EENG5650- Electronic Instrumentation

and Measurement Systems

EENG5150- Physiological Measurement

General Principles
Lecture 1- Fundamentals (purpose, structure,
classification and systematic characteristics)

Dr G Lu
School of Engineering
Room 109, Jennison Building
Email: g.lu@kent.ac.uk
Lecture Summary

Ø Lecture 1: Fundamentals (purpose, structure,

classification and systematic characteristics)

Ø Lecture 2: Estimation of Random Errors and

Measurement Uncertainty
Ø Lecture 3: Other Characteristics of an Instrument
(Calibration, traceability and standard)

Ø Example/Practical Class: General Principles

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 Purpose of a Measuring Instrument
or System

Process Input Measuring Output

(System, Device)
True value Instrument Measured value
Observer

• The process (system or device) generates information or information

variables.
• An observer is a person (operator, engineer,…) who needs the
information about the process.
• The purpose of a measuring system is to link the observer to the process,
and to present the observer with the numerical values of information
variable being measured, i.e., measured variable.
• The input to the measuring system is the true value of the measured
variable. The system output is the measured value of the variable.

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 Purpose of a Measuring Instrument
or System

• True value, Expected value and Measured value

Ø True value - the information variable of a process, which is the

input to the measurement system. The true value is in general
unknown or unknowable.

Ø Expected value - the value to replace the true value in practice.

An expected value can be established by using a more accurate
instrument, e.g. standard instrument or calculations.

Ø Measured value - the output of the measurement system.

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 Structure of a Measuring Instrument
or System
A measuring system generally consists of four elements:

Measurement system

Input Signal Signal Data Output

Sensor conditioning Presentation
(True Value) processing (Measured
value)

Contacting with the Taking the output Taking the output Presenting the
process where a of the sensor and of the conditioning measured value in
variable(s) being converting it to a element and a suitable form for
measured, e.g., a electrical form for processing it for the observer, e.g.,
photodiode or further processing, the measured a scale indicator,
pressure gauge, e.g., amplifiers, value (correlation, recorder, display
etc. bridges, filters, etc. frequency analysis, etc.
digital filtering etc.)

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 Structure of a Measuring Instrument
or System

• Example 1 - A digital thermometer

Sensor Signal conditioning

True
temperature Compensation,
Thermocouple ADC
amplification, filtration

Millivolts Volts

Measured Digital Micro-

temperature display processor

Data Presentation Signal processing

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 Structure of a Measuring Instrument
or System

• Example 2 - A flame imaging system

Probe/water Camera housing

Flame in furnace
Jacket
Video signal 1

Video signal 2

Computer
Temperature Image acquisition
calculation and digitisation

Data Data Image

presentation storage processing

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 Classification of Measuring
Instruments or Systems

Measuring System

Methodology Sensor type Sensing mode Measurand Electronic type

• Direct • Electrical • Intrusive • Voltage • Analogue
• Indirect • Capacitance • Non-intrusive • Temperature • Digital
(non-contact)
• Ultrasonic • Pressure
•…
• Optical • Flow velocity
•… • …

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 Static Characteristics of a
Measuring Instrument or System

• Systematic Characteristics
Systematic characteristics are those that can be exactly
quantified by mathematical or analytical means.

Ø Range
Input limits: specified by the min and max values of input I,
i.e., Imin to Imax

Output limits: specified by the min and max values of output O,

i.e., Omin to Omax.

Range: Input Range = Imax - Imin

Output Range = Omax - Omin

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 Static Characteristics of a
Measuring Instrument or System

• Linearity: A system is linear if the corresponding values of

input (I) & output (O) lie on a straight line, i.e., ideal straight line.
O
B(Imax,Omax)
I ´
Measuring O (I,O)
Input Instrument Output
I
A(Imin,Omin)
Ideal straight line

The ideal straight line connects the min point A(Imin, Omin) to the
max point B(Imax, Omax), i.e.,

Omax - Omin
O - Omin = (I - Imin )
Imax - Imin
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 Static Characteristics of a
Measuring Instrument or System
• Non-Linearity: A system is non-linear if there is no straight-
line relationship between the input and output. Non-linearity is
quantified in terms of the max non-linearity (Nmax) as percentage
of full-scale deflection (range), i.e.,
O
Omax
Nmax Nmax
Nonlinearity = ´ 100%
Omax - Omin
Omin I
Imin Imax
Example: A thermometer has Nmax=0.5V, Omax=5V and Omin=0V, so

N max 0.5V
Nonlinearity = ´ 100% = ´ 100% = 10%
Omax - Omin 5V - OV
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 Static Characteristics of a Measuring
Instrument or System

• Non-Linearity at a particular point:

O
Omax

NP

Omin I
Imin P Imax

Example: A thermometer at 200°C has Onon-linear=2.9V, Olinear=3.0V

Omax=5V and Omin=0V, so

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 Static Characteristics of a
Measuring Instrument or System

• Sensitivity: The rate of change in output with respect to

input, i.e., the resulting output per unit of input.

DO
Sensitvity =
DI

The sensitivity is the slope of the ideal straight line.

O O
DOA DO A DOB dOA dO A dOB
Slope= > >
DI DI dI dI
A
DOB A dOB
DI Higher Lower dI
B
Sensitivity Sensitivity B
0
I 0 I
Linear system Non-linear system
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 Static Characteristics of a
Measuring Instrument or System

Example: A thermometer has an ideal straight line as follows:

Voltage (V)
5

Temp (°C)
0 200

DO 5V - 0V
Sensitvity = = = 0.025V / !
C = 25mv
V / !
C
D I 200 C - 0 C
! !

Equation of the ideal straight line: V = 0.025T

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 Static Characteristics of a
Measuring Instrument or System
• Resolution:
The smallest change in input which can be processed by an instrument.
Example 1 A thermometer with a 3-digit display with one fixed decimal point
(i.e., min 00.0°C and max 99.9°C) has a resolution of 0.1°C .

Example 2 For a digital instrument, the output responds in discrete steps to a

continuous input. The resolution of the instrument is the change in
input required to cause the change in output, i.e.,

O
Input
Omax
Output

DI R
Re solution = ´ 100%
I max - I min
Omin I
Imin Imax
DIR
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 Static Characteristics of a
Measuring Instrument or System

• Resolution vs Sensitivity
Instrument B
Instrument A O
Input
O
OBmax
Input DOB

OAmax
DOA

Output
Output
DIR
DIR
Omin I
Imin Imax Omin I
Imin Imax

Ø As DIB=DIA, Instruments A and B have the same resolution.

Ø As, DOB>DOA, Instrument B has a higher sensitivity than Instrument A.
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