EC 441 Data Acquisition and Control-I

Lecture-2

General Measurement System

&
Static Characteristics of Measurement Elements

Dr. Nizar Khemri

Spring 2022

1
 What is a measurement System?

Input Measurement Output

Process True value
of variable
System Measurement value
of variable

• Consider a process that generates information: Acceleration,

Density, Velocity, Displacement, Force/Weight, Pressure, Torque, Temperature,
Voltage, Level, etc.

• A person needs this information from the process

called observer
• Measurement system links the observer to the
process

Slide 2
 What is a measurement system?

Input Measurement Output

Process True value
of variable
System Measurement value
of variable

• We want → Measured value = true value (Ideal system).

• In practice there is a measurement error (E):
E = measured value − true value, or
E = system output − system input
• Error is the main performance indicator for a
measurement system (error ↓, quality or accuracy↑)

Slide 3
 Structure of Measurement System

Input Measurement Output

Process True value
of variable
System Measurement value
of variable

• Sensing element: is in contact with the process and gives an

output depends on the variable to be measured, such as
• Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature
• Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain
• Orifice plate where pressure drop depends on flow rate.
• Must have a sensor: a device that receives a stimulus
and responds with an electrical signal
Slide 4
 Structure of Measurement System
• The term Sensor should be distinguished from transducer
• Transducer: is a device that converts one type of energy into
another type of energy
• Example of a transducer: a loudspeaker, a device that translates
electrical signal into sound waves.
AC
• A sensor can be a direct or complex:
• Complex sensor consists of one or more transducers and a direct
sensor.

Slide 5
 Structure of Measurement System

• Signal Conditioning is a circuit that converts electric

signal into a form more suitable for processing
Examples:
• Deflection bridge: a circuit that converts an
impedance( resistance, capacitance, inductance)
change into voltage change.
• Amplifier: amplifies millivolts into volts

• Oscillator: converts impedance change into a

variable frequency.

Slide 6
 Structure of Measurement System

• Signal Processing is a circuit that converts

conditioned signal into a form more suitable for
presentation.
• Examples:
• Analog to Digital Converter ADC, converts analog
voltage into digital form.
• Computer, calculates the measured variable from
the incoming stream of digital data.

Slide 7
 Structure of Measurement System

• Data Presentation presents the measured variable

in a form suitable for the observer.
• Examples:
• Pointer Scale indicator

• Chart Recorder

• Alphanumeric display

• Visual display.

Slide 8
Examples of measurement systems

Slide 9
Block Diagram Symbols

Slide 10
Static Characteristic of
Measurement System
Elements

11
 Static Characteristics of Elements

Input I Output O
Element

• These are the relationships which may occur between the output
O and input I of an element when I is either at a constant value
or changing slowly
Systematic characteristics Statistical characteristics
Range Repeatability
Span Tolerance
Non-linearity Uncertainty
Sensitivity
Environmental effects
Hysteresis
Resolution
Wear and Ageing
Slide 12
 Systematic Characteristics
• Range
• Input range IMIN to IMAX
• Output range OMIN to OMAX
• Span
• Input maximum variation = IMAX - IMIN
• Output maximum variation = OMAX – OMIN
• Linearity
• values of I and O lie on a straight line
• The ideal straight line connects the minimum point A(IMIN, OMIN ) to
maximum point B(IMAX, OMAX)
• So, the equation is: O
𝑂𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝑂𝑀𝐼𝑁
𝑂 − 𝑂𝑀𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑁
𝐼𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑁 O MAX
B(I MAX,OMAX)

𝑂𝐼𝐷𝐸𝐴𝐿 = 𝐾𝐼 + 𝑎

I
A(IMIN,OMIN) IMAX

Slide 13
 Systematic Characteristics
• Range
• Input range IMIN to IMAX
• Output range OMIN to OMAX
• Span
• Input maximum variation = IMAX - IMIN
• Output maximum variation = OMAX – OMIN
• Linearity
• values of I and O lie on a straight line.
• The ideal straight line connects the minimum point A(IMIN, OMIN ) to
maximum point B(IMAX, OMAX)
• So, the equation is:
𝑂𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝑂𝑀𝐼𝑁
𝑂 − 𝑂𝑀𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑁
𝐼𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑁 Measurement Element
𝑂𝐼𝐷𝐸𝐴𝐿 = 𝐾𝐼 + 𝑎
I K +
O
+
a
Slide 14
 Systematic Characteristics

Example: A pressure transducer may have an input

range of 0 to 104 Pa and an output range of 4 to 20
mA. Determine the ideal straight line.

𝑂 = 1.6 × 10−3 𝐼 + 4.0

However, in many cases the straight-line relationship is not obeyed

and the element is said to be non-linear.

Slide 15
 Systematic Characteristics

• Non-Linearity
• Defined as a relationship between O and I that deviates from an
ideal straight line
• Non-linearity can be defined in terms of a function N(I ) which is
N(I ) = O(I ) − (KI + a) or O(I ) = KI + a + N(I)

Slide 16
 Systematic Characteristics

• Non-Linearity
• Defined as a relationship between O and I that deviates from an
ideal straight line
• Non-linearity can be defined in terms of a function N(I ) which is
O(I ) = KI + a + N(I)

Measurement Element

I K + +
O
+ +
N( )
a

Slide 17
 Systematic Characteristics

• Nonlinearity Quantification
• Non-linearity is often quantified in terms of the
maximum non-linearity ; expressed as a percentage of
full-scale deflection (f.s.d.), i.e. as a percentage of span

Max. non-linearity as ෡
𝑁
a percentage of f.s.d = 𝑂𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝑂𝑀𝐼𝑁 × 100%

Slide 18
 Systematic Characteristics

• Nonlinearity Quantification
• In many cases O(I ) and therefore N(I ) can be expressed as a polynomial in I:
𝑂 𝐼 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝐼 + 𝑎2𝐼2 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑞𝐼𝑞 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝐼𝑚 = σ𝑚
𝑞=0 𝑎𝑞𝐼
𝑞

• Copper-constantan thermocouple junction (type T)

E(T) = 38.74T + 3.319 × 10-2T2 + 2.071 × 10-4T3− 2.195 × 10-6T4 + HOT
(for the range 0 to 400 °C and E = 0 μV at T = 0 °C and E = 20 869 μV at T =
400 °C)
➔ EIDEAL = 52.17T
N(T ) = E(T ) − EIDEAL
= −13.43T + 3.319 × 10−2T 2 + 2.071 × 10−4T 3− 2.195 × 10−6T 4 + HOT

• Other than polynomials may be more appropriate in some cases, for example
the resistance R(T)ohms
3300
of a thermistor at T °C is given by:
𝑅 𝑇 = 0.04 × 𝑒 𝑇+273

See problems 2.1 & 2.2

Dr. Nabil Drawil Slide 19

 Systematic Characteristics

• Sensitivity
• is the change in output for unit change in input
∆𝑂 𝑑𝑂
lim =
∆𝐼⟶0 ∆𝐼 𝑑𝐼
• For linear elements sensitivity is the slope or the
gradient K
• For nonlinear elements sensitivity is
𝑑𝑂 𝑑𝑁
=𝐾+
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼
Thermocouple
sensitivity

Slide 20
 Systematic Characteristics

Ambient Temperature Relative Humidity

• Environmental effects
• Modifying input IM : affects sensitivity I Element O
K → K + KM IM
• Where KM is the change in slope for
Atmospheric pressure Supply voltage
unit change in IM

Slide 21
 Systematic Characteristics

• Environmental effects
• Interfering input II : affects zero bias a
a → a + KI II 𝑶𝑰𝑫𝑬𝑨𝑳 = 𝑲𝑰 + 𝒂
• Where KI is the change in zero bias for
unit change in II
Notes:
• KM & KI are called environmental
coupling constants or
sensitivities.
• A given environment input can be
modifying input or interfering
input or both types.

Slide 22
 Systematic Characteristics

• Hysteresis
• Hysteresis is a measure of the dependence of an element on its
input history or its past input
• The output can be different depending on past information of I (decreasing
or increasing)
𝐻 𝐼 = 𝑂 𝐼 𝐼 ↓ −𝑂 𝐼 𝐼 ↑
• Again, hysteresis is usually quantified in terms of the maximum hysteresis
෡ expressed as a percentage of f.s.d., i.e. span. Thus:
𝐻
Maximum hysteresis as ෡
𝐻
a percentage of f.s.d. = 𝑂 − 𝑂𝑀𝐼𝑁
× 100%
𝑀𝐴𝑋

Slide 23
 Systematic Characteristics

• Hysteresis

Slide 24
 Systematic Characteristics

• Resolution
• defined as the largest change in I that can occur without any
corresponding change in O
• A common example is a wire-wound potentiometer:

∆𝐼𝑅
• resolution expressed as a percentage of f.s.d. is thus × 100%
𝐼𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑁

Slide 25
 Systematic Characteristics

• Wear and Ageing

• As an element is used over time, its sensitivity k and/or a
parameters change with time.

Examples:
• stiffness of a spring
K(t) = k0 - bt
• a1,a2,… for thermocouple equation

Slide 26
 Systematic Characteristics

• Error Bands
• Is used by manufactures to some up small effects of nonlinearity +
hysteresis + resolution
• The output O is specified as lying between
OIDEAL-h and OIDEAL+h

Slide 27
 Systematic Characteristics

• Generalized Model
• If hysteresis and resolution effects are not present in an element
but environmental and non-linear effects are
• Then the relationship between O and I becomes:
𝑂 = 𝐾𝐼 + 𝑎 + 𝑁 𝐼 + 𝐾𝑀 𝐼𝑀𝐼 + 𝐾𝐼 𝐼𝐼

Slide 28
 Systematic Characteristics
Examples:

• The strain gauge has an unstrained resistance of 100 Ω and gauge factor of 2
(Section 8.2)
• Non-linearity and dynamic effects can be neglected
• Resistance of the gauge is affected by ambient temperature as well as strain
• Here temperature acts as both a modifying and an interfering input, i.e. it
affects both gauge sensitivity and resistance at zero strain

Slide 29
 Systematic Characteristics
Examples:

• Copper–constantan thermocouple between 0 and 400 °C.

• for ideal straight-line EIDEAL = 52.17T
• for non-linear correction functions
N(T ) = E(T ) − EIDEAL= −13.43T + 3.319 × 10−2T 2 + 2.071 × 10−4T 3− 2.195 × 10−6T 4 + HOT
• The dynamics are represented by a first-order transfer function of time
• constant 10 seconds (Chapters 4 and 14). Ref

Slide 30
 Systematic Characteristics
Examples:

• An accelerometer with a linear sensitivity of 0.36 mVm−1s2 and negligible non-

linearity.
• Any transverse acceleration aT , i.e. any acceleration perpendicular to that being
measured, acts as an interfering input
• The dynamics are represented by a second-order transfer function with a
natural frequency of 250 Hz and damping coefficient of 0.7

Slide 31