g = (m + M )a = 0
designed a rough elevator to
get to his tree-house. It’s m +M
made of a seat of mass M = 5
T = g T
2
kg, a rope and a pulley. If you
want to use the elevator, you
35 kg T
sit on the seat and pull on the T = (9.8 m/s2 ) = 172 N
rope as shown below. 2

How strong is the kid pulling if

the elevator is moving at
constant speed?
(M+m)g

m1 N
EXAMPLE: Box on another box T
fK
A box of mass m1 = 1.5 kg is being pulled by a
m1g
horizontal string with tension T = 45 N. It slides m2 fK
with friction (μK = 0.50, μS = 0.70) on top of a
second box of mass m2 = 3.0 kg, which in turn sits
on a frictionless floor. Find the acceleration of For box 2: fK = μKN = m2a2
a1 μK = 0.5
box 2. From box 1, we know that N - m1g = 0
T
m1
μk N m 1.5 kg
a2 = = μk 1 g = 0.50 (9.8 m/s2 ) = 2.5 m/s2
a2 ? m2 m2 m2 3.0 kg

frictionless
 The magnitude of the tension did not play any role!
The tension just needs to be large enough so the boxes cannot move
together.
EXAMPLE: Box on another box (2)
If they moved together, the acceleration of both blocks would be:
T 45 N m1 Same problem (m1 = 1.5 kg,T = 45 N, μK = 0.50, m2 =
a = = = 10 m/s2
m1 + m2 4.5 kg T 3.0 kg), but now the string makes an angle θ = 15°
The static friction would be the fS with the horizontal. Find the acceleration of box 2.
only horizontal force on m2:
m2 fS
m2a = fS a1 μK = 0.5
T
θ
But static friction has a maximum value: fS ≤ μSN = μSm1 g m1
This imposes a lower limit to the m2a ≤ μSm1 g
coefficient of static friction: a2 ? m2

m2a mT (3.0 kg)(45 N)

μS ≥ = 2
= = 2.0 > 0.7
m1 g ( m1 + m2 ) m1 g (4.5 kg)(1.5 kg)(9.8 m/s2 ) frictionless
Block will not move together for this tension

Ty N
y T EXAMPLE: Accelerometer
θ
fK A car has a constant acceleration of 2 m/s2. A
Tx m1 small ball of mass m = 0.5 kg attached to a string
W1 hangs from the ceiling.
x m2 fK
Find the angle θ between the string and the
vertical direction.
For box 2: fK = μKN = m2a2
a
From box 1, N – m1g + Tsinθ = 0 N < m1 g
θ
μN m g −T sin θ
a2 = k = μk 1
m2 m2

= 0.50
( 1.5 kg ) (9.8 m/s2 ) − 45 sin15
= 0.51 m/s2
3.0 kg
Free-body diagram: In components:
TB,S

Net force must x: Tx = ma Tsinθ = ma

Fnet on B
point to the right:
y: Ty − W = 0 Tcosθ − mg = 0
WB,E
T a
TB,S a y

T cosθ = Ty θ
θ
x
Tx = T sinθ

W
WB,E

2 equations, Tsinθ = ma
2 unknowns Tcosθ − mg = 0 EXAMPLE: Double incline
A box of mass m1 = 1 kg sitting on a double incline is attached to
a mg another box of mass m2 = 2 kg sitting on the other side of the incline
tanθ = T = = m a2 + g2 by an ideal string that goes through an ideal pulley. The angles

g cosθ
between the inclines and the horizontal are θ1 = 30° and θ2 = 45°.
If the blocks are moving to the left and μk = 0.2, what is the
acceleration of the system?

Note: θ does not depend on

For a = 2 m/s2 , θ = 12° the mass of the ball!
Check: For a = 0 (constant speed), θ = 0°
m2 m1
This system is called an accelerometer.
It is also the principle behind windshield
Dancing Elvis… θ2 θ1
 1: T - W1x = m1 a 1: T - W1x – fK1 = m1 a where fK1 = μk N1 = μk m1 g cosθ1
2: W2x – T = m2 a 2: W2x – T – fK2 = m2 a where fK2 = μkN2 = μkm2 g cosθ2
m2 sin θ2 − m1 sin θ1 m2 ( sinθ2 − μk cosθ2 ) − m1 ( sinθ1 + μk cosθ1 )
a=g = 0.31 g = 3.0 m/s2 a=g = 0.15 g
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 = 1.5 m/s2
N2 N2
y N1 y N1
T m1 = 1 kg T m1 = 1 kg
T m2 = 2 kg T m2 = 2 kg
m2 x m1 θ1 = 30° m2 x m1 θ1 = 30°
W2x W1x θ2 = 45° W2x fK 2 W1x θ2 = 45°
μk = 0.2 fK 1 μk = 0.2
θ2 θ1 θ2 θ1
θ2 W1y W1 θ1 θ2 W1y W1 θ1
W2y W2y
W2 No friction case W2 With friction

1. Draw free body diagram for both boxes.

EXAMPLE: Incline and pulley 2. Select axes T − mg = ma
Find the acceleration of the boxes when the system below is
3. Write Newton’s 2nd law ⎧2mg sin θ −T = 2ma
⎨
released. Friction is negligible. 4. Solve equations for T, a. ⎩N − 2mg cos θ = 0
Same acceleration for both
(they move together)
N
2m
T y
2m
m x T
35° x
m
2mg 35°

mg
 Much easier: (be smart!)
⎧T − mg = ma T = m(g + a )
⎨ Write Newton’s 2nd law for the whole system
⎩2mg sin θ −T = 2ma
2mg sin θ − mg = 3ma
2mg sin θ − m ( g + a ) = 2ma
2sin θ − 1
a=g
2 g sin θ − g − a = 2a 3
2sin θ − 1
a =g = 0.049 g = 0.48 m/s2 N
3 ↑ T y
θ = 35°
If θ <30°, a < 0 2m
x T
y x
2m
m
x 2mg 35°
x
m
θ mg

Linear Momentum

Linear Momentum and Impulse

 Momentum and Newton’s
Impulse
Second Law
G G G
G d (mv ) dp
The change in linear momentum for a certain time interval is called the
G dv
Fnet = ma = m = = impulse J (something like “how much of an effect did the force have
by being applied during a given time interval ”).
dt dt dt
G G G G
G G tf
J = Δp = ∫ Fnetdt = Faverage Δt
Linear momentum p ≡ mv F t0
G
G G J Δp
G
Newton’s second G dp |J| = area Faverage = =
law in terms of Fnet = Δt Δt
linear momentum: dt Equal area G
⎛ G dp ⎞
F =
⎜
Faverage ⎝ dt ⎟⎠
A net force is a G G
transfer of linear Δp = ∫ Fnet dt
momentum. t
t0 tf

Collisions and Impulse

The impulse tells us that we can get the same change in momentum with
a large force acting for a short time, or a small force acting for a longer
time.
Short-duration collision, large
F maximum force.
eg. Hitting a hard ball with a bat
This is why you should bend your knees
when you land; why airbags work; and
Same change why landing on a pillow hurts less than
Same impulse
in momentum landing on concrete.

Long-duration collision, small

maximum force.
eg. Hitting a soft ball with a bat

t
 Units of Momentum and EXAMPLE: System of three
Impulse particles
Consider a system of 3 particles that are exerting forces
SI units (of whatever nature) on one another, and there’s also an
external force on A (done by some external agent):
G G
p ≡ mv kg m/s
A FA,C FC,B
It’s the same! C
G G G FA,B
J = Δp = ∫ Fnet dt N s FA,ext FC,A
FB,A

FB,C B

K
K dpA G G G
dpA G G G = FA,B + FA,C + FA,ext
A: = FA,B + FA,C + FA,ext dt
dt K
dpB G G
= FB ,A + FB ,C
A FA,C FC,B dt
K
C dpC G G
= FC ,A + FC ,B
FA,B dt
FA,ext FC,A K K K
dpA dpB dpC
FB,A K + + =
dpC G G dt dt dt
FB,C
C: = FC ,A + FC ,B G G G G G G G
= FA ,B + FA ,C + FA ,ext + FB ,A + FB ,C + FC ,A + FC ,B
B dt
G
dpB
K
G G = FA,ext
B: = FB ,A + FB ,C
dt
Define total linear momentum for the system:
Conservation of momentum
G G G
ptotal = ∑ pi = ∑ mvi The really important case:
i i

G
G
d pt o t a l G G d ptotal
= Fe x t I f Fe x t = 0, = 0
dt dt
G G
p in it ia l = p f in a l

Conservation of Momentum: rocket propulsion

Examples : no external forces
Momentum conservation works for a rocket as long as we
consider the rocket and its fuel to be one system, and
account for the mass loss of the rocket.
 Don’t forget that momentum is a vector
Examples : collisions and impact

Conservation of momentum in This is general for any isolated system (a system which
a 2-particle system is not subject to a net external force).

A FA,C FC,B
FBA FAB C
FA,B
FC,A
G G FB,A
FBA = −FAB DEMO:
G G Carts with
dpA dp FB,C B
∴ =− B springs
dt dt
Each interactions within the system represents
The interaction means there is an exchange of momentum flows between the particles but the
linear momentum between two objects. total momentum of the system remains constant.

Example: Rain
Rain falls vertically into a 10-kg open cart rolling at 2.0 m/s
along a straight horizontal track with negligible friction.
The cart fills at a rate of 0.1 liters per minute. What is the
speed of the cart after 10 minutes?
External horizontal force = 0 Px = mv is constant
Review of §3 (Momentum and
Impulse)
¾ v characterizes the state of motion
kinematically p=mv
characterizes the state of motion
dynamically
¾ The net force on a particle is equal to the
rate of change of the particle’s momentum
¾ The product of the net force and the time
interval is the impulse of the net force (the
time interval must be small if the force is
not constant)
Rain falls vertically into a 10-kg open cart rolling at 2.0 m/s along a straight
horizontal track with negligible friction. The cart fills at a rate of 0.1 liters per
minute. What is the speed of the cart after 10 minutes?
How much water is inside the cart after 10 minutes?
0.1 liters 1 kg water
10 minutes = 1 kg water
1 minute 1 liter water
Linear momentum is conserved.
mv
i i = mf vf
(10 kg ) (2.0 m/s ) = (10 kg + 1 kg )vf
vf = 1.8 m/s
¾ The impulse of a force characterizes the effect
of force (to change particle’s momentum): the
change in particle’s momentum during a time interval
equals the impulse of the net force during that time
interval.
¾ The total momentum of a isolated system is always
conserved. For collisions of the particles of a
isolated system the total momentum is conserved,
but the total kinetic energy may be or not be
conserved (collisions may be elastic or inelastic).