Unit 2 - Characteristics of Transducers

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Static characteristics of
instruments – Dynamic
characteristics – Mathematical
UNIT 2 - model of transducer – Zero, first
CHARACTERISTICS order and second order
OF TRANSDUCERS instruments – Standard test
inputs-Response of first and
second order instrument to step
and ramp inputs.
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Static Characteristics of Instruments
Static characteristics are a set of

Static characteristics are those criteria or performance
that are used to assess the specifications, which reflect the
quality of measurement of quality of measurement of a
quantities that remain constant quantity, which remains
or vary very slowly with time. constant or varies very slowly
with time.
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Static Characteristics of Instruments are:
• 1. Accuracy • 10. Range
• 2. Precision • 11. Span
• 3. Static Sensitivity • 12.Input Impedance
• 4. Linearity • 13. Loading Effect
Static • 5. Threshold • 14. Error
Characteristics • 6. Resolution • 15. Zero Drift
of Instruments • 7.Reproducibility • 16. Stability
• 8. Repeatability • 17. Tolerance
• 9. Hysteresis • 18. Dead Space.
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1.Accuracy:
• Accuracy means conformity.
• The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output
reading of the instrument is to the correct value.
• The accuracy is expressed in the following three ways:
1.1.Point Accuracy
1.2.Accuracy as percentage of scale range
1.3.Accuracy as percentage of true value
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1.Accuracy
1.1.Point Accuracy:
• This is the accuracy of the instrument only at one point on its scale.
1.2.Accuracy as percentage of scale range:
• Accuracy of instruments with uniform scale can be expressed in terms of
percentage of scale range.
1.3.Accuracy as percentage of True value:
• The best way of expressing the accuracy is in terms of the true value of the
quantity to be measured.
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2.Precision:
• Precision is a measure of the degree of closeness among the measured values.
• Accurate instruments are precise but precise instruments need not be accurate.
• If an instrument is accurate, then all the readings would be closer to the true
value, which means the readings will also be closer to each other. Hence,
accurate instruments are always precise.
• Let us consider a precise instrument for which the true value, say 10V. Since the
instrument is precise, it is sufficient that the readings are closer to each other. Let
us say it is providing a reading closer and around 8V. In this case, though the
instrument is precise, it is not accurate.
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Output qo
Input qi
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4.Linearity:
• An instrument is said to be linear if its output is linearly proportional to the
input.
• Linearity of an instrument is defined in terms of Independent Linearity.
• The computation of independent linearity is done as follows:
• The calibration curve is taken and a straight line is drawn using the method of
least squares. The straight line is also called as idealized straight line.
• The maximum deviation of the calibration curve from the idealized line is
found out.
Output Actual Calibration
Curve
Maximum Deviation
Idealized
Straight Line
Input
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5.Threshold:
• When the input to the instrument is increased from zero, there will be
some minimum value below which no output change can be detected. This
minimum value is the threshold of an instrument.
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6.Resolution:
• The smallest measurable input change of an instrument.
• For example, the resolution of a four-digit voltmeter with a range of 999.9V

is 0.1V, whereas for a five-digit voltmeter of the same range, the resolution
would be 0.01V.
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• 7.Repeatability:
• Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings when the
same input is applied repetitively over a short period of time, with the
same measurement conditions, same instrument and observer,
same location and same conditions of use maintained throughout.
• 8.Reproducibility:
• Reproducibility describes the degree of closeness of output readings
for the same input when there are changes in the method of
measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, conditions
of use and time of measurement.
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9.Hysteresis:
• Hysteresis is a phenomenon that depicts different output effects when
loading and unloading an instrument.
• Hysteresis is observed in any physical, chemical, mechanical or electrical
curves.
• The input-output relationship of an instrument on account of internal
friction and the input-output relationship of an instrument on account of
internal friction with input varied on both sides of zero are as shown:
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• 10.Range:
• The range of an instrument is defined as the minimum and maximum
values between which the instrument can provide output values.
• For example, a voltmeter specifies as (0-30)V can provide output
between 0V and 30V. Hence, the range of voltmeter is 0V and 30V.
Whereas, a voltmeter specified as (10-30)V can provide output
between 10V and 30V. Hence the range of the voltmeter is 10Vto 30V.
• Range = Minimum value to Maximum value
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• 11.Span:
• The span of an instrument is defined as the difference between the
maximum and minimum values of the instrument.
• For example, a voltmeter specified as(0-30)V has a span of 30V.
Whereas, a voltmeter specified as (10-30)V has a span of 20V.
• Span = Maximum value – Minimum value
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• 12.Input Impedance:
• The input impedance of an electrical network is the measure of the
opposition to current (impedance), both static (resistance) and
dynamic (reactance), into the load network that is external to the
electrical source.
• 13.Loading Effect:
• Loading effect can be defined as the effect on the source by the load
impedance. Usually loading effect reduces the voltage level of a
voltage source.
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Characteristics
with ‘Zero Drift’
Output
Nominal
Characteristics
Input
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16.Stability:
• Stability refers to the ability of an instrument to maintain a certain physical
property at a constant value, while rejecting any perturbations in the environment.
• A stable instrument ensures that results are repeatable and reproducible.
17.Tolerance:
• Tolerance refers to the total allowable error within an item. This is typically
represented as a +/- value off of a nominal specification.
• Products can become deformed due to changes in temperature and humidity,

which lead to material expansion and contraction, or due to improper feedback
from a process control device.
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18.Dead Space:
• Dead space is defined as the range of different input values over which
there is no change in output value.
• Any instrument that exhibits hysteresis also displays dead space.
• Some instruments that do not suffer from any significant hysteresis can
still exhibit a dead space in their output characteristics, however.
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• Dynamic Characteristics are

those that are used to assess
the quality of measurement of
quantities that vary rapidly
with time.
Dynamic
Characteristics • The dynamic characteristics
are:
of Instruments
i. Speed of Response
ii. Measuring Lag
iii. Fidelity
iv. Dynamic error
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Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments
(i) Speed of Response:

• It is defined as the rapidity with which the instrument responds to changes
in measured quantity. It is always desirable to have a high speed of
response, so that the instrument detects the change instantaneously.
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(ii)Measuring Lag:
• It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the
measured quantity.
• The measuring lags are of two types:

• Retardation type
• Time delay type
• In retardation type lag, the response of the instrument begins immediately after a
change in the measured quantity has occurred.
• In the time delay type lag, the response of the instrument begins after a dead
time after the application of input.
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(iii)Dynamic Error:
• Dynamic error is the difference between the true value and measured
values of time varying quantity.
(iv)Fidelity:
• Fidelity is the degree to which an instrument indicates change in measured

quantity without any dynamic error.
System, Transfer Function And Order Of
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Transfer Function
• System:
• Different components connected together to perform specific function
and system has got a group/set of differential equations that will govern
the system.
• Transfer Function:
• Transfer function is the ratio of Laplace transform of output to the
Laplace transform of input with zero initial condition.
• Order of Transfer Function:
• In a transfer function representation, the order is the highest
exponent in the transfer function.
• In a proper system, the system order is defined as the degree of the
denominator polynomial.
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Mathematical Model of a Transducer

• A system has got various elements which are connected together
to perform a specific function
• Mathematical model consists of a set of differential equations that
are governing the system.
• Mathematical model is obtained from physical model of the
system.
• Mathematical model of a system is necessary to study the dynamic
response of the system for various time varying inputs.
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Linear Potentiometer
Input-Output Characteristics
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Second Order Mass Damper System

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• Impulse Input
• Step Input
Standard • Ramp Input
Inputs • Parabolic Input
• Sinusoidal Input
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Standard Inputs
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Standard Inputs
• Step Input:
• The step signal is one whose values changes from 0 to A at t=0 and
remains constant at A for t>0.
• Unit step signal is one whose value changes from 0 to 1 at t=0 and
remains constant at 1 for t>0.
• The mathematical representation of step signal is:
r(t)=A x u(t)
where u(t)=1, t≥0
=0, t<0
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u(t) r(t)
1 A
t
t
Unit Step Signal Step Signal with Magnitude A
r(t)
t
Ramp Signal
r(t)
t
Parabolic Signal
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Standard Inputs
• Sinusoidal Input
• A sinusoid is a mathematical curve that describes a smooth periodic
oscillation.
• A sine signal is a continuous signal
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Response of First Order Transducer
• Step Response of First Order Transducer:
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• Ramp Response of First Order Transducer:
ramp
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Response of Second Order Transducer
• Step Response of Second Order Transducer:
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• Ramp Response of Second Order Transducer:

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Unit 2 - Characteristics of Transducers

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Unit 2 - Characteristics of Transducers

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Static Characteristics of Instruments

Static characteristics are a set of

Static Characteristics of Instruments

Static Characteristics of Instruments

• For example, the resolution of a four-digit voltmeter with a range of 999.9V

Static Characteristics of Instruments

Static Characteristics of Instruments

• A stable instrument ensures that results are repeatable and reproducible.

• Products can become deformed due to changes in temperature and humidity,

Static Characteristics of Instruments

• Any instrument that exhibits hysteresis also displays dead space.

• Dynamic Characteristics are

Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments

(i) Speed of Response:

• The measuring lags are of two types:

• Fidelity is the degree to which an instrument indicates change in measured

Mathematical Model of a Transducer

Second Order Mass Damper System

• Step Response of Second Order Transducer:

• Ramp Response of Second Order Transducer:

• Ramp Response of Second Order Transducer:

• Ramp Response of Second Order Transducer:

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