EC 441 Data Acquisition and Control-I

Lecture – 5

The Accuracy of Measurement

Systems in the Steady State

Dr. Nizar Khemri

Spring 2022

Ref. Chapter 3 of textbook

 Accuracy

• Degree of closeness to the true value

• Accuracy is a property of a complete measurement system rather than a single element
• We quantify accuracy in terms of measurement error
E = measured value – true value
= system output – system input

Slide 2
 Measurement Error of a System of Ideal Elements

• Ideal elements case with a=0, N(I)=0, IM=0 and II=0

I = I1 O1 = I2 O2 = I3 O3 Oi In On=O
K1 K2 K3 Ki Kn
True Measured
Value 1 2 3 i n Value

𝑂 = 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 ⋯ 𝐾𝑖 ⋯ 𝐾𝑛 𝐼
• System Error 𝐸 = 𝑂 − 𝐼 = 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 … 𝐾𝑖 … 𝐾𝑛 − 1 𝐼
• So, if 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 … 𝐾𝑖 … 𝐾𝑛 = 1 then 𝐸 = 0
• The system is said to be perfectly accurate

Slide 3
Measurement Error of a System of Ideal Elements

Examples:

𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 = 40𝜇𝑉𝐶 𝑜−1 . 1000𝑉𝑉 −1 . 25𝐶 𝑜 𝑉 −1 = 1

𝐸=0

Slide 4
 Measurement Error of a System of Ideal Elements

• But none of the three elements presented is ideal

• The thermocouple is non-linear ➔ the sensitivity is no longer 40μV °C−1
• Also changes in reference junction temperature cause the thermocouple e.m.f. to change

• The output voltage of the amplifier is also affected by changes in ambient temperature

• The sensitivity K3 of the indicator depends on the stiffness of the restoring spring in the
moving coil assembly. This is affected by changes in environmental temperature and wear,
causing K3 to deviate from 25 °C V−1
• Thus, the condition K1K2K3 = 1 cannot be always satisfied and the system is in error

Slide 5
The Error Probability Density Function of a System of Non-ideal
Elements

Slide 6
The Error Probability Density Function of a System of Non-ideal
Elements

Slide 7
The Error Probability Density Function of a System of Non-ideal
Elements

Example:

It consists of a platinum resistance

temperature detector, current
transmitter and recorder

Slide 8
The Error Probability Density Function of a System of Non-ideal
Elements

Example:

Slide 9
The Error Probability Density Function of a System of Non-ideal
Elements

Example:

Slide 10
The Error Probability Density Function of a System of Non-ideal
Elements

Example:

Slide 11
 Modelling Using Error Bands

• When non-linearity, hysteresis and environmental effects are small, their overall effect
is quantified using error bands  h

• The variance is calculated as follows

∞
ℎ2
𝜎2 =න 𝑓 𝜀 𝜀 2 𝑑𝜀 = 3
−∞

Slide 12
Modelling Using Error Bands

Slide 13
 How We Reduce System Error

Elements non linearity Environment inputs

System Error

Uncertainty in measurements Variation in environment

of element parameters inputs

Slide 14
 Error Reduction Techniques

• Compensation techniques:
▪ Adding compensating non-linear element into the system
▪ Isolation to reduce environmental effects
o Placing of the reference junction of a thermocouple in a temperature-controlled enclosure
▪ Zero environmental sensitivity
o Using a metal alloy with zero temperature coefficients of expansion and resistance as a strain
gauge element
▪ Opposing environmental inputs
▪ Differential system
▪ High-gain negative feedback
▪ Computer estimation of measured value using inverse model equation

Slide 15
 Adding Compensating Non-linear Element Into The System

• Given a non-linear element,

described by U(I)
• The overall characteristics C[U(I )]
of the elements together will be as
close to the ideal straight line as
possible

Slide 16
 Compensation for Environmental Effects

• Isolation to reduce environmental effects

▪ Isolate the transducer from environmental changes so that effectively IM = II = 0
▪ Placing of the reference junction of a thermocouple in a temperature-controlled
enclosure
▪ Use of spring mountings to isolate a transducer from the vibrations of the structure
to which it is attached
• Zero environmental sensitivity
• Using a metal alloy with zero temperature coefficients of expansion and resistance as a
strain gauge element ➔ Such an ideal material is difficult to find

Slide 17
 Compensation for Environmental Effects

• Opposing environmental inputs

▪ We design a compensating element that senses the environment I𝐼 , but its output is
subtracted from the original uncompensated element so that the net result is an element that
has no interfering inputs
▪ The environment input I𝐼 could be anything like temperature or supply voltage, pressure,
humidity, light, ..etc

Slide 18
 Compensation for Environmental Effects

• Differential System

Slide 19
 Compensation for Environmental Effects

Example:

• Two matched strain gauges in adjacent arms of a bridge to

provide compensation for ambient temperature changes

• One gauge is measuring a tensile strain +e and the other an

equal compressive strain −e

• The bridge effectively subtracts the two resistances so that

the strain effect is doubled, and the environmental effects
cancel out

Slide 20
 High-gain Negative Feedback

• It is an important method of compensating for modifying inputs and non-linearity

Vout = ( FIN − FB )( K + K M I M ) K A = ( FIN − Vout K F )( K + K M I M ) K A

Vout (1 + ( K + K M I M ) K A K F ) = ( K + K M I M ) K A FIN
( K + K M I M ) K A FIN FIN
Vout =  if ( K + K M I M ) K A K F 1
1 + (K + K M I M )K AK F K F

• The amplifier output is fed back to an element (e.g.,

a coil and permanent magnet) which provides a
balancing force to oppose the input force

Slide 21
 Computer Estimation of Measured Value Using Inverse
Model Equation

• To find the inverse model parameters, we use the same experimental measuring techniques
for measuring direct model parameters

Modifying IM Modifying IM

ҠMM Ҡ’MM Interfering II

Interfering II

KMIMI K’MIMO
ҠII Ҡ’II
KIII K’III
KI + + +
+ O K’O+ + +
+ I
I Ҡ O Ҡ’ +
+ + +

N(I) a N’(O) a’
N() N’()

DIRECT MODEL INVERSE MODEL

O=a+KI+N(I)+KMIMI+KIII I=a’+K’O+N’(O)+K’MIMO+K’III
Slide 22
 Computer Estimation of Measured Value Using Inverse
Model Equation
• The estimator (computer) calculates or approximates the input using the inverse equation

I ' = K 'U + N ' (U ) + a ' + K M' I M' U + K I' I I'

• Environmental sensors are used to provide the estimator with environment inputs I’I & I’M
Slide 23
 Computer Estimation of Measured Value Using Inverse
Model Equation

• Values of system output Oi are measured and the corresponding system error Ei is calculated
𝐸𝑖 = 𝑂𝑖 − 𝐼𝑖 for 𝑖 = 1,2,3, ⋯ , 𝑛
𝐸 = 𝑘𝑂 + 𝑏

• The system error is checked to see if it has any correlation with the output
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑂𝑖 𝐸𝑖
𝑟=
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑂𝑖2 × σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝐸𝑖2

• If r > 0.5, then the system error is systematic and can be removed from the output, otherwise the
system error is random and can not be removed:
O’=O-E=O-(kO+b) if r>0.5
Slide 24
Computer Estimation of Measured Value Using Inverse
Model Equation

Example:

Slide 25
 Homework-2

▪ Solve the following problems of Chapter 3: 2, 3, 5, & 7

▪ Due Date: Saturday, May 28, 2022

Slide 26