MORALITY

Morality is the idea or sense of right and wrong or good and bad
Morality is often associated with human behavior and conduct. Human behavior can be seen as
acceptable or unacceptable, depending on the views of the people concerned.

ASPECTS OF MORALITY
Aspects of morality deals with human interactions. They address our actions, thoughts, ideals
and principles. Actions or decisions can be divided into three moral categories or aspects.

1. MORAL ACTION
Moral action refers to behavior or conduct or character which is regarded as right or good. They
are decisions or actions that are believed to be right and acceptable.

EXAMPLES

a) Respecting other people

b) Greeting elders
c) Obeying rules and people in authority
d) Sharing what you have with others

2. IMMORAL ACTION

Immoral action refers to behaviour, conduct or character which is viewed and regarded as wrong.
These are decisions or actions that go against a person or society’s values and are believed to be
wrong and unacceptable

EXAMPLES

a) Cheating in examination
b) Stealing
c) Telling lies
d) Killing other people

3. AMORAL ACTION

Amoral action means behaviour, conduct or character which shows no understanding of right and
wrong.

EXAMPLES

a) A baby tearing up a magazine

b) A mentally ill person walking naked
c) A donkey sleeping in the middle of the road

SOURCES OF MORALITY

A source is a place or a person from which can get something. E.g. a teacher can be a source of
knowledge. The knowledge of right and wrong is guided and influenced by a number of factors.

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These include religion, philosophy etc. most of our principles and standards of behaviour come
from religion and philosophy.

RELIGION AS A SOURCE OF MORALITY

Religion is a belief system such as Christianity, Islam or African Traditional Religion. Religion
can greatly influence the way in which we behave because whatever one does depends on his
/her beliefs and the things they think are important.

Most religions have a moral code or a list of rules or commandments by which their members
should live. Individuals who are followers of a particular religion do their best to respect and
obey the rules of their religion. E.g.

1. CHRISTIANITY

Moral code for Christianity is known as the Ten Commandments. E.g.

Thou shall not kill, Thou shall not steal, and Thou shall not commit adultery

The above commandments influence the lifestyle of Christians. Their behavior is judged
accordance to these standards or principles.

2. BOTSWANA TRADITIONAL RELIGION (B.T.R)

The teachings of BTR are based on the appeasement of the ancestors or badimo. The behavior of
the followers is guided by the happiness of the ancestors and avoidance of taboos (meila) it is
believed that if the ancestors are unhappy they could punish by bringing drought, diseases or
heavy rainfall.

3. ISLAM
The moral code of Islam is based on the sharia law. The law states the standard of behavior to
govern the Muslims on how to live and how wrongdoers should be punished. The following are
strictly forbidden
Gambling, Sex before marriage, Adultery, Stealing Murder etc

A woman who commits adultery or has sex before marriage is usually sentenced to death
through stoning. Thus Muslims live a morally upright live in fear of punishment

PHILOSOPHY AS A SOURCE OF MORALITY

Philosophy is the study of nature and meaning of existence. It tries to explain the meaning of our
existence and nature and how we relate with our environment. There are a number of theories
which try to justify our conduct and behaviour.eg

a) KANTIEN ETHICS- (RARU PRINCIPLE)

According to Emmanuel Kant actions are good when people do them for a good reason. The
good of an action does not depend on its results instead it depends on the intention of the person
performing the action.

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Immanuel Kant ca me up with four conditions that must be met for any action to be accepted as a
morally good action. The conditions are;

 Rationality(reasoning) ; the action should develop one’s reasoning

 Autonomy (freedom); the action should develop one’s freedom or autonomy(self rule or
independent decision)
 Respect for others; the action should develop respect for others
 Universality; the action should eliminate discrimination
All four actions should be satisfied for any act to be truly morally acceptable, if anyone is not
met, then the action is not morally good.

b) UTILITARIAN ETHICS- (the greatest good for the greatest number)

Utility is a theory which suggests that a course of an action is morally good when it makes the
majority satisfied. This principle simply means that if any action is preferred by the majority then
such an action is good and morally acceptable

For example, if majority of learners in a class are more alert and get better results in Maths when
they are taught outdoors, then having lessons outside the classrooms can be seen as good and
morally acceptable.

THE NEED FOR MORALITY IN THE SOCIETY

 Morality guides the way people in the society behave and interact with one another- it
helps people to see the difference between right and wrong, good and bad
 Morality helps people to make responsible choices and act in a responsible way

 Morality helps people to live together in peace and harmony- it helps the members of a
society to respect each other and gives them a sense of belonging and security

 Morality helps society to punish wrong doing and reward right actions- most people in a
society do not want to be punished and therefore do their best to avoid breaking the laws
of the society

 Morality makes sure that individuals in a society are treated fairly and that there is
justice for all in that society

VALUES
Values are the beliefs and ways of behaving that a person or a group of people such as a family
or a community, consider important to them.

TYPES OF VALUES

1. PERSONAL VALUES
Personal values are ideas, principles or things that a person believes are important to him or her.
E.g. a person may value education and marriage.

2. MORAL VALUES

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 -Moral values are standards or ides of right and wrong and good and bad that govern
people’s behavior and choices.
 Moral values are those principles that people believe to be important for themselves and
for all the people in their community. For example
-justice kindness
Generosity politeness
Cooperation empathy
Respect generosity
Sharing

3. CULTURAL VALUES

Cultural values are ideas principles or things that a group of people or particular culture thinks
are important to them.
-they are the believes and the behaviours that give us a sense of where we come from and where
we belong. They make us feel connected to a larger community of people with similar
backgrounds. Cultural values can be material and non material, e.g. Tolerance, respect, peace etc.

4. AESTHETIC VALUES
They are the values that are concerned with beauty and the study of art. They include the desire
for beauty and the conservation of the surrounding in which people live. People may value things
like
- planting trees
- conserving wildlife
- environmental sustainability

WAYS IN WHICH VALUES AFFECT BEHAVIOUR

1. Values guide our behaviour and thinking

 Values shows us what is considered good or bad behaviour. E.g. in Botswana when one
attends a funeral one is expected to wear dark clothing and to appear sad. This is to show
respect and support to the bereaved family.

2. Values help people to focus on their lives and give their lives a sense of direction
- Values help people to concentrate or put more effort on those things or areas they consider
important to them. E.g. a student who values education will focus his or her effort and time
on education and learning instead of nice time or leisure time.

5. Values influence the decisions people make and the rules tat they set for themselves,
either as individuals or as a society.
The decisions that people make are usually meant to help them achieve what they want. E.g.
a student who wants to pass his/her examinations may decide to stop participating in sports
until after the examinations so that she can prepare better for the examinations

6. values show us what is important to an individual or society

E.g. people choose jobs on the basis of their values. If one values wealth she will choose a
job that pays well, but when one values helping others they may decide to become a social
worker or medical doctor.

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 IMPORTANCE OF MORAL VALUES

i) Moral values are one of the things that make us human. We are able to understand the
difference between right and wrong, having moral values distinguishes us from other
animals.
ii) Moral values are important because they influence the way we do things. Values
shape our lives and the way we conduct ourselves. Whenever we make a moral
decision we have to take our moral values into account.
iii) Values give meaning to the things we do. - e.g. working hard for the good of the
community makes us feel as if we are making an important contribution to our society
and to the nation of Botswana. This gives us a sense of purpose.

iv) Our moral value allows us to lead a better life and a truly happy life. We will not be
truly happy when we do bad things. We become truly happy when we do good things
that are morally acceptable.

v) Sharing the same good moral values as other people gives us a sense of belonging-
when one cares about being a member of a group, say a family or choir- one will
respect all the group rules so that one becomes loyal and accepted by other group
members.

LEVELS AT WHICH MORAL VALUES CAN BE APPLIED

The personal level. Personal moral values are held by individual persons.
The social level. Social moral values are held by the whole community or nation
The global level. Global moral values are held by all the nations of the world

MORAL PERSONAL SOCIAL GLOBAL

VALUE LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL
RESPECT I............ WE.............. Botswana.........

COOPERATION

KINDNESS

DECISION MAKING

 A decision is a choice that one makes between two or more alternatives.

 The act of reaching a conclusion or making up one’s mind about something
 Decision making is a process of making a choice between two or more solutions to a
problem

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TYPES OF DECISIONS

ROUTINE DECISION (SIMPLE)

They are easy to make- they require less thinking, and their consequences are usually short lived
and not serious, e.g. what to wear
Which novel to read
MAJOR DECISION (COMPLEX)

They are difficult to make- they require more thought and their consequences are usually serious
and longer lasting. E.g. choosing a career
Deciding whether or not to resign from work

SKILLS NEEDED IN GOOD DECISION MAKING

Critical thinking skills- questioning the information you have to determine if the information is
correct
Creative thinking skills- involve applying knowledge you have gained in one situation to a
different situation

Problem solving skills- involve looking at an undesirable situation and finding ways of solving
or improving the situation

Interpersonal skills- involve relating to people without hurting them such as making decisions
after consulting the people involved to avoid upsetting them.

THE PROCESS OF DECISION MAKING

STEP 1.Identify and define the problem

 know exactly what the problem is and what it involves

STEP 2. Collect information

-find the information about the problem from various sources, e.g. books, friends or parents

STEP 3. Identify possible solutions

 come up with different possible solutions

STEP 4. Examine each alternative

 Asses each possible solution looking at short and long term consequences of the action.
consider and compare the advantage and disadvantages of each option

STEP 5. Select the best option

 Choose the best possible solution after having looked at all the possible options and their
disadvantages and advantages.

STEP 6. Act on the chosen solution

 act on the chosen decision

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MORAL DILEMMAS

A moral dilemma is a situation where two or more of our moral values are in conflict
A moral dilemma is a situation in which you are forced to make a choice between two or more
things that are equally balanced.

EXAMPLES OF MORAL DILEMMAS

1. Lye’s Mother and Father are not well. They both need a kidney donor for them to
survive. All the relatives and friends are not compatible donors. Lye is the only one who
is compatible to both of them and is willing to donate the kidney. He is faced with a
moral dilemma because he loves both his parents and does not know who to save. He has
o choose one and if he chooses one, the other one, would die.

2. I went with a friend to the shops to buy some sweets. While paying I saw my friend
stealing a pen and putting it in his pocket and the shopkeeper did not see him. I did not
know what to do whether to report my friend or not.

Conflicting values

Loyalty to the friend

Respect for the law

3. Mary is a form one student. She has just found out that she is pregnant. She comes to you
seeking for help if she should commit abortion or drop out of school, she wants both the
baby and to continue with her schooling. What should Mary do?

Conflicting values
Respect for the life of the child
Right to education

JUSTIFYING DECISION MADE IN RESOLVING MORAL DILEMMAS

When making a decision when faced with a moral dilemma, you must be able to justify your
decision. This means you must be able to give reasons why you made a particular decision and
not the other and why the choice could not have been avoided
When we justify decisions or give reasons for our decision in a moral dilemma we should be able
to say;
 We made a well informed decision
 We were aware of the advantages and disadvantages of the decision that we made
 We knew the consequences of our decision
 We were aware that we were violating some of our moral values in favour of one
 No one forced us to make the decision. we chose what to do

WAYS IN WHICH DECISION MAKING CAN BE USED IN SOLVING PROBLEMS

The following is an example of how you can use the decision making to solve a problem

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STEP1. IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM
Thabo identifies his problems. he is not doing well in mathematics although he spends most of
his time studying this subject.

STEP 2. COLLECT RELEVANT INFORMATION ABOUT THE PROBLEM

He asks friends, parents and teachers to suggest ways in which he can solve his problem .he also
searches the internet for information on how to study mathematics

STEP 3. IDENTIFY POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

He identifies the following possible solutions
 Ignore mathematics and focus on the subjects he is good at
 Ask the mathematics teacher for extra lessons
 Ask his friends who are good at mathematics to help him

STEP 4. EXAMINE EACH POSSIBLE SOLUTION

 Ignore mathematics and focus on subjects he is good at
 ADVANTAGES- he does not have to worry about his poor results in mathematics
 DISADVANTAGES- he will still get poor mark in mathematics which will lower his
overall grade.
 Ask the mathematics teacher for extra lessons
-Advantages- he will have the teacher to himself so he could ask as many questions as he
likes. The teacher will give him all the help he needs .his marks are likely to improve
which will improve his overall grade.
Disadvantage- he will have to come to school on Saturdays for extra lessons

STEP 5. CHOOSE THE BEST SOLUTION

 Thabo decides to ask the teacher for extra lessons because this solution has more
advantages than disadvantages.

STEP 6. ACT ON THE CHOSEN SOLUTION

- Thabo asks the teacher for extra lesson

PROBLEMS CAUSED BY CONFLICTING MORAL VALUES

 INDECISION- you cannot make up your mind about what to do.

 Most of the alternatives seem right or most of them seem wrong
 You cannot make a perfect choice
 You do not want to go against any of your moral values- whatever you choose feels
wrong
 You are afraid of the consequences of your decision, because the alternative you
eventually choose may not turn out to be the best

SELF CONCEPT

 Self concept is the mental image one has of oneself

 Self concept means what you know and understand about yourself. It is how an
individual thinks about and sees himself or herself

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTICS

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CHARACTERISTICS- are the qualities or features that are unique or special to an individual.
They can describe and identify the kind of person the individual is.

POSITIVE CHARACTERISTICS- are the good things about you. They are your
strengths .they are desirable features or qualities that make you like yourself and that people
admire about you. They are also called virtues.

NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTICS- are the undesirable qualities that you dislike about
yourself and that others may dislike about you. They are your weaknesses. They are also called
vices.

POSITIVE NEGATIVE
CHARACTERISTICS(virtues) CHARACTERISTICS

Honesty Laziness
Kindness Selfishness
Generosity Carelessness
Courage Cowardice
Respectful Stubborn
Patience Dishonesty
Caring Aggressiveness
considerate Cruelty
humble Impatience
understanding Being unfriendly

JUSTIFYING THE NEED TO IMPROVE POSITIVE CHARACTERISTICS

 Our positive characteristics are the foundation of good or moral behaviour. When we
improve our positive characteristics we improve our behaviour and earn the respect of
others.
 Improving our positive characteristics leads to higher self confidence and self esteem. We
will believe in ourselves and our ability to achieve our goals in life. We will feel good
about ourselves.
 Our positive characteristics help us to get well along with other people
 We can become role models for other young people

THE NEED TO OVERCOME NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTICS

We need to overcome our negative characteristics because it will;
 Help us to get well along with others. -e.g. most people do not like aggressive people. if
we change our aggression and become friendly and assertive we are likely to make
friends
 Allow us to do our best e.g. a lazy disorganized student cannot study properly, so he or
she will get poor results ,if this student stops being lazy and becomes more organized, his
or her performance will probably improve

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  Help us to have a healthy self concept, self doubt will be replaced by self confidence self
belief
 Help us to behave in moral ways e.g. you will be less likely to break family rules and
school rules.

WAYS OF OVERCOMING NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTICS

 Be true to yourself; let your values guide your behaviour. Do not choose to behave in bad
ways for the sake of popularity’s sake or acceptance by your friends
 Chooses someone who has many positive characteristics and is a good role model; try to
behave and act like your chosen role model
 Learn and practice the skills you need to overcome your negative characteristics. E.g.
communication skills, anger management skills, decision making skills
 Motivate yourself by talking and thinking positively. Tell yourself ‘I can’ I will overcome
my negative characteristics.
 Set realistic goals for changing your negative characteristics and act on them
 Gather information from various sources about how you can overcome your negative
characteristics

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SELF AND OTHERS

Every person is an individual. No two people are exactly the same. Some of the characteristics
that can make us different from others are;
o Our beliefs and values
o Our self concept
o Our physical appearance
o Our abilities
o Our interests
o Our likes and dislikes
o Our ambitions and dreams for the future

ELEMENTS OF POSITIVE SELF CONCEPT

1. SELF-ESTEEM

-Self esteem means how valuable or worthy you think you are as an individual.
- Self esteem is that feeling you have about yourself
A person can have either low or high self esteem
 High self esteem
People who have a high self esteem have a good or positive feeling about themselves.
 Low self esteem
People who have low self esteem have negative feeling about themselves

FACTORS THAT PROMOTE SELF-ESTEEM

 Respect yourself for being the unique individual you are- if you trust and believe
yourself you will build your self-esteem and be proud of the person you are

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  Self acceptance- accepting yourself can promote self esteem. Self acceptance especially
of the negative characteristics that you cannot change means you can still feel good about
yourself.

 Self appreciation- being proud of your achievements can promote self-esteem. Take
time to remember all the things you have done well and smile.

 Praise and encouragement- being praised and encouraged by others when you do well
can promote your self esteem. e.g. when you do well at school and your parents and
teachers and friends praise you, you will feel good.

 Self awareness- knowing your positive characteristics is good for your self esteem
because it helps you feel good about.

 Believing in yourself- you know yourself best. If you believe and trust in yourself you
will not be afraid of new challenges.

FACTORS THAT HINDER SELF ESTEEM

 Focusing on tour negative characteristics- this will make you feel bad about yourself
especially if you focus on the characteristics you cannot change.

 Comparing yourself to others- sometimes comparing yourself to others can make you
feel bad about yourself because you do not appreciate your unique abilities. You may end
up thinking that you are not as good as they are.

 Rejection- if one does not feel accepted in society one may feel inferior and will end up
having a low self esteem as she will not have a sense of belonging

 Constant criticism- unhelpful negative comments or criticism of things you cannot

change can damage your self esteem. e.g. if parents teachers and friends keep on making
negative comments about your abilities or physical appearance, you may feel bad about
yourself

 Abuse- people who have experienced abuse in their lives will have a low self-esteem.
Abused people often blame themselves for the abuse and let their abusers make them feel
worthless.

Other factors may include the following;

 Lack of interpersonal relationships
 Not being autonomous
 Failure to accept your weaknesses
2. SELF CONFIDENCE

 It refers to a feeling of trust in one’s abilities, qualities and judgment.

 Means believing in yourself and your abilities
 A feeling of trust and certainty about something

FACTORS THAT PROMOTE SELF CONFIDENCE

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  Rewarding performance- when people are praised or rewarded for their efforts their self
confidence is developed or reinforced.

 High self esteem- someone with high self esteem feels good about himself or herself.
This in turn gives him or her confidence in her abilities and strengths

 Good experiences- good experiences such as achieving your goals, doing very well in a
test examination can help you believe in yourself.

 A positive attitude- when you have a positive attitude you are not afraid of facing new
challenges. If you do well your self confidence grows

 Self awareness- someone who focuses on his or her positive characteristics is likely to
believe in and trust himself or herself .e.g. if you know that you are good at football or
netball you will feel confident to join the school team

FACTORS THAT HINDER SELF CONFIDENCE

 Focusing on your negative characteristics- you will not believe on yourself and you
will doubt that you have the ability to do well

 Fear of failure or (insecurity)- this hinders self confidence because you will not want
to try new things or take up new challenges for fear of failing or making a mistake again

 Rejection and humiliation- being rejected and humiliated by important people in one’s
life such as parents relatives peers friends and teachers can make one loose confidence in
oneself

 Constant criticism- when someone is always rebuked, teased, insulted or treated in a

negative manner that person is likely to become shy or withdrawn.

SELF ASSERTIVENESS
- is the ability to standup for your rights and express your thoughts and feelings in a direct
and honest way while respecting the feelings and rights of others
- asking for what you want or speaking up for yourself when you feel strongly that you
have something to say
- is the ability to express our own views opinions and demands confidently without fear or
aggression

FACTORS THAT PROMOTE SELF ASSERTIVENESS

- Having values and principles- awareness of your values can help you to be assertive. If
you know what is important to you, you will be able to say no when others want to
violate your values

- High self esteem- it promotes assertiveness, when you feel good about yourself you will
be able to speak for yourself

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 - Self confidence- if you are self confident you will not be afraid to stand up for yourself
and say what you think or feel, it allows you to behave assertively by taking
responsibility for your actions

- Good communication skills- your ability to express yourself clearly and honestly
without being rude or aggressive can promote assertiveness. Assertive communication is
being able to describe the situation or problem, saying what you feel about it and what
you want to do.

- Decision making skills- ability to make good decisions on your own can make you
assertive. You can choose to do what is in your best interest and take responsibility for
your own actions

FACTORS THAT HINDER ASSERTIVENESS

- Low self esteem- people with low self esteem are often afraid of saying what they think
or feel. They do not see themselves as people worthy of love and respect and so they
cannot stand up for their rights

- Lack of self confidence- if you lack self confidence others can take advantage of you or
control you for their own benefit. you do not trust and believe in yourself

- Fear- different fears can stop you from being assertive. E.g. fear of not being liked by
others, fear of hurting others and the fear of being called selfish. you may do something
to please others, even if it is something you did not want to do

- Socialization- in some traditional society’s young people and women are not assertive
because they have been socialized to be non-assertive. Young people are supposed to do
as they are told by adults, women are expected to obey men

- Lack of openness- shy, passive and conservative people are in most cases unable to
express their own opinions

- Inability to accept yourself- if you are unwilling or unable to accept your physical,
mental and emotional characteristics you destroy your spirit of self confidence, and if
you do not have confidence in who you are, you also cannot be assertive about what you
want or don’t want.

SITUATIONS WHERE ONE SHOWED POSITIVE SELF CONCEPT

SHOWING SELF ASSERTIVENESS

My friends have started drinking beer. They want me to start drinking too. I told them that I do
not want to drink beer. Now they keep teasing me. They say I am boring and do not know how to
have fun. I don’t think I am boring, I thin there are better things and healthier ways of having fun
e.g. watching television,. I have made it clear to them that no amount of teasing will make me
change my mind. Now they accept me as I am.

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SHOWING SELF CONFIDENCE
Each class in your school has to make a presentation on the day of the African child. Your class
chooses you to present on children’s rights on behalf of your class, although you know what to
say, you eel anxious and scared to stand in front of the whole school to make your presentation,
you tell yourself that you can do it and it is a good opportunity to practice public speaking skills
you were taught. You prepare your speech and ask your class teacher to check it. On the day, you
walk to the microphone and talked confidently

AUTONOMY

- It s the ability to act independently and govern yourself and your own affairs
- It means to govern oneself or self rule

IMPORTANCE OF AUTONOMY

 It helps us to think for ourselves and make independent decisions- this is important
because every choice or decision that we make shows our character or the kind of a
person that we are.
 It makes us countable for our own decisions and behaviour (accountability ).- We
cannot blame others for our wrong decisions or bad behaviour. We have to take
responsibility for what we have done or what we have failed to do.
 Helps us to resist negative or bad peer pressure- negative peer pressure is when our
friends persuade or influence us to behave in immoral ways, to break rules or laws or to
do things that can harm us and others,. It is not easy to say no to our friends unless we are
able to think and act autonomously.
 We can give reasons for our decisions and behaviour- we can explain why we did or
did not do something and why we value things and not others
 It builds a positive self concept, high self esteem, assertiveness and self confidence.
We can be proud of who we are and what we stand for.
 Autonomy enhances personal growth- it equips you with problem solving skills that
helps you to solve your own problems as one when growing up he is able to identify his
own weaknesses and learn from them. This allows one to be a better person..

WAYS OF PROMOTING AUTONOMY

a) EDUCATION AND ACCESS TO INFORMATION

Lack of education and access to information can result in people being able to make sound
decisions because they do not have the necessary information on which to act. Well educated
people can make meaningful, independent decisions as they understand contemporary moral
issues.

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 b) RESOURCES FOR PEOPLE WITH DISABILITY
Modern technology and user friendly social structures have helped a lot of people to lead as
close to normal life as possible. Visually impaired should be taught to read braille. Hearing
impaired to use sign language to communicate, artificial limbs, wheel chairs, and crutches are
also used to enable people to be more autonomous since they do not have to rely on others to
get where they want to be

c) ASSERTIVENESS
If you are assertive, you can stand up for yourself and make your own decisions. Therefore
you are likely to be autonomous when you are assertive.

d) GENDER EQUALITY
Women and men should be treated equally and given the same opportunities in life. This will
make women more independent and they will not have to rely on men to support them.

e) ACTING ACCORDING TO OUR PERSONAL VALUES

Our values are whatever is important to us. By basing our decisions, actions and behaviour
on our values we will act autonomously

f) DEVELOPING A POSITIVE SELF CONCEPT

People who have a positive self concept have high self-esteem, are confident and also
assertive, as a result they can act autonomously with ease

AUTONOMOUS ACTIONS

1. Nino and Dodo are good friends. They are intelligent and usually score high marks in school.
Their classmates sometimes try to influence them to neglect their school work and to get
involved in sexual relationships. They usually reject this influence saying that education comes
first and that hard work pays in the end.

2. I think I have to take my education serious so that I can contribute something to my country
and society. No, I cannot do what my friends say. I cannot dodge school everyday and spend the
whole day drinking beer.

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 INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS
- are the skills that we use to get well along with other people
-are the tactics or abilities that enable us to get on well with others.
-abilities or skills of effective communication
They include the following;
 Communication skills-
 Conflict resolution skills- conflicts between people happen all the time. However, It is
important to resolve the conflicts so that relationships are not damaged
 Assertiveness skills- assertive action helps people have open and honest relationships they are
likely to respect and understand each other’s needs, wants and feelings
 Courtesy- means being polite
 Respect- means having a good opinion of someone and valuing him or her as a person
 Empathy-
 Confidentiality e.t.c

INTERPRSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
-an interpersonal relationship is an association or connection between individuals
- An interaction or link between two or more people

People have different sorts of interpersonal relationships. For example,

 Between classmates
 Between teachers and learners
 Between brothers and sisters
 Between husbands and wife’s
 Between people in the community
 Parents and their children

WHY WE NEED TO RELATE WELL WITH OTHERS

We need to relate well with others for the following reasons

 We will have fewer conflicts with other people. When there are conflicts, they are likely to be
resolved peacefully.
 Other will accept and appreciate us
 Others willingly helps us when we ask
 We will work well with others e.g. in completing tasks as a group or team
 We will be happier so make others happier
 We will build good and lasting relationships with other people
 Helps promote peace and harmony

HOW INTERPERSONAL RELATIOSHIPS AFFECT INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

There are several reasons why interpersonal skills are essential for every relationship. People with
good interpersonal skills;
 Know how to relate well with others, so less miscommunication happens
 Understand the needs of others
 Know how to approach people
 Know that people are unique
 Can promote constructive relationships that grow deeper over time

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  Can balance the needs of those involved in relationships

HOW LACK OF INTERPERSONAL SKILLS AFFECT INTERPERSONAL

RELATIONSHIPS

Lack of interpersonal skills is harmful to any relationship. If people lack interpersonal skills the
following are common;
 Breakdown of relationships as people do not understand or care for each other anymore
 Fighting, stress or lack of love in families
 People especially men being unable to understand or talk about their own feelings and
problems in relationships, and instead using physical violence, so abuse of women and children
happens
 Children can become anti-social as a result and possibly end up delinquent
 A high divorce rate and the problems that follow, especially for children
 Problems such as inequality, prejudice and stereotyping become worse
 Misunderstandings leading to conflict and emotional hurt in families, neighborhoods and the
society

THE NEED FOR EMPATHY AND RESPECT FOR OTHERS

Empathy- means the ability to put yourself in someone else’s position and understand his or her needs
and feelings.
Respect- means having a good opinion of someone and valuing him/her as a person.

THE NEED FOR EMPATHY FOR OTHERS

 Makes us aware of the other persons feeling or situation, this helps us to be generous,
compassionate and caring because we understand the other persons feeling or situation
 Helps us not to hurt or harm others. we will not do to others what we will not want done to us.
 Can also help us understand other people better. We can begin to make sense of their behaviour
towards people. This helps us to respond to them with empathy.
 Empathy opens us to our similarities, and teaches us tolerance about our differences
 Helps us get along well and work together peacefully

THE NEED TO RESPECT OTHERS

We need to respect others because;
 It makes them feel valued and important to us
 They are likely to show us respect
 We treat others in the way you would like to be treated
 Respect promotes peace and harmony between people
 We think everyone must be treated with dignity.

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 ADOLESCENCE

It is the stage of life when a child goes through physical (puberty), emotional, social and mental
changes to become an adult.
It is the stage of development between childhood and adulthood

THE CHANGES THAT OCCUR DURING ADOLESCENCE

PHYSICAL CHANGES OR PUBERTY

Adolescence begins with physical changes known as puberty
Boys and girls experience different physical changes and these may occur at different times.

CHANGES THAT TAKE PLACE IN BOYS AN GIRLS DURING PUBERTY

BOYS GIRLS
Growth spurt Growth spurt
Sweat glands make more sweat Sweat glands make more sweat
Skin is oilier and may be pimply Skin is oilier and may be pimply
Voices grow deeper Breasts buds appear
Pubic and underarm hair grows Pubic and underarm hair grows
Body hair grows thicker and longer, face hair Body hair grows thicker and longer
grows
Muscles grow bigger Develop hips and pelvic bones grow wider
Develop sexual desire Develop sexual desire
Experience wet dreams Experience menstruation
Sexual organs grow bigger Sexual organs grow bigger

EMOTIONAL CHANGES

 Mood swings- moods can change suddenly, from being happy one moment to feeling sad
angry the next.
 Being short tempered – may get angry easily even over minor issues
 Self awareness- they become more aware of their physical appearance so they may spend a lot
of time grooming to make sure they look good.
 Sexual feelings- begin to have sexual feelings and romantic feelings for others. they may want
to have a special boyfriend or girlfriend
 Loneliness or confusion- may feel lonely and confused; they often feel no one understands
them, especially adults.

SOCIAL CHANGES

 Forming of personal identity- begins to establish his or her own identity and values. As a
result he or she may want more privacy, some may refuse to obey rules and reject authority
 Friends- friendship and acceptance by the group of friends becomes very important. Through
friendship they learn the necessary social skills of relating to others.

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  Becoming independent- begins to be more independent of their parents, they want more
freedom to make their own decisions and they may feel frustrated when they are not allowed to
do as they please.

MENTAL CHANGES

 Ability to reason- develops the ability to think logically. E.g. they begin to notice inconsistent
behaviour in others, especially adults, when they one thing and do the opposite
 Ability to evaluate- begins to develop the ability to identify different choices and think about
the advantages and disadvantages of each choice.
 Ability to understand ideas- begins to develop the ability to think about the ideas and things
they cannot see or touch. E.g. they are able to form their own opinions about what is happening
around them on political, health, environmental and morality issues.
 Ability to empathise- develop the ability to think about how they are perceived by others and
to understand other peoples points of view.
 Ability to think about the future- develop the ability to think ahead and predict what might
happen in the future.

THE WAY CHANGES IN ADOLESCENCE INFLUENCE BEHAVIOUR

 Adolescents may worry about putting on weight and begin to be more aware of what they eat
 May become more curious about sexual matters. Some may have their first romantic or sexual
relationship
 Some may become very shy and quiet because they lack self confidence
 They may also get irritated or angry easily and feel adults do not understand them
 Adolescents begin to prefer to spend more time with friends than their families; friends begin
to influence their likes and dislikes.
 They may want more privacy and become more secretive. E.g. they may not want their parents
to meet their friends; they may not want other family members to enter their bedrooms
without permission
 They may develop or lose interests in different activities quickly as part of developing their
own identity.
 Begin to question rules as well as the values of their parents and community; they may want to
know the reasons behind the rules they have to follow.
 They may become argumentative and rebellious especially against the authority of adults.

APPLYING SKILLS TO COPE WITH THE EFFECTS OF ADOLESCENT CHANGES

There are skills an adolescent can learn and to cope with the effects of the changes. These skills
include the following-; effective communication, decision making, emotional intelligence (anger and
stress management), assertiveness, interpersonal skills and development of a positive self concept.

1. EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
This skill helps parents and teachers to openly discuss the changes adolescents are undergoing. It
involves providing adolescents with information concerning their growth and development. It helps
them prepare for the changes they are experiencing so that these do not surprise and traumatize them.

2. DECISION MAKING

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These skills refer to the ability to make or create alternatives to a situation. The situation can either be
short term, mid term or long term. Adolescents are concerned with making choices about future
spouses, careers or jobs, and opportunities for further education.

3. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Emotional intelligence is concerned with the way adolescents communicate with others, the
appropriate control of their emotions and their self awareness. It therefore includes stress and anger
management. Adolescents need to develop their emotional intelligence so that they are able to control
their aggressive behaviour, and also needs to know the available options available to them by
controlling their emotions

PAST AND PRESENT ATTITUDES OF BOYS AND GIRLS TOWARDS EACH OTHER
 In the past boys regarded girls as being inferior or subordinate to them. Girls regarded boys as
superior to them. Their attitude towards each other was influenced by society as in many ethnic
groups in Botswana men and women were not equal. Men were leaders in the family and the
community and women were expected to obey them.

 Men had power and authority over women. E.g. a husband had power and authority over his
wife and was responsible for managing the family resources. When he died the eldest son
became the head of the family. In the community the position of the kgosi was passed from
father to the eldest son.

 In the past males and females had different responsibilities. E.g. males were responsible for
looking after cattle, ploughing and roofing roundavels. Women did the household chores, took
care of the young children and grew crops. Boys were expected to do tasks for males, while
girls did the tasks for females.

 Boys who failed to do male tasks and did not behave like men were said to be weak and were
called names such as phara meseseng, kgole ya Chiba, nkele dibing which implied that they
were girlish and weak. Girls who were strong and assertive were criticized and accused of
wanting to be like men.

 During adolescence boys and girls were encouraged to keep away from each other, boys spend
most of their time playing with other boys. Girls spend their time playing with other girls or
helping their mothers in the village and the fields.

PRESENT ATTITUDES
 Nowadays boys and girls see each other as equals this has been brought about by a number of
factors – first socialization has changed, children are brought together at home, they are no
longer brought up in different places with household chores clearly allocated according to ones
sex, they help each other in the house and in performing duties in and around the house.

 School is another place that has helped change the way boys and girls relate with each other,
boys and girls attend the same school. Boys now do the subjects that were traditionally thought
to be feminine such as home economics and the same applies to girls.

-The school also provides an opportunity for boys and girls to develop relationships since they
are free to mix.

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 -sports is another area where boys and girls can come into contact with each other, they both
belong to the same sports teams like softball, football etc

FAMILY LIFE

THE ROLE OF THE FAMILY IN THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILD

FAMILY- is a group of people who are related by blood, marriage, adoption or assimilation. There
are different types of families’ e.g. nuclear, single parent and extended family.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT- is a process by which people learn and understand about right and
wrong ways of behaving

 Family teaches children the right way to behave by showing them how other people behave.
When parents and other adults admire good behaviour or criticize or condemn bad behaviour,
the child learns what is right and wrong ways of behaving.

 Families have rules that guide children to understand right and wrong bad behaviour. Good
behaviour is normally rewarded with praise and encouragement and punishment for wrong or
bad behaviour.( punishment and reward).

 Families develop a child morally by explaining to the child how his or her behaviour affects
others. Children begin to understand that their behaviour affects others too. This helps the child
to develop feelings of empathy (guidance and counseling).

 Children learn right and wrong by observing the actions and behaviour of older family
members, especially their parents. Parents usually teach moral behaviour by being role models
of good behaviour that their children can copy. Parents who want their children to be honest,
kind and generous must behave in that way too. (Role models).

 Family develops a child morally when adults in the family explain the reasons for their own
behaviour. This helps children understand why they should behave in one way and not another.

 Families develop children morally by teaching their children the norms and moral values of
their community or society. This helps the child accept rules that are for the common good and
to behave in ways that are acceptable to society.

NORMS AND VALUES OF FAMILY LIFE IN BOTSWANA

Norms - are rules about what is accepted as normal behaviour by a group of people or community.

- ATTENDING A RELATIVES FUNERAL

This is a way of showing loyalty to the family members and showing that you are united. This is
expected even if not all family members are loyal to each other.

- WEARING BLACK CLOTHES AFTER THE DEATH OF A HUSBAND

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This is a cultural norm which symbolizes grief however; the husband is not expected to change his
attire after the death of his wife, so it can be considered a double standard.

- RESPECT OF ELDERS
Respect of elders is a cultural value even if the elder is not worth of respect. Younger members of the
family treat their parents and other member’s of the family with respect. E.g. children are expected to
do household chores given to them by a parent. Children are not expected to talk back to or argue with
their parents.

- HAVING MANY CHILDREN

This was a cultural value of the family in the past. Nowadays many people do not want to have many
children because of the financial implications

Values - are the things, ideas and beliefs that are important to an individual or group of people. The
following are some of the values of family life in Botswana;

 COOPERATION

Cooperation is defined as working together for a common goal. Cooperation is demonstrated in the
everyday lives of families in Botswana however it is considered particularly important during social
occasions such as funerals and weddings. Some activities that promote cooperation among Batswana
includes molaletsa, motshelo and letsema. It is also reflected in Setswana sayings such as;
‘setshwarwa ke ntsa pedi ga se thata’, ‘moroto wa o esi ga o ele’, ‘mabogo dinku a thebana’ etc.

 RESPECT
Respect form the basis of family relations in Botswana. Authority is based on age, the young respect
the old and in turn the old must have self respect and show respect for the young. This is shown by the
saying ‘Susu ilela suswana gore le ene a tle a go ilele” this means that one should respect other
people in order to earn their respect.

 SHARING
Sharing within the families is viewed as the spirit of consideration that is, members are encouraged to
show regard for others. For instance, according to the custom of mafisa, relatives assist one another by
lending or sharing cattle so that everyone can have milk and use the cattle for ploughing. This is
reflected in the Setswana proverb “Bana ba motho ba kgaogana tlhogwana ya ntsi” which means
that nothing is too little to be shared.

 OBEDIENCE
Listening to what parents and elders say is a very important cultural value in Botswana. Children are
expected to take the advice and follow the instructions of elders. This is because the community trusts
that older people will give children good and positive advice.

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MANAGING FAMILY RESOURCES AND ACTIVITIES

Family resources include all the property and assets that the family owns. This may include land,
houses, savings, business, car, furniture and clothes. Resources are not only confined to the property
but also the family projects and activities become part of the resources as well. All members of the
family have a collective responsibility to these resources so that they look after them and use them as
wisely as possible.

THE FOLLOWING ARE WAYS IN WHICH FAMILY RESOURCES CAN BE MANAGED;

1. PLANNING AND BUDGETING

A budget is an outlined plan of how to spend the money, or income. A plan is an arrangement that has
been carefully outlined for carrying out some activities especially in the future. A family then has a
clear outline of an intended projects so as to carefully priorities’ what is more important and budgeting
also helps to ensure that the family does not waste its income.

2. CONSULTATION AND COMMUNICATION

In a typical Setswana family, the father is the head of the family; however this does not mean that he
has the right to make decisions that affect the family on his own. It is very important that other family
members are consulted (asked what they think) before making a decision so that it would benefit the
whole family. All members need to be able to communicate well with one another. This means having
a turn to speak, and being able to listen to and respect what other members have to say. E.g. if siblings
tells each other that they are going into town to do some shopping, they might realize that they could
use one car and save a lot of money in the process.

3. COOPERATION
There is a saying that “the family that plays together stays together” this means that if all the members
of a family cooperate, and work together towards the same goals, that family will be stronger. The
family will form a close team and there will be less chance of arguments

4. CARE AND SUPPORT

Care and support are two other important resources that need to be well managed. The care and
support must be mutual and evenly balanced between all members. For a family to be in harmony
there is no room for favoritism. Caring means that you consider the other persons well being and do
not do anything to hurt them.
5. SHARING
This is a very important value that every family member should practice. If family member consider
each other, they will share whatever food is available. Clothes if taken care of, they can later be used
by the younger siblings. This is emphasized by the setswana proverb “bana ba motho ba kgaogana
tlhogwana ya ntsi”
6. SAVING

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The responsible use of family resources should not be only about spending money, but about saving
for emergencies, such as funerals or for an important event such as a wedding. People should save for
their old age, so that they are not burden on the society when they can no longer work.

AGENTS OF CHANGE IN THE COMMUNITY

AGENTS OF CHANGE THAT INFLUENCE BEHAVIOUR

An agent of change is a factor that brings about change. Agents of change influence the way we
behave. Some agents of change that influence the way people behave within communities are;

PEERS
Peers are people of the same age; examples of peers are our friends and school mates. Peers especially
our friends’ influence the way we behave, either positively or negatively. Examples of positive peer
influence include encouraging you to work hard at school and negative peer influence could include
peers encouraging you to break family and rules.

SCHOOLS
Most children go to school nowadays. Schools not only teach different subjects, they also teach
children how to behave, through guiding and counseling them. Schools influence the behaviour of
their learners by making rules about acceptable and unacceptable behaviour in the school, teachers
praising and rewarding good behaviour and punishing bad behaviour and teaching the correct
knowledge about issues that require behavioral changes such as HIV/ AIDS.

ROLE MODELS
A role model is any person we admire and we want to be like him or her. We look up to them. People
who can be our role models include our parents, brothers, sisters, political leaders, musicians, sports
men and women. Role models may influence our behaviour in the following ways; good role models
help us to make good choices in life, they inspire us to do better people by imitating their good and
moral behaviour. Bad role models can influence us to behave in bad or wrong ways. By imitating their
behaviour, we too begin to behave badly.

MASS MEDIA
The mass media refers to methods of communicating with the public. Examples of the mass media are
television, radio, films, newspapers and magazines. What we see, hear, or read influences our
behaviour. The mass media can make us aware of dangerous and bad behaviour and encourage us to
change for the better, e.g. road safety and HIV/AIDS. Advertisements make people aware of how they
should behave to be safe. Some people may want to behave like people they see on the television or in
movies. E.g. if they watch television shows, movies or play video games where people use violence to
settle their conflicts, they may accept this as a good or normal way of behaving.

CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

As a member of any given community you follow its culture. Your behaviour is controlled and
determined by the values beliefs traditions, customs and norms of that particular community. You do
not exist in isolation but you need recognition and acceptance, therefore you behave according to the
communities expectations. Religion gives people a sense of purpose and meaning in life. People who
are religious sometimes react differently to a crisis than a person who is not religious would react.
Most religions teach people to forgive others and this may help people to become tolerant and patient

FORTUNE TELLING

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 Fortune tellers can predict our future for instance if you are told that someone is bewitching you to fail
exams, you are likely to believe it and give up on your studies hence you fail. Similarly they predict
that you have bad luck and will not succeed in life, you may work extra hard in order to achieve your
goals. Fortune telling may have a positive psychological effect on people in that they may have
something to look forward to. Negatively fortune telling misleads people by giving them false hopes.
When such hopes are not realized people may feel that life is ‘not on their side’

HOW AGENTS OF CHANGE INFLUENCE BEHAVIOUR

- Motivate us to listen to messages that influence behaviour

- Being role models. If the agents of change are individuals and share their life experiences with
us, this may change our behaviour. They can also be role models for the behaviour that may be
copied by their admirers.
- Teaching us behaviour skills, such as assertiveness, decision making and interpersonal skills
- Creating codes of conduct , rules and laws to guide our behaviour
- Giving us the correct information about issues that need us to change our behaviour. Examples
of issues that require changes in behaviour are: HIV and AIDS, teenage pregnancy, drug and
alcohol abuse and conservation of the environment.

IMPACT OF AGENTS OF CHANGE ON THE INDIVIDUAL FAMILY AND COMMUNITY

AGENT OF INDIVIDUALS FAMILY COMMUNITY

CHANGE
PEERS -peers influence our behaviour
because we all have a need to
be accepted by our peers.
Positive peer pressure can lead
to good behaviour while
negative peer pressure can lead
to bad behaviour
SCHOOLS -influence learners behaviour.
E.g. they can influence a
learners values, self esteem,
self confidence, and their way
of thinking and reasoning
ROLE Role models influence
MODELS individuals because people
who admire them often imitate
the way they walk, talk dress
and behave
Peer influence can mean that
someone has a good or bad
relationship with his or her
family peers can do this by
encouraging the person to
accept or reject the family’s
norms and values
Can influence the way family
treats and cares for the child.
The knowledge the child gains
from the schools can be shared
with other family members.
E.g. a child can explain facts
about HIV & AIDS to family
members
Role models within the family
can motivate other family
members to behave in certain
ways. Parents are usually role
models for their children. The
way they act and behave
influences the behaviour of
their children
-negative peer pressure can result in
teenagers in the community behaving
in anti-social ways, e.g. underage
drinking of alcohol, shoplifting and
disrespecting adults
-the knowledge students get at schools
can be used to change the behaviour of
some members of the community e.g
children are taught about child abuse
and where to report it
The values and behaviour learnt and
copied from the role models are
displayed or expressed as behaviour
within the community. Community
leaders can have a big impact by
influencing behaviour and choices of
their people
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MASS It can influence the self
MEDIA concept and behaviour of
individuals. They may want to
be like the people they see in
the media. They are persuaded
by things they see in the media
Media such as television have
affected family life. E.g. some
families have meals while
watching television and no
longer sit at the dinning table
It can have a big impact on the
community because they are used to
influence knowledge, attitudes and
behaviour of a community abou
issues that affect a large number of
people such as HIV/AIDS, crime, road
safety etc

ABSTINENCE
Refers to keeping away or refraining any form of sexual activity or refraining from sex
-abstinence means refraining from or avoiding certain things

VIEW POINTS ON ABSTINENCE

RELIGIOUS VIEW
Abstinence is seen as a way of devotion, e.g. the catholic priests devote their lives to the service of god
by abstaining from sex
Some religious groups encourage abstinence until a person gets married. In most religions, premarital
sex is seen as a sin

CULTURAL VIEW
In most African countries, sexual relationships between boys and girls are not allowed before
marriage. Boys and girls are encouraged to abstain from sex

CELIBACY

The state of being unmarried and abstaining from sexual activity. E.g. fathers and sisters in the Roman
Catholic Church.

REASONS FOR CELIBACY AND CHASTITY

- To practice self control

- To concentrate all one’s energy on achieving a goal
- To practice birth control and avoid the risk of getting STD’s or HIV
- To keep one’s virginity until marriage
- To devote ones life fully to the service of god

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF ABSTINENCE

- People who abstain are respected by other people for being able to control their sexual feelings.
In many communities people who show self control and self discipline are not only respected
but also admired
- People are seen as behaving in a morally acceptable way, if they abstain as required by their
religion or community.
- Abstinence can save lives by reducing the number of people who may become infected with
HIV and die from AIDS.
- Adultery is one of the major reasons married people divorce. Abstaining from adulterous sex in
order to remain faithful to ones spouse can prevent marriages and families from breaking up

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 - Teenagers who abstain are not at the risk of having babies before they are ready and able to
take care of the babies- both emotionally and financially

SEX EDUCATION

Abstinence sex education is a form of sex education that focuses only on teaching young people to
abstain from sex until after marriage to the exclusion of all other types of sexual and reproductive
health education particularly regarding birth control and safe sex.
It emphases the importance of abstaining from sexual intercourse by young children as it excuse them
from sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, abortion and other negative consequences of pre
– marital sexual activity.
Comprehensive sex education
It is a form of sex education that teaches young people about abstinence, and the advantages of
delaying sex until they are older and mature. It also teaches them about contraception and ways of
protecting themselves from STI”S

1.0. VIEWPOINTS ON SEX EDUCATION

People have different views in relation to sex education? The way sexual intercourse was perceived in
the past is different from how it is viewed nowadays. Some parents do not want to discuss sexual
issues with their children while others are open and willing to discuss the matter with them.

2.1. Religious Views

Religious people tend to differ from one another even in their teachings about sex. However, these
religious views vary from one religion to the other.
 In some religions, they encourage their members to refrain from sex since they believe it is a
dirty act and demonic e.g. In Christianity sex is regarded as sacred or very special to be
respected. It is seen as a beautiful gift from God, which demands responsibility, commitment
and total love. To a devoted Christian sex is prohibited before marriage, as such majority of
church leaders encourages sexual abstinence to their followers as they believe it is the best
option.

2.2. Philosophical Views

A philosopher Emmanuel Kant teaches that sex makes a person an object of appetite and as a result it
leads to degradation of human nature. He goes on to say that when one loves another, all that he wants
from that person is nothing else but sex.

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Furthermore, Kant teaches that those engaged in sexual activities make themselves willing into objects
of each other merely for the sake of sexual pleasure. As such, both persons are reduced to the animal
level.

2.0 MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF EARLY SEXUAL ACTS

a. Teenage pregnancy – early sexual acts can result in one being mother or father at an early
age. This will rob or take away one’s childhood as one will have to take full responsibility of
his/ her new born baby. In addition, teenagers who fall pregnant fail to cope with motherhood
as they are not yet mature physically and emotionally.
b. Early sexual acts can lead to transmission of sexually transmitted infections and HIV/Aids.
c. Early sexual acts can lead to stress from sexual relationships. As stated earlier, children should
abstain from sexual activities as they are not mature enough to deal effectively with the
demands and challenges arising from sexual relationships. Sometimes others are unable to
manage and communicate their feelings about the situation in their relationships resulting in
depression.
d. Practicing early sexual acts can also lead to one’s aims priorities and goals being affected. It is
very important for one to understand the benefits and disadvantages of a sexual relationship
before getting involved. Teenagers should focus on their education, passing examinations and
having a bright future. There are many things one can enjoy doing besides having sex,
remember you can just be close to someone without having sex.

3.0. WHY SEX SHOULD BE PERFORMED BY MATURE CONSENTING PEOPLE

 They are old enough to handle the consequences of sex. As you know every action has results,
if you take a bad action, you will have bad results, but a good action leads to good results. So
mature people can deal with the results of their actions in a proper way even if they are bad.
 Sex should be performed by mature consenting people because they are able to give an
informed consent. Sex should be an action that is agreed by both parties involved. The decision
should not be taken by one person. As such, mature people can agree or disagree to have sex
without anyone forcing them to make that decision.
 In addition, sex should be performed by mature consenting people because they are able to take
care of their own health. As you are aware, unprotected sexual intercourse can result in
transmission of sexually transmitted diseases, as such, mature people are in a position to take
full responsibility of their own health. For example, they can refuse to have unprotected sex
without fear of loosing a partner or being beaten.
 They are able to stomach the emotional trauma and physical consequences of having sex.
During sexual intercourse, the penis penetrate the vagina, as such, one should be ready both
physically and emotionally. For instance, one’s physical body should be strong enough to
accommodate his/her partner.

3.0. THE MORALITY FORMS OF SEXUAL SATISFACTION

a) Masturbation – some people gets their sexual satisfaction through touching and fondling their
own genital organs or their partner’s genitals.

It can be morally good to masturbate because:

 There are no risks of sexual transmitted infections; there is no sexual penetration, as
such, the body fluids may not get into contact with thereby resulting in lack of
transmission of infections between partners.
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  One can also satisfy his/her sex needs at his/her own time and pace. For instance, one
can fondle his/her genitals where he/she gets more sexual satisfaction at a time and
pace that suit him/her.
 No risk of abusive relationships –those who are not involved in any sexual relationship
are free from being oppressed and ill – treated by their partners and at the same time get
sexual satisfaction. There are less risks of abuse as no one is forced into having sexual
intercourse.
 Masturbation is morally acceptable because it helps in keeping one’s privacy herself or
himself. For instance, those with physical disorders will not undress or expose their
bodies to anyone. As such, if there are any parts in their bodies that they are not
comfortable with, masturbation will help them as they will not be forced to show them
to anyone.
 However, though masturbation is generally good, it also has some disadvantages; it can
delay one to find a life partner. One might indulge in masturbation for a long time and
fail to find a sexual partner. In addition, procreation will also be delayed.

b) Aggressiveness/aggression – some people get sexual satisfaction through violent means. This
is where instead of having a normal sexual intercourse, one will force his partner to undress
then beat her up. Sometimes he will tie her hands and legs to the bed. During the beatings and
crying by the victim, the aggressor will be gaining sexual satisfaction.

c) Other people gain sexual satisfaction through being watched during sexual intercourse. Such
kind of people usually likes to have sex in an open space and sometimes inside cars. If they are
inside house they will leave doors open or move curtains aside for someone to be able to view
what is inside.

6.0. RESPONSIBLE WAY OF HAVING SEX

Sex should be emphasized by a real commitment between both people involved in the relationship. It
is very important for them to be responsible and accountable for their actions.

 Those having sex should give consent. If two people are having sex, they both should have
agreed. No one should force the other partner into having sex. This is due to the fact that
having sex has some consequences, as such; consenting into having sex will lead to one not
blaming anyone if things do not go well during or after sex.

 There should be protection. Nowadays there are so many sexually transmitted infections, as
such; during sexual intercourse partners should both protect themselves against such infection.
It is not easy to tell whether someone has some STI’s particularly HIV/AIDS by just looking at
him/her. That is why it is advisable to always use protection during sex if you do not know the
status of your partner or you are not ready for commitment.

 Avoiding casual sex or having sex with multiple concurrent partners

 Having sex when one is sober and not drunk or high on illegal drugs, this can help one to
avoid, having sex with strangers, having sex without giving or seeking consent and failing to
use protection to prevent unwanted pregnancies and spreading or getting sexually transmitted
infections

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  Making sure there is privacy before engaging in sex because having sex in public is considered
indecent, offensive and immoral

7.0. MORAL IMPLICATION OF HAVING SEX

As you have learnt, having sex raises some moral issues. To some people sex is unacceptable, while to
some is acceptable if done for good reasons.

 Having sex gives one sexual satisfaction. Some people argue that sex is good activity because
it gives pleasure, it erases sexual boredom.
 One can get some sexually transmitted infections through sexual intercourse. As mentioned
above, you cannot tell if your partner has some sexual infections, as such, if one has
unprotected sex, it is easy to contract or acquire some infections. People who are sexually
active can be exposed to some sexual diseases if they do not take the necessary precautions.
 Another moral implication of having sex is; it can lead to unwanted pregnancy. Some people
have unprotected sex though they do not want children. Having said that, it is very important
for one to wait for the right time to have sex as one will be ready to face all the consequences
that come with having sex.
 Though some people believe that having sex for pleasure is not acceptable, others argue that it
is good as one can meet the rightful partners. They point out that some partners can end up
having long term stable relationship though they started with just casual sex for pleasure.

8.0. ADVANTAGES OF WAITING FOR THE RIGHT TIME TO HAVE SEX

If you are not involved in any sexual acts, I guess by now you know the benefits. If you are still young
and you are already involved in sexual relationships that include sex, you can quit. It is not too late to
quit, especially after learning about the moral implications of early sexual acts and why sex should be
performed by mature consenting people.

The following are some of the reasons of waiting for the right time to have sex;

 Free from unplanned pregnancy. Pregnancy is a demanding situation that needs one to be
ready. One should know that being sexually active does not mean that one is physically,
emotionally and financially ready to bear a child. Pregnancy needs planning so that one will be
aware of the necessary requirements of an expectant mother and her baby. As such, refraining
from sex at an early age will free one from unwanted or unplanned pregnancy which might
lead to negative social ills like abortions suicide and others.
 Free from sexually transmitted infections. Waiting for the right time to have sex free one from
STI’s. I hope you still remember those examples of sexually transmitted infections that you
learnt in the moral implications of having sex. So if you abstain from sex, you will be
protecting yourself from such infections like gonorrhea. Be aware that anyone, even you can
get HIV/AIDS and STI’s if there is no prevention.
 Another advantage of waiting for the right time to have sex is that one will focus on his/her
goals and priorities. If you have considered sexual abstinence as the best option, it will be easy
to achieve your goals and targets. You will have enough time to focus on your studies without
being disturbed by boyfriend or girlfriend.

9.0. FACTORS AFFECTING SEXUAL NEGOTIATION AND DECISION MAKING

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 A. NON – MATERIAL FACTORS
 Myths – Myths are ideas and stories that many people believe but are not true. Children can
get such ideas and information regarding sex which is incorrect. For example; there is a saying
that a girl can not fall pregnant when having unprotected sex while standing up. This is not
true, one’s sitting or standing position does not prevent pregnancy. That is why it is very
important to learn more about sex and dispel its myths. This will help one to avoid always
depending on other people. It is advisable to always ask for help if you are not sure about some
sexual matters. Nurses, teachers and social workers are always willing to teach and provide
you with information regarding sex.
 Immaturity – some teenagers are unable to make the right decisions because they are still
young. For example, some girls never say no to sex even when they do not want to have sex
because they believe that relationships are all about sex. As mentioned earlier, it is very
important to abstain from sex and wait for the right time when you are old enough to make
well informed and right decisions.
 Peer – pressure – age-mates or peers can influence one another to do bad or good things. In
most cases, peers can influence one another negatively. Peers like to force others into having
sexual intercourse. Some peers will be afraid of being rejected by their friends and as a result
they end up agreeing into having sex though they do not want to. They will have sex just to
please their age-mates.
 Gender roles and expectations
In many cultures females are socialized to be submissive to males. As a result man makes
the decisions concerning sexual matters and women tolerate men being unfaithful. Women
are unable to negotiate the use of contraceptives or insist that a man should remain faithful
 AGE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SEXUAL PARTNERS
When a young person engages in a sexual relationship with a much older person decisions
about sex about sex are usually made by the older person. The young person may therefore
find it difficult to negotiate the use of contraceptive, and when and where to have sex, as a
result the young person may engage in unprotected sex.

B. MATERIAL FACTORS
Material factors affecting sexual negotiations and decision making are;
a) Money – some people indulge in sexual relationships for money. They get deceived that
they will be offered money after sex. Though some are given money after having sex, it is
immoral to neither buy nor sell sex.
b) Possession of goods – some young people believe that having some properties and money
are the most important things in life. For example, a cell phone, certain clothing labels are
the must have to some teenagers. As a result, some of them end up having sex with older
people in return of such goods.
c) Alcohol and drug abuse – excessive intake of drugs and alcohol is another material factor
that is affecting sexual negotiations and decision making. Alcohol and drugs are very
expensive and addictive. Since it can be very difficult to stop taking drugs, some people
may end up having sex with others for money so that they can buy drugs. In addition,
alcohol and drugs can lead to loss of physical control over one’s actions which can result in
one being raped.

LIFE SKILLS USED TO CHANGE PEOPLES ATTITUDE TOWARDS SEXUAL

BEHAVIOUR

 DECISION MAKING SKILLS

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Decision making skills can help people change their attitudes towards unhealthy and morally
unacceptable sexual behaviour. This is because decision making involves understanding the
consequences of the choices one makes. If people understands that their attitude leads them to
engage in sexual behaviour that can result in life threatening STI”S such as HIV or damage their
social relationships, they are likely to change their attitude.
 ASSERTIVENESS
Assertive communication between sexual partners can help to change attitude towards sexual
behaviour such as having as having multi concurrent partners, casual sex, and the refusal to use a
condoms. Partners, who talk to each other honestly about such sexual behaviour, will make each
other aware of the negative consequences of engaging in such behaviour. This can lead to a change
in attitude as well as sexual behaviour.

 NEGOTIATION SKILLS
Negotiation means to reach an agreement through compromise. Through negotiation a partner can
be persuaded to change his or her negative attitude towards condom use. If they accept the need to
use condoms, they are likely to change their attitude and always have safe sex instead of
unprotected sex.

 STRESS MANAGEMENT SKILLS

Stress management skills can help change the attitude that it is acceptable to have casual sex and
multiple concurrent partners to relieve stress. Stress management skills can help people deal with
their stress without engaging in casual sex or multiple concurrent partnerships.

 EMPATHY BUILDING
Empathy is the ability to put oneself in someone else’s situation and imagine how he or she is
feeling. Empathy enables us to appreciate how our attitudes and behaviour affect other people.
People are likely to change their attitude, if they understand how their sexual behaviour is
negatively affecting their sexual partners and other people around them.

THE USE OF A CONDOM

There are two types of condoms, those used by males and those used by females.

MALE CONDOM
Male condom is a sheath which is closed at one end and fits over a mans erect penis

FEMALE CONDOM
A female condom is a sheath which a woman inserts inside her vagina. It is also referred to as a
femidom

MEASURES OF EFFECTIVE CONDOM USE

 Store unused condoms in a cool dry place out of direct heat and sunlight.
 Check the expiry date of the condom on the packet. Do not use expired condoms because they
are not safe to use. They may tear easily

 Open the packet of the condoms carefully. Do not open the packet with your teeth or a sharp
object such as a pair of scissors.

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  Read the leaflet with instructions that is inside the condom packet, on how to use and put on a
condom correctly and carefully. Condoms are only effective they are used correctly.

 If the condom tears or is put on incorrectly, remove it and use a new one.

 A new condom should be used every time one has sexual intercourse. Never reuse a condom.

 Keep the condom on until sexual intercourse is complete

 Dispose the used condoms properly. Wrap the condom in toilet paper and throw it away in a
bin or pit latrine. Do not flush it down a toilet.

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF CONDOM USAGE

 Condoms prevent pregnancy – some people believe that it is morally acceptable to use
condoms to prevent pregnancy if one does not want or is not ready to have a baby. It helps in
family planning and enables individuals to control their own fertility

 Condoms are the only form of protection that can prevent the spread of sexually transmitted
infections, such as HIV. This can help discordant partners (where one is infected with HIV
while the other is not) to stay together because the infected partner can use condoms to avoid
infecting his or her partner.

 Condoms create a moral dilemma for some people. Using condoms to prevent the spread of
STI’s such as HIV prevents pregnancy at the same time, not using condoms to fall pregnant,
means exposing oneself and the unborn baby to the risk of becoming infected with STI’S
including HIV, or transmitting such infections to one’s sexual partner.

 Some people may become promiscuous and engage in casual sex knowing that they can use
condoms to prevent unwanted pregnancies and STI’s

 Condoms are not 100% safe. If a condom is not used correctly or is of poor quality, it can
result in an unwanted pregnancy which may lead to an unsafe abortion. The person is also at
risk of getting STI’s and HIV/AIDS

SEXUAL RELATIONSHIPS
- refers to the connection between two people who engage in sexual acts

DIFFERENTIATING BETWEEN HETEROSEXUALITY, BISEXUALITY AND

HOMOSEXUALITY

HETEROSEXUALITY
Means being sexually attracted to members of the opposite sex, men are usually attracted to women,
and women are sexually attracted to women

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BISEXUALITY
Means being sexually attracted to members of both sexes, a man would be attracted to both men and
women, while a woman would be attracted to both women and men.

HOMOSEXUALITY
Means being sexually attracted to people of the same sex, men are usually attracted to other men, and
women are sexually attracted to other women. A homosexual person especially men are known as
being “gay” while women are known as “lesbians”

REASONS ADVANCED FOR SEXUAL ORIENTATIONS

REASONS FOR HOMOSEXUALITY

 PERSONAL CHOICE- some people may prefer to develop sexual relations with people of
the same sex

 BIOLOGICAL- some people may question their gender and upbringing that is a person may
be biologically structured like a woman but feels like a man

 most homosexual people believe that they are born as homosexuals i.e. it is genetic and
natural

 DOMINATION- historically some have tried to dominate and oppress women and this may
encourage some females to prefer some sexual relations with other females where there is less
domination and oppression

 CHANGING ATTITUDES- some societies and countries are now more tolerant to such
relationships and this can encourage others because to be gay is acceptable and even
fashionable. This can also be influenced by the media.

REASONS FOR HETEROSEXUALITY

 Most people have heterosexual relationships because they believe that males and females are
biologically attracted to each other

 Many people believe that one main purpose of sexual intercourse is procreation ie. To produce
children

 Many people believe that it is universally accepted sexual relationship which is commonly
practiced in all cultures

 Most religions discourage people from other forms of sexual relationships. i.e. homosexuality
or bisexuality

REASONS FOR BISEXUALITY

 Some people are forced by the societies they come from to engage in this type of sexual
relationship. If the society is intolerant of homosexuality, some people who feel sexually

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 attracted to people of the same sex are forced to hide their true sexual orientation by having
heterosexual relationships openly, while at the same time engaging in homosexual relationship
in secret

 Some people may want to experiment with how it feels to have a sexual relationships with
people of both sexes as they may be unsure of their genetic sexuality

 Some people are sexually attracted to both men and women naturally

 Some people discover that they are sexually attracted to people of the same sex after they are
already in a heterosexual relationship. Some people could be married and have children and
such people may find it very hard to give up the relationship or to suppress their sexual
orientation and as a result may end being bisexual

MORAL IMPLICATIONS

HOMOSEXUALITY
 Many societies reject this type of sexual orientation because they consider it to be unnatural
and therefore immoral. Homosexual may feel forced to have heterosexual relationship, or to
remain single, in order to hide their true sexual orientation or keep their homosexual
relationship secret.

 Some societies such as south Africa respect and protect the right to sexual orientation. In such
countries homosexuality is accepted as a human right and most people do not judge it as
morally wrong.

 Homosexuality does not allow procreation. Some homosexual couples who want children
either adopt, or use artificial insemination or a surrogate mother. Their children may become
confused because they will be raised by two parents of the same sex.

HETEROSEXUALITY

 Since heterosexuality is considered the natural way to have sex and to procreate, it is
considered morally right. It allows the continuation of the family and human race. Many
people and some religions believe that a sexual orientation which does not allow the possibility
of procreation is morally wrong.

 In many societies marriage is defined as, the legal union between a man and a woman as
husband and wife. As a result only heterosexual marriages are accepted and recognized as
normal and morally right.

BISEXUALITY

 It can lead to conflict with ones sexual partner who is not bisexual. It can damage his or her
self esteem and self confidence.

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  People who are bisexuals can be rejected in societies that consider homosexuality to be
unnatural and immoral

SEXUAL PRACTICES

SEXUAL PRACTICES AND THEIR MORAL IMPLICATIONS

Below are some sexual practices and their moral implications.

ADULTERY

Adultery is when a person in a monogamous marriage engages in sexual intercourse with somebody
who is not his or her spouse. When two married people who are not each other’s spouses engage in
sexual intercourse with an unmarried person, it is the married person who is committing adultery.

The moral implications of adultery

 Adultery is considered morally wrong and unacceptable because it is seen as a betrayal of trust
and breaking one’s marriage vows to be sexually faithful to one’s spouse.
 Adultery leads to lack of trust between a husband and a wife. This may eventually lead to
conflicts which may either result in domestic violence or divorce.
 It may cause the children of the couple and the spouse who is faithful emotional pain and
mental stress. The children may feel that they lack attention from the parent who is having an
extra marital affair. The faithful spouse may feel angry at the betrayal of trust and their
marriage vows.
 The adulterer may lose the respect of his or her children, family members, friends and
members of the community. If the adulterer is an important member of the community or
society, people will no longer consider him or her as a good role model, especially for the
youth.
 Adultery increases the risks of getting sexually transmitted infections, including HIV and
infecting one’s spouse. Some of these infections are life threatening or cause infertility.
 A husband or wife may end up killing his or her spouse due to the anger and emotional pain
caused by the adultery. This may result in the problem of orphan hood because the person may
after killing his or her spouse, commit suicide.
 Adultery may result in the misuse of family resources. Those who commit adultery may spend
money on their adulterous relationships and fail to take proper care of their family.

Fornication
Fornication refers to the sexual practice of unmarried people having sexual intercourse.
Fornication is also known as premarital sex.

Moral implications of fornication

 In many religions and societies, people believe that sex should only take place within
marriage. Fornication is therefore considered to be immoral or sinning against God’s will.
 Fornication can result in unwanted and unplanned pregnancy. A woman who does not want
to have the baby may end up committing abortion. In most cases, the woman is left with the
responsibility of raising the child on her own. If the woman does not have the means to
support the child, other relatives are expected to help care for the child. This puts an burden
on the resources of the relatives.

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  Fornication can contribute to the spread of sexually transmitted infections.
 A sexual relationship between two people, who are not married to each other, can break up
easily. They can also easily become unfaithful to each other. No matter how much time the
sexual relationship lasts for, one partner can easily leave and start a relationship with
someone else.
 Fornication involves becoming sexually intimate with someone without any formal or legal
agreement bonding the two people in the relationship. As a result, the sexual partners do
not have the same rights and responsibilities towards each other that a married couple
would have. For example, one does not have the right to inherit property on the death of
one’s partner, unless he or she has said it in a will.

RAPE

Rape is the crime of forcing someone to have sex. Both males and females can be raped.

Moral implications of rape

 Rape is considered morally wrong and a crime in most countries because it violates the
person’s right to say no to sex and to choose whom to have sexual intercourse with.
 Rape puts the victim at risk of being infected with STI’s including HIV. Currently HIV has no
known cure and can be a life threatening infection. A victim can die from AIDS.
 It causes emotional and mental trauma to the victim. This can damage the person’s self –
esteem and self – confidence. The person may become withdrawn.
 Female, who are raped by men, often lose trust in men. As a result, this may affect their sexual
and social relationships with other men.
 Rape usually involves the use of violence in order to force the victim to have sexual
intercourse with the rapist. Violence is considered morally wrong.
 Some victims of rape are forced to hide the fact that they were raped because they fear being
blamed for being raped, being stigmatized, or losing the chance of getting married.

INCEST

Incest refers to sexual activity between family members who are closely related by blood, for example,
brothers and sisters, parents and children. According to the law in Botswana, incest is having sexual
intercourse with someone who is one’s grandchild, child, brother, sister or parent.

Moral implications of incest

 Incest is considered morally wrong and unacceptable conduct in most societies.

 Incest can cause emotional and mental trauma to the victim especially if the victim is a child
or did not give consent to have sex with the other person. As a result, some may find it
difficult to form stable relationships.
 Incest usually involves an older person having sex with a much younger relative. The young
person becomes engaged in a sexual relationship at a young age which may harm their sexual
health.
 It brings shame to the family. It may also make the victim of the incest feel ashamed, even if
they are not to blame for what happened to them. This is because most societies and cultures
consider incest as an immoral conduct.

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  Children born as a result of incest have a higher risk of suffering from mental and physical
disabilities because close relatives have the same genes. These disabilities can make them
have a poor quality of life. For example, they may never be able to go to school or work.
 Incest can result in conflict between family members. For example, when a father has sex
with his daughter, conflict may arise between:
 The mother and the daughter. The mother may blame the daughter for having sex
with her father, while the daughter may blame the mother for not protecting her from
her father.
 The man and his wife because the wife may blame him for abusing their daughter and
may even divorce him.
 The man and other family members who disapprove of and conderm his behaviour.

MASTURBATION

Remember in chapter three of this book, we said masturbation is stimulating the genitals with one’s
hands, in order to achieve sexual pleasure. Self masturbation involves stimulating oneself, while
mutual masturbation involves two people stimulating each other.

Moral implications of masturbation

 Some people believe that sexual pleasure should be achieved only with a partner. They
consider masturbation as a selfish sexual practice therefore immoral.
 Some religions teaches that the only morally acceptable reason for having sex is to procreate
and that sex should only take place within marriage. They consider masturbation as morally
wrong because it does not lead to procreation.
 Other people believe that masturbation is morally acceptable because it does not cause any
physical or mental harm to individuals. It is a natural way of releasing sexual tension. They
argue that masturbation has many advantages. For example:
 Masturbation can help young people wait until they are emotionally and mentally
mature to have sexual intercourse.
 It can help people deal with their sexual desires without involving another person.
 Masturbation can help to control the spread of STI’s, including HIV.

PROSTITUTION

Prostitution is the act of engaging in sexual activities for payment in cash or in kind. Prostitution is
also known as commercial sex work. A person who offers sexual services for payment is called a
prostitute or commercial sex worker. Both men and women can be commercial sex workers.

Moral implications of prostitution

 Many people consider prostitution to be an immoral sexual practice because it involves buying
and selling sex whereas, sex should only take place within a loving relationship between two
people.

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  Prostitution dehumanizes sexual relations. The prostitute and the client usually do not know,
care about, or love each other. The prostitute is concerned about getting paid and the client is
only concerned about gaining sexual pleasure.
 Prostitutes and their clients are not respected by other people in the society.
 Prostitution puts both prostitute and the client at a higher risk of becoming infected with
sexually transmitted infections such as HIV because some clients demand and are willing to
pay a higher fee for unprotected sex.
 Some prostitutes and people who pay them for sexual services have steady sexual partners or
are married. Prostitution undermines faithfulness in a sexual relationship, especially marriage.
 In many countries prostitution is a crime. Prostitutes are vulnerable to abuse and exploitation
by their clients because they are engaged in an illegal sexual practice and may be afraid to
report the abuse to the police.

BESTIALITY

Bestiality refers to a person having sex with an animal.

Usually cases of bestiality involve using domestic animals such as dogs, cows, goats, and donkeys.

Moral implications of bestiality

 Bestiality is considered immoral because it is against the order of nature. It is unnatural for
people to have sex with animals and people who engage in bestiality are regarded as being
abnormal or mentally disturbed. In most countries, including Botswana bestiality is a crime.
 Bestiality is regarded as abuse of animals because animals cannot give consent to have sex
with human beings.
 Religions teach that bestiality is wrong and sinful, therefore it is immoral to have sex with an
animal and those who engage in it are considered sinners.

SODOMY
Sodomy is another term for anal sexual intercourse. It is defined as a sexual act in which a man puts
his penis in to somebody else’s anus for sexual pleasure. A man can have anal sexual intercourse with
another man or with a woman.

Moral implications of sodomy

 Some people believe that sodomy is unnatural because biologically the anus is not meant for
sexual intercourse but for excretion of faeces. Sodomy is therefore considered as morally
wrong and unacceptable sexual practice. In some countries, including Botswana, sodomy is a
crime punishable by law.
 Some religions consider sodomy as immoral and sinful because it does not allow procreation
and is condemned by God as sinful.
 Sodomy puts sexual partners at a higher risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections.

PAEDOPHILIA
Paedophilia refers to the condition of adults being sexually attracted to and engaging in sexual
activities with young children. A person who commits the act of paedophilia is known as a paedophile.

Moral implications of paedophilia

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  Paedophilia is considered immoral because it is the sexual abuse of children who are not
sexually mature and old enough to give consent to have sex with an adult.
 Children can suffer from emotional and mental trauma as a result of being sexually abused by
an adult. This is because children are not emotionally and mentally mature to engage in sexual
activity.
 Paedophilia can put the health and life of young children in danger. They may suffer from
internal physical injuries and become infected with sexually transmitted infections such as
HIV.
 Often, those who sexually abuse children are people who are close to them and their families.
They are usually people the children and their families trust. One reason why paedophilia is
considered immoral is because the paedophiles abuse the trust the child and his or her family
has in him or her.
 Paedophilia can lead to murder because after having sex with a child, a paedophile may kill the
child in order to prevent the child from identifying his or her abuser.

DEFILEMENT

To defile means to make something dirty or no longer pure. Defilement is the act of having sex
with an underage child. When adults have sex with underage children they are believed to be
defiling them because a child is sexually pure.

Moral implications of defilement

 Defilement is regarded as sexual abuse of children because usually it involves adults

forcing them to engage in early sexual acts. Any sexual abuse of children is considered
immoral.
 Defilement exposes children to sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Some
children may become infected with HIV and develop aids and die.
 Defilement destroys the future of a child. Children who have reached puberty may fall
pregnant. As a result, they become single mothers at a very young age and are forced to
drop out of school. Some may never return to school to continue their education and are
limited to low paying jobs later in life.
 Children can suffer from emotional and mental trauma as a result of being sexually abused
by an adult. Children are not emotionally and mentally mature to engage in sexual activity.
 Defilement can have a negative impact on a child’s future sexual life when they become
adults. Some may find it difficult to form healthy sexual relationships because of the
physical and emotional trauma of being sexually abused.
 Defilement can cause internal physical injuries, especially if the child is very young.

SEXUAL VIOLENCE
Sexual violence refers to any sexual act or practice that involves one person (the perpetrator) forcing,
hurting or abusing another person (the victim). Examples of sexual practices that can involve violence
by a perpetrator against a victim are: rape, incest, paedophilia, defilement, sexual harassment, and
sexual slavery.

Although both males and females can be victims and perpetrators of sexual violence, often it is
females who are the victims and males the perpetrators. The perpetrator of sexual violence can be
someone the victim knows or a stranger.

CONSEQUENCES OF SEXUAL VIOLENCE

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Sexual violence has immediate and long – term consequences for the victim, the perpetrator and the
families of both the perpetrator and the victim.

THE VICTIMS

CONSEQUENCES OF SEXUAL VIOLENCE ON THE VICTIMS.

 Victims are at a higher risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections including
HIV.
 If the victim is a woman, she may become pregnant. The pregnancy will be unintended
or unwanted and as a result, she may risk her life and health by undergoing an unsafe
abortion.
 Victims may suffer physical injuries, for example, a woman may suffer injuries to her
reproductive system.
 Victims may suffer from stress and depression because of their traumatic experiences
 Damages the victim’s self-esteem and self confidence.
 Victims of sexual violence may be stigmatized and face rejection by their partners,
husbands families and communities
 It can lead to murder of the victim

CONSEQUENCES ON THE PERPETRATOR

 May be imprisoned if found guilty of such an act

 May loose their jobs
 The perpetrator may contract sexually transmitted infections including HIV
 It brings shame and upon the family and community as a result the perpetrators family and
community may reject him or her

MARRIAGE AND FAMILY LIFE

Marriage is a legally approved union between two individuals, most commonly of the opposite sex

REASONS FOR MARRIAGE

People marry for different reasons. They may marry for personal social, religious or economic reasons.

a) PERSONAL REASONS
-Feel they area deeply in love with their partners and wants to show or prove their love by making a
long life commitment to their partners.

-it is a safe environment for procreation and nurturing of children

Believe that sex and procreation are only morally acceptable within marriage. They get married in
order to start a family in a morally acceptable way.

-Believe that being faithful to each other in marriage can reduce the risk of contracting STi’s
especially HIV.

-makes the relationship secure , especially for women

-wants to become well known for example marrying a famous or popular musician

B) SOCIAL REASONS

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It is norm for adults to marry at a certain age within their community, their families and friends may
put pressure on them to marry.

They want to continue the family lineage; in many societies it is the sons born within wedlock to carry
the family name.

Marriage in most communities gives married people special rights and status, for example in Botswana
only married people re allowed to attend a marriage custom called patlo.

C) ECONOMIC REASONS
some people marry in order to gain financial security. They usually someone who has more money
than them and is therefore able to provide for all the family needs and wants

some people marry in order to have a higher standard of living than they would have on their own

in some societies children born out of wedlock are not allowed to inherit their parents property and
wealth. People may therefore marry to ensure that when they die their children become the rightful
heirs of their property and wealth

D) RELIGIOUS REASONS

Religions such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Sikhism teach that

- sex should only happen within marriage, therefore followers of such religions may marry in
order to obey the teachings o their religions
- Procreation should only happen within marriage and that it is wrong to have children before
marriage. Followers may marry in order to avoid having children out of wedlock

THE MORAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

MARRIAGE

MONOGAMY
- it means having one spouse at a time
- when a person marries one partner
MORAL IMPLICATIONS
-It requires total commitment to ones partner and therefore they are likely to trust and respect each
other
- monogamy requires sexual exclusiveness therefore the couple is expected to be faithful to each other
and reduce the spread of STI’s including HIV.
- in many societies there are more man than women therefore it means that some women will never
have a chance to marry and as a result they are forced to engage in premarital sex and to become
single mothers

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS
- It is the only socially and legally accepted type of marriage. If a person marries more than one
person at a time, he or she would be guilty of a crime called bigamy.
- Helps control the number of children a couple can have
- The couple can remain childless if one or both of them are infertile.

ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS

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 - It is likely to be financially manageable because they may have a small family and the family
resources are mainly used to provide for this family, and can have a higher standard of living
as a result.
- It is easier to ensure that all the children have a share of the wealth that the parents leave when
they die.
- The death of a spouse who is the main breadwinner may result in poverty

POLYGAMY
- It means being married to more than one partner.

There are two kinds of polygamy; Polygyny – which means when a man has more than one wife and
Polyandry- which means when a woman has more than one husband

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF POLYGAMY

- in some religions or cultures it is moral to have many children. In Muslim culture, children are
seen as a blessing from god.
- Some cultures say sex with more than one partner is immoral
- The risk of contracting STI’s are very high as there are multiple sexual partners
- Older wife’s and children may be neglected for younger ones
- There may be less chance of adultery

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS

- High status comes with a big family in traditional communities

- It is more certain that the family name will be carried throughout many generations
- Jealousy and competition are common as spouses fight for attention and resources

ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS

- A big family provides labour, security and child and old age care
- Poorer families may be unable to care properly for all members
- Division of property may be a problem if the head/breadwinner dies
-
MARRIAGE IN COMMUNITY OF PROPERTY
Marriage in community of property means a husband and wife jointly own all the property they each
had before marriage, as well as any property they may acquire during the marriage
MORAL IMPLICATIONS

 Co ownership of property suggests that there is love and commitment in the marriage.
 It reduces greediness and selfishness between spouses
 When one spouse dies there nay be no conflicts over inheritance because the remaining spouse
and children are the rightful beneficiaries
 Some people may take advantage marriage in community of property. There are people who
marry in order to inherit the property of their spouses. Others may marry to benefit from the
spouses wealth
 Disputes over ownership of property may result when marriage partners divorce
 Co-ownership of property may encourage both spouses to take care of their property and avoid
misusing it

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  If one spouse is financially irresponsible the family may loose all its property in order to pay
any debts that he or she may have.

MARRIAGE OUT OF COMMUNITY OF PROPERTY

Marriage out of community of property means when the husband and wife do not have joint ownership
of property and are not responsible for each others debts

MORAL IMPLICATIONS

- The concern of individual accumulation of property may become more important than the
marriage itself. spouses may become more concerned about accumulating property and forget
to give each other attention
- It can result in an unhealthy competition between the husband and the wife, such competition
can results in conflicts that may lead to divorce
- It may encourage selfishness. A person may not allow his or her spouse to take or use what
belongs to them
- spouses that feels forced to marry out of community of property, may think that their spouses
does not trust or love them enough to share what they have with them. They may doubt that the
marriage is a life long commitment
- the death of a spouse may result in inheritance disputes over jointly owned property. This may
happen if there is no proof that the property was jointly paid for and owned.

TEENAGE PREGNANCY

Teenage pregnancy refers to the pregnancy of girls from the age of 13 to 19 years old.

FACTORS LEADING TO TEENAGE PREGNANCY

PEER PRESSURE
Some teenagers are influenced by their peers to engage in early sexual acts. Those who are unable to
resist such negative peer pressure may end up falling pregnant.

INFLUENCE OF THE MASS MEDIA

Many people believe that the mass media influences people’s behaviour, especially young people. By
seeing people engaging in sexual activity in films, television shows, in magazines and on the internet,
some teenagers can be influenced to engage in sex.

CURIOSITY ABOUT SEX

Many teenagers are curious to know about sex. They may go on to have sexual intercourse in order to
satisfy their curiosity and end falling pregnant as a result

LACK OF KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE PROPER USE OF CONTRACEPTIVES

Some teenagers do not know how to use contraceptives correctly. E.g. condoms. As a result of
incorrect use of the contraceptive some teenage girls become pregnant

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USE OF ILLEGAL DRUGS AND ALCOHOL
Some teenagers do use illegal drugs such as marijuana and drink alcohol. When they are drunk or high
on drugs, they are likely to indulge in risk behaviours including unprotected sex which may lead to
teenage pregnancy.

LACK OF ACCESS TO CONTRACEPTIVES

It is sometimes difficult for teenager’s to access contraceptives. This can be due to them feeling
embarrassed to buy condoms in public places such as shops, or fear being judged as being immoral by
adults and peers when they collect contraceptives from a clinic. At times it may simply due to that
contraceptives are just not accessible in their locality. This lack of access may lead teenagers into
having unprotected sex and then become pregnant

Other factors may include the following

- myths about sex
- older men who entice young girls
- lack of assertiveness
- rape and sexual abuse
- poverty and the need for money for cause young girls to become sex workers

EFFECTS OF TEENAGE PREGNANCY

1. ON THE VICTIM (THE PREGNANT TEENAGER)

Drop out of school

A pregnant teenager has to drop out of school until after she gives birth and is physically ready to
resume her studies. However not all teen mothers do return to school for some having a baby is the
end of their formal schooling. This affects the kind of jobs they get in future. Many end up in working
in low paying jobs because they do not have the necessary qualifications to get better paying jobs

RISK OF COMPLICATIONS DURING PREGNANCY AND DELIVERY

Although teenagers are able to fall pregnant their bodies are still, growing and not mature enough to
cope with the demands pregnancy places on the body. Teenagers are at a higher risk of developing
complications during the delivery of the baby

EMOTIONAL EFFECT
Teenagers may suffer emotionally because pregnant teenagers are often stigmatized. Some of them
may be rejected by their families and have little or no support during the pregnancy and the baby is
born. This is because some parents may be embarrassed and reluctant to take on the extra costs of
looking after the pregnant teen and her baby

RISKS OF CONTRACTING DISEASES

Teenage pregnancy is a consequence of having unprotected sex. A teenager can become infected with
sexually transmitted infections (STI’s) including HIV. The baby may also become infected.

LOSS OF FREEDOM
A teen mother has to spend time taking care of her baby. She has to take full responsibiliti9es of
motherhood at an early age. As a result she has less time to spend with her friends and to enjoy life as
a young person.

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POVERTY
Teenage pregnancy can lead to poverty especially for those girls who were not able to resume their
studies and those that are from poor family background.

There is a greater chance of the girl remaining unmarried even if the girl did not want to, after having
an unplanned pregnancy, due to the attitudes in the society.

2. ON THE CULPRIT

HE HAS TO PROVIDE FOR THE CHILDS NEEDS

According to the law of Botswana a man has to pay for the child’s needs even if he does not intend to
marry the mother of his child. The courts can set the amount of the money he has to pay the mother of
the child every month. If he fails to make the payments he can be jailed.

HE MAY FACE A CHARGE OF DEFILEMENT

If the teenage girl is a minor (a person under 16 years) and the culprit is an adult, he may be arrested
and charged with defilement.

HE MAY BE BLAMED BY THE FAMILY OF THE TEENAGE GIRL

This is because the teenager’s family may feel that he has ruined their child’s future more especially
when the teenager is a student.

TEENAGE PREGNANCY MAY CAUSE CONFLICTS AMONG MARRIED PEOPLE

If the culprit is married, this may cause conflicts between him and his wife because it means he was
being unfaithful. It may even lead to divorce.
If the culprit is also a teenager, he may be affected in the following ways.
He may be forced to drop out of school and if he does not return to school to complete his studies, this
may affect his future negatively.
He may feel embarrassed about becoming a father at such a young age.
He may become emotionally stressed because it means he had unprotected sex and may have exposed
himself to the risk of becoming infected with STI’s, including HIV.

3. THE FAMILIES

When a teenage girl falls pregnant both the family of the girl and the culprit are affected.
Below are some of the effects.

IT MAY BRING SHAME TO THE FAMILY

The family may feel embarrassed to have their teenage daughter fall pregnant or their teenage son
become a father at such a young age.

FAMILIES CARRY THE BURDEN OF CARING FOR THE CHILD

Most teenagers depend on their families to provide them with everything they need. Usually, the baby
lives with the teen mother and her family, and they bear most of the responsibility of caring for the
child. If the culprit is a teenager, his family may help provide financially for his child. However,
sometimes the baby is left with the culprit and his family. They have to care for the child.

MAY RESULT IN CONFLICTS BETWEEN PARENTS

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In some families, when their teenage daughter falls pregnant, the father and mother of the teenager
may blame each other for not being good role models or providing proper guidance to the child. This
may lead to conflicts between the parents.

THE FAMILY OF THE CULPRIT MAY HAVE TO PAY COMPENSATION TO THE

FAMILY OF TEENAGE GIRL
Culturally, the family of the culprit has to pay a fine to the girl’s family for damaging her.
In the past the payment was in the form of cow (kgomo ya tlhagela). Nowadays, money can be paid
instead.

4. THE SOCIETY

LOSS OF FINANCIAL RESOURCES

The government of Botswana spends a lot of money on the education of young people.
When pregnant teenagers drop out of school, they are allowed to return to school. As a result, the
government has to spend additional money to enable them to repeat the year they missed while on
maternity leave. The money which could have been spent on other developments is used to pay for
additional educational, maternity and child care costs.

NEGATIVE IMPACT ON HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

Each country needs citizens who are educated and skilled. However teenage pregnancy may result in
some teenagers dropping from school and not being able to continue with their studies. If a teenager
does not return to school, her education will be incomplete.
Society will not benefit fully from her potential talents and abilities because her education is
incomplete.

Some of those who continue with their studies after pregnancy may not be able to perform to their
potential because they may have to divide their attention between child caring and their studies. As a
result of this, the country loses potential people who could be educated and skilled to contribute to the
development of their country.

INCREASES POVERTY LEVELS IN SOCIETY

Some teenagers who fall pregnant do not go back to school to complete their education. They end up
either being unemployed or working in low paying jobs because they do not have the necessary
qualifications to get better paying jobs. As a result, they are more likely to live in poverty and depend
on government social welfare programmes for survival.

SINGLE PARENTHOOD
Teenage pregnancy is often unplanned. As a result, the number of single mothers and fathers in society
increases. Children of teenagers usually face many challenges growing up because most teens do not
have adequate parenting skills.

STRATEGIES TO PREVENT TEENAGE PREGNANCY

PROVIDING COMPREHENSIVE SEX EDUCATION TO LEARNERS

Young people should be taught about the importance of sexual abstinence and also about
contraceptives, especially condoms, and their proper use. Condoms, if used properly, can prevent both
pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections. Comprehensive sex education will enable young people
who choose not to abstain, to make informed choices about how to prevent pregnancy.

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ASSERTIVENESS TRAINING

Teenagers should be taught how to communicate and behave assertively so that they are able to resist
negative peer pressure to become sexually active at a young age.

IMPROVING TEENAGERS ACCESS TO CONTRACEPTIVES

Teenagers should be able to access contraceptives easily. For example, condoms should be available
where teenagers collect them at times that are convenient to them. They should also be located where
they would not be ashamed to collect them, for example, condom dispensers can be put in toilets
instead of a public reception area.

PEER EDUCATION AND COUNSELLING

Teenagers are more easily influenced by their peers than by adults. Peer education and counseling
groups such as Peer education and Counselling for Teenagers (PACT) can be used to educate and
counsel teenagers on sexual issues such as sexual abstinence, the correct use of contraception, and the
negative effects of teenage pregnancy.

GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING BY THE FAMILY

Families should be encouraged to educate their children about sexual issues such as sexual abstinence,
the effects of teenage pregnancy, the risk of contracting STI’s including HIV, and contraception, in
order to help them make informed decisions and avoid becoming teenage mothers and fathers.

PUBLIC AWARENESS CAMPAIGNS ABOUT TEENAGE PREGNANCY

The mass media, such as television and newspapers can be used to raise awareness about the negative
effects of teenage pregnancy and ways of preventing teenage pregnancy. This may help communities
become more involved in influencing young people to avoid situations that lead to teenage pregnancy.

PROVIDING RECREATION FACILITIES FOR TEENAGERS

Communities should be provided with adequate recreational facilities for young people, for example,
sports facilities, libraries, and internet cafes. Such facilities can help young people to make friends and
socialize in safe ways other than engaging in sexual activities, especially during the school holidays.

LAW ENFORCEMENT

The penalties for making teenage girls, especially those under the age of 16, pregnant should be
increased. Men, who make teenage girls pregnant, should not only be made to care for the baby, but
also be made responsible ensuring the girl goes back to school. He should be made to pay for the
remaining years of her secondary school education. This may help deter men from having sexual
relationships with teenage girls. Defilement laws should be enforced more effectively.

CONTRACEPTION

WHAT IS CONTRACEPTION?

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Contraception refers to any method that is used to prevent pregnancy. People choose to prevent
pregnancy for different reasons. These reasons include:

 They have chosen to remain childless and do not want to have a child.
 Child spacing. They want one child to reach a certain age before they have another one.
 The want to limit the number of children they have.
 They want to have a child at a time of their choice, for example when they feel ready
emotionally, physically and financially.

TYPES OF CONTRACEPTION

There are modern and traditional types of contraception.

 Modern types of contraception involve the use of artificial devices, medical drugs, or surgery
to prevent pregnancy.
 Traditional types of contraception use natural methods of preventing pregnancy. No artificial
devices are used.

Modern contraception Traditional Contraception

Condoms, Diaphragms, Sexual abstinence,
Inter – uterine device (IUD). Rhythm method,
Contraceptive pills, Withdrawal method,
Spermicidal. Prolonged breast feeding
Vasectomy for men Traditional herbal medicines
Tubal ligation for women. Taboos concerning the males association
Depo-Provera with females
Ru86- the morning after pill

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF MODERN AND TRADITIONAL METHODS OF

CONTRACEPTION

CONDOMS
Both male and female condoms are used as contraceptive devices. The condom traps the sperms and
prevents them from reaching the uterus. For the condom to be effective it has to be correctly used.

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF CONDOMS

 If effectively used it can prevent pregnancy and transmission of STI’s.

 The male condom empowers the male and the female condom empowers the female to have
responsibility in birth control and family planning.
 It is a temporary form of contraception with few side effects.
 If it is not properly used it may burst and lead to unplanned pregnancy and STI’s.

THE DIAPHRAGM
The diaphragm is a rubber disc placed in the vagina before sexual intercourse. It covers the cervix in
order to stop the sperms from entering the uterus. For it to be more effective in preventing pregnancy it
has to be used with the spermicide.

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF USING THE DIAPHRAGM

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  It helps in preventing unplanned pregnancy.
 Its effectiveness in preventing pregnancy can be doubted because for it to be more effective it
has to be used with the spermicide.
 It cannot prevent the transmission of STI’s.

THE INTRA UTERINE DEVICE (IUD)

This is a device made of copper that is inserted in the women’s uterus. The purpose of this device is to
prevent the fertilized egg from settling in the uterus. The IUD destroys the fertilized egg when it tries
to settle in the uterus. Women using this contraceptive device have to go for regular check ups, to find
out if the IUD is still rightly positioned because if it moves out of position it cannot be effective in
preventing the egg to settle in the uterus.

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE IUD

 If effectively used it can prevent pregnancy.

 It cannot prevent the spread of STI’s.
 It needs a woman to go for regular checkups because failure to go may result in unplanned
pregnancy.
 It destroys the fertilized egg. Some people believe that destroying the fertilized egg is the same
as abortion.

THE CONTRACEPTIVE PILL

The contraceptive pill contains some chemicals that help to prevent pregnancy. The chemicals are said
to have the same effects as the oestrogen and progesterone hormones which when mixed together
suppress or prevent ovulation resulting in inability to conceive. There are various types of the
contraceptive pills.

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF USING THE CONTRACEPTIVE PILL

 If properly used it can prevent pregnancy.

 It cannot prevent transmission of STI’s, including HIV.
 It has some side effects; prolonged use can increase the risk of breast and cervix cancer in
some users.

CONTRACEPTIVE INJECTIONS
Contraceptive injections are given to women only and contain hormones that prevent pregnancy for up
to three months. An example of an injectable contraceptive drug is called Depo–Provera.

It prevents pregnancy by:

 Stopping the ovaries from releasing an egg every month.

 Making the mucus in the cervix thicker. This makes it difficult for the sperm to reach the egg.

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  Making the lining of the uterus thinner. This makes it difficult for a fertilized egg to attach
itself to the wall of the uterus.

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF USING CONTRACEPTIVE INJECTIONS

 If injections are received at the correct times, it can prevent pregnancy and has a low risk of
failure.
 It cannot prevent transmission of STI’s, including HIV.
 It takes a long time for normal fertility to return. In some women this takes up to a year.
 Using contraceptive drugs such as Depo – Provera continuously for many years, can lead to
loss of calcium in the bones and as a result, the bones break easily.

SPERMICIDES
This is a chemical in the form of cream, foam or gel which kills sperms, The spermicide is placed in
the vagina and can also be used with a diaphragm.

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF USING THE SPERMICIDE

 It can be effective if properly used.

 It does not prevent transmission of sexually transmitted infections.

VASECTOMY AND TUBAL LIGATION

Vasectomy is a surgical operation in which the man’s sperm ducts are cut and sealed. This is to ensure
that no sperm passes to fertilize an ovum. This method of contraception does not in any way interfere
the man’s sexual desire, erection and ejaculation. During ejaculation the man’s semen only contains
fluid but no sperms.

Tubal ligation is a surgical operation in which the woman’s oviducts are tied or cut. This prevents
sperms reaching and fertilizing the ova. This operation does not affect the ovaries therefore
menstruation still continues since the ovum is released every month.
MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF VASECTOMY AND TUBAL LIGATION

 If the surgery is not done properly, it can lead to unplanned pregnancies.

 Although vasectomy and Tubal ligation can be reversed, it is difficult, expensive and success
rates vary. One needs to be sure that they no longer want to have children now and in the
future before one does it.
 Vasectomy and Tubal ligation do not prevent the transmission of STI’s, including HIV.
 Vasectomy and Tubal ligation are not surgery done to cure any illness but to control fertility.
Any form of surgery has a risk of resulting in complications that cause other health problems.
Although the risk is small for vasectomy and Tubal ligation, it is still important that people
who choose this type of contraception should be aware of the risks.

SEXUAL ABSTINENCE
Sexual abstinence involves retraining from any sexual activity. It is considered as traditional or natural
contraception. Remember we discussed sexual abstinence in chapter 1 of this book.

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF SEXUAL ABSTINENCE

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  Sexual abstinence is judged to be morally right behavior for certain groups of people. For
example, in many cultures and religions, unmarried people are expected to abstain from sex
until they marry. Women who have just given birth (batsetsi) are usually expected to abstain
from having sex for a given period of time. People who disobey such sexual taboos and norms
are considered as behaving in morally unacceptable ways.
 Sexual abstinence is the only 100 percent certain way of avoiding pregnancy and sexually
transmitted infections including HIV. It can help individuals avoid the problems of unwanted
pregnancies and becoming infected with sexually transmitted infections.
 Sexual abstinence requires self – control. Those who abstain may gain a lot of respect from
other members of the society. Those who fail to abstain, can end up having unplanned
pregnancies.

THE RHYTHM METHOD

This method of birth control is based on the women’s menstruation cycle. A woman is only fertile for
about 7-8 days in a month. This means there are days when a woman is not likely to fall pregnant. It is
important to understand that the effectiveness of this method depends on keeping a careful record of
the woman’s menstruation cycle and knowing exactly when she is not fertile. This is not easy to do.

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE RHYTHM METHOD

 The rhythm method offers no protection against sexually transmitted infections, including HIV.
Couple who use his method should be sure that they are healthy and re always faithful to each
other.
 Couples have to accept that, this method has a higher risk of leading to unplanned pregnancy
than most other contraceptive methods. They should be prepared to support each other if that
happens.

THE WITHDRAWAL METHOD

The withdrawal method, also known as coitus interruptus, involves the man withdrawing his penis
from the woman’s vagina just before ejaculation.

MORAL IMPLICATION OF THE WITHDRAWAL METHOD

 Couples have to accept that, this method has a higher risk of leading to unplanned pregnancy
than most other contraceptive method. They should be prepared to support each other if that
happens.
 This method offers protection against sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Couples
who use this method should ensure that they do not have STI’s and are always faithful to each
other.
 A woman is at the mercy of the man who might not be motivated to prevent pregnancy.
 The effectiveness of the method in preventing pregnancy depends on the man knowing
himself, being able to exercise self – control and being motivated to prevent pregnancy.

PROLONGED BREAST FEEDING

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Prolonged breast feeding is known to help prevent pregnancy. Breast feeding a baby frequently and
regularly, stimulates the body to produce a chemical that stops the release of a woman’s eggs, and
delays ovulation, and as a result, a woman does not fall pregnant.
In some cultures, including cultures in Botswana, women used prolonged breast feeding as a method
of birth control. A baby could be breastfed for about two years.

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF PROLONGED BREAST FEEDING

 It is a risky method because after six moths, ovulation can occur without menstruation. A
woman may not know she has ovulated and fall pregnant as a result. In addition, it only works
if the baby is breastfed frequently and regularly.
 Couples should accept that there is possibility of pregnancy while the baby is still being
breastfed.
 This method offers no protection against sexually transmitted infections, including HIV.
Couples who use this method should ensure that they do not have STI’s and are always
faithful to each other.

USING TRADITIONAL HERBAL MEDICINES

Some people use traditional herbal medicines prescribed by traditional doctors (dingaka tsa Setswana),
which they believe prevent pregnancy.

MOST IMPLICATIONS OF THE USE OF SOME TRADITIONAL HERBAL MEDICINES

 Most traditional herbs have not been scientifically proven to be effective in preventing
pregnancy. There is therefore a high risk of a woman becoming pregnant.
 Traditional medicines offer no protection against sexually transmitted infections, including
HIV.

DIFFERENT VIEWPOINTS ON CONTRACEPTION

There are different viewpoints on contraception. People hold different views on questions such as:

 Is it morally right or wrong to use contraception to prevent pregnancy?

 Are modern types of contraception morally acceptable or not?
 Is it morally acceptable for teenagers to use contraception?
 Is it morally acceptable to use condoms to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted
infections, including HIV?
 Does the use of modern contraception encourage people to be promiscuous because they know
that they prevent pregnancy and in the case of condoms, also protect them from STI’s
infections?

The viewpoints on contraception vary because people are influenced by their personal needs, religious
beliefs and teachings, as well as by ideas about human rights and what is considered morally
acceptable in the world today.

Below are some views that are expressed about contraception.

HUMAN RIGHTS POINT OF VIEW

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  Every person has a right to control over their own fertility and to enjoy sex without the fear of
pregnancy.
 Every person has a right to decide the type of contraception they prefer to use.

MORAL POINT OF VIEW

 Condoms offer double protection. They prevent both pregnancy and STI’s, including HIV. It is
therefore morally wrong to deny people access to condoms which help protect their health.
 All the methods of birth control are morally right except the IUD. This is because IUD’s allows
fertilization but prevent implantation in the uterus.
 Preventing unwanted pregnancy is morally right. One does not bring into the world a human
life that one does not want or is not able to provide for.
 Tubal ligation and vasectomy are morally wrong because they involve damaging parts of the
human body.
 Sex is not only for procreation. The use of contraception is morally acceptable because it
allows couples to avoid pregnancy while having sex for other reasons such as for pleasure and
creating an intimate bond in their relationship.
 Family planning is the morally right thing to do. This enables families to give the children they
choose to have the best care possible. It protects the health of women and improves the quality
of their lives.

RELIGIOUS POINTS OF VIEW

Religious such as Buddhism, Islam, Judaism and Sikhism accept that it is morally acceptable for their
followers to use both modern and traditional types of contraception. However, Islam forbids
vasectomy and only allows Tubal ligation if pregnancy would put the life of a woman in danger.

In Christianity, most denominations also allow their followers to use both modern and traditional types
of contraception. The Roman Catholic Church is an exception.

 The Catholic Church teaches that using natural methods of contraception for example, the
rhythm method and sexual abstinence is morally acceptable. However, using modern methods
of contraception is morally wrong and sinful. The church also teaches that contraception
should only be used within marriage and for morally acceptable reasons such as, child spacing.
The Church is also against the use of condoms to protect one – self from sexually transmitted
infections, including HIV. Instead, the Church feels people should practice sexual abstinence,
avoid pre – marital sex and be faithful to their spouses.
 Christian Churches that allow followers to use modern and traditional types of contraception
have different views about when it is morally acceptable to use contraception. Some allow
contraception as long as it is used within marriage and to help a couple with child spacing.
Others emphasize that it should not be used to help a person to remain childless or for
protection against the consequences of promiscuous sexual behavior.

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 DEATH AND BEREAVEMENT
What is death?
Death is the end of life
Death is when cells, organs and tissues of the body stop functioning.

CAUSES OF DEATH
- Old age
- Diseases
- Abortion (backstreet)
- Murder
- Accidents
- War
- Capital punishment
- Natural disasters e.g earth quake, drought, floods, fire e.t.c

THE EFFECTS OF DEATH ON THE BEREAVED FAMILY AND SOCIETY

Bereavement is the state of sorrow over the death of a loved one. People who have lost a loved one
due to death are said to be bereaved. The death of a person has many negative effects on the family of
the deceased as well as the society that the deceased came from. Below are some of the effects of
death on the following.

EFFECTS ON THE BEREAVED FAMILY

 Death can strengthen bonds between family members

The death of a family member can help strengthen family ties. The family comes together to mourn
the loss of their loved one. Usually family members cooperate and make contributions in cash and in
kind towards the funeral expenses. Some members, who may not see each other often, meet and renew
their relationships as they prepare for the funeral. Children may meet other members of the extended
family for the first time.

 Emotional stress
The loss of family member due to death brings shock, trauma, confusion, sadness and sorrow to the
bereaved family. The emotional stress may overwhelm some family members and make them suicidal.
 Orphan – hood
When both parents die, children become orphans. Other members of the family, such as grandparents,
uncles and aunts have to take care of them. They have to use their own resources to take care of them.
Some relatives may feel that the orphans are a burden and may not be willing to take care of them.
Others may abuse them physically, emotionally, and sexually. Relatives have also been known to take
away any money and property left behind by their deceased parents.
 Loss of breadwinner
The family may become poor if the person who has died was the main breadwinner. For example, they
may not be able to afford the basic needs of life.

 Conflicts between family members

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When someone dies, conflicts in the family may occur when for example,

 A family member is blamed for causing the person’s death. They may be suspected of having
bewitched him or her.
 There are disagreements about where to bury the deceased person.
 The deceased did not leave a will and his or her relatives fight over any property left behind.
Inheritance disputes have sometimes led to family members suing each other in the courts of
law.
 Some family members do not want to cooperate and help in cash and in kind during the funeral
preparations.

 Financial strain on the family of the deceased

Some family members do not have funeral insurance to pay for the cost of the funeral. As a result, the
deceased family may have to borrow money, or use money budgeted for something else towards
funeral expenses.

 Change in social status

As a result of the death of a spouse, the status of the remaining spouse changes. A married woman
becomes a widow and a married man becomes a widower. When both parents, die their children
become orphans.

EFFECTS ON THE SOCIETY

 Emotional effects
Members of the society may be emotionally affected by the death of a person who was well known,
popular and loved by the society such as a president, a kgosi or a musician. For example, when the
first president of Botswana, Sir Seretse Khama died on 13 July 1980, most Batswana were very sad
and mourned his loss because they loved and respect him as a great leader of the nation.

 Loss of educated and skilled people

The government spends a lot of money educating and training people so that they help develop the
country. The death of educated and skilled people has a negative impact on the country. The
government has to spend more money educating and training people to replace them. This takes time
and their work experience cannot easily be replaces. For example, it takes at least seven years to train
a medical doctor.

 Decline on food production

If most of the people dying are farmers and farm workers, this may lead to a decline in food
production. Families may not have enough people to grow food.

 Break up of families
Death of parents can lead to the break –up of families as their children are taken by different relatives,
adopted or taken to orphanages. Brothers and sisters end up growing up in different households.

 Creation of child – headed households

After the death of their parents, sometimes no one is willing to take care of orphans. As a result, the
oldest child becomes the head of the household and becomes responsible for raising his or her younger
brothers and sisters. Such a child is often forced to drop out of school. The child may turn to
prostitution and other criminal activities in order to earn money to support the family.

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  Problems of caring for orphans
The society helps care for orphans by supporting families and orphanages that care for orphans. For
example, the government of Botswana provides orphans with a food basket every month, school
uniform, and money for transport to school. They are also exempted from paying school fees. Some
non – governmental organizations have established centres that take care of the orphans. The centres
are supported through donations in cash and in kind made by members of the society.

 Conflicts within the society

The death of a leader may lead to succession disputes. For instance in Botswana, some ethic groups
have experienced conflicts over who is the rightful heir to be installed as the new kgosi.

 Increase in poverty
When breadwinners die, families may become poorer. If many families become poorer because of the
death of their breadwinners, the level of poverty in the society increases. Government social welfare
services have to support many more people and this puts a strain on the country’s financial resources.

 Population decrease
When the death rate is higher than the birth rate the population decreases because there are fewer
people being born to replace those who have died.
THE ATTITUDES OF COMMUNITIES TOWARDS DEATH

The attitude of a community towards death is about the way the community feels, thinks or behaves
towards death. A community’s attitude towards death may be influenced by the people’s religious
beliefs and cultural traditions.
Below are some attitudes of communities towards death in Botswana.

 Although people know they will die one day, some fear death and are reluctant to think about
their own death. As a result, they are not prepared to discuss what should happen to their
property when they die or save money for the cost of their funeral.
 The deaths are treated with respect and dignity. Death is usually marked by funeral
ceremonies and rituals that allow the deceased’s family, friends and the community to
formally say farewell to the dead person.
 Many communities think of death as being only the end of life on earth, the spirits of the dead
live on. This is why in African Traditional Religion there is a belief in ancestral spirits or
badimo. The badimo are the spirits of people who died a long time ago but are believed to
influence the lives of the living. Christians also believe in life after death. They believe that
there is eternal life and that the souls of dead people end up either in heaven or in hell.
 In many communities, death is accepted as inevitable because every life ends in death. In
particular, communities readily accept the death of people in certain situations for example:
 When a person dies due to old age, usually the community accepts that nobody lives
forever and they may even celebrate the person’s life.
 When a person is very ill and there is no hope of recovery, people may welcome the
death of the person because they feel that death puts an end of his or her suffering and
pain. They believe it enables the dead person to rest. This is why many tombstones are
written RIP, meaning ‘Rest in Peace’.

 Most communities regret and express deep sorrow at the death of children and young adults.
This is because the continued existence of the community depends to a large extent on the
younger generation outliving the older generation. People may also feel it is against the order

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 of nature. Older people are expected to die first. Children should bury their parents and not
parents burying their children.
 In some communities, people always want to know the cause of death. Knowing the cause of
death helps them, especially the bereaved family, to accept and cope with their loss. Some
families may request a post – mortem examination of the dead body, while others may consult
traditional doctors in order to find out the cause of death.

SUPPORT GIVEN TO THE BEREAVED

1. SOCIAL SUPPORT (material)

 Community offer assistance like cooking

 Some members of society go out to fetch firewood which is usually used as energy
 Some members of society go out to slaughter animals to feed visitors during bereavement
 Some members of society lend some utensils and equipment to the bereaved family to be used
during bereavement
 Some members of society assist in digging the grave

2. ECONOMIC SUPPORT (financial)

 Members of the society and relatives offer financial assistance to the bereaved family
 Some offer food items
 Some offer animals that are usually slaughtered during bereavement
 Some insurance companies offer assistance to families who are their subscribers

3. EMOTIONAL SUPPORT (spiritual)

 By comforting those who are grieving; people visit and spend time with the bereaved family
until the burial takes place
 Churches offer prayers to the members of the bereaved family
 Some members of the bereaved family may be offered professional counseling in case they are
adversely affected by the loss of a family member
 By sending messages of condolences. Friends and relatives who are unable to attend the
funeral may send messages of condolences
 Prayers may be held at the home of the deceased family regularly until the day before the
burial takes place, in some communities a prayer vigil(tebelelo) is held the night before the
burial

IMPORTANCE OF COPING WITH DEATH

- To enable the bereaved family to cope with the loss of a loved one and avoid despairing
Coping with death involves dealing with the feeling of grief and gradually reaching a stage of
acceptance because nothing and no one can bring back the dead person. It is important to talk about
what one is feeling so that one is not overwhelmed by grief, despair and depression.

- To avoid damaging ones health or becoming suicidal

People who are unable to cope with death of a loved one may as a result, behave in ways that damage
their health, for example some people may begin to abuse alcohol or drugs and they may even become
suicidal

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-to avoid conflicts over the cause of death
People who are unable to accept the death of a loved one as natural are less likely to blame others for
the death. For example if a family has died due to a terrible accident, family members will not accuse
each other of witchcraft. Conflicts in the family may be avoided as a result

-To enable the bereaved family to return to their normal lives

Bereavement is processes some people take longer than other to overcome the deep sense of grief and
to begin to accept their loss. However at some point in time, people have to stop grieving and begin to
live their lives normally again. They should be able to return to school or work and be happy again.

-to allow dependants to focus on finding acceptable ways of surviving

In case of loss of a breadwinner, dependents of the deceased person do not become desperate. Instead
they are able to ask and get the help they need. They are abler to fin d legal; and morally acceptable
ways of surviving. They don’t need to return to prostitution, selling illegal drugs or crime to earn a
living.

REASONS FOR CURBING FUNERAL EXPENSES

1. To reduce financial on the bereaved family

Avoiding unnecessary funeral expenses can help reduce the financial strain on the bereaved family. A
family would not have to get in debt in order to get the money for the funeral.

2. To save money for the surviving dependants of the deceased

Some people die leaving young children and spouses who still need to be provided for. It is important
that most of the money and property that the deceased leave behind should b e saved to meet their
needs. For example if most of the money is used on the funeral, the family may not be able to pay the
children’s school fees and to buy them food in future

3. To avoid conflicts in the family due to unnecessary expenses

Some family members may blame each other for the unnecessary funeral expenses which could have
been avoided. In most cases, conflicts arise when there are outstanding debts to be paid and family
members are expected to contribute towards the payment of the debts.

4. To help change peoples attitudes towards funeral expenses

There is need for mourners and visitors to change their expectation of what the bereaved family should
give them during the mourning period, especially in terms of food and drink. Bereave family should
also change their attitudes and think carefully about funeral costs they incur. Families should eliminate
unnecessary costly items such as food and drink everyday after prayer, glossy full colour funeral
programmes, and then there will be no need for people to compete and show that they too can afford
expensive and lavish funerals. Those who cannot afford expensive funerals will not come under any
pressure to do more than they can afford

WILLS
A will is a legal document indicating how one wishes his or her property to be distributed after his or
her death.

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IMPORTANCE OF WRITING WILLS

1.-the property of the deceased will be distributed according to his or her wishes
A person would be able to indicate who should and who should not inherit his or her property and
what they should get. For example a parent may choose to leave his or her property to some of his or
her children. Others may be left out of the will. If a person dies without a will then people whom he or
she did not want to inherit could end up with his or her property

2.-a will can prevent family conflicts over the deceased property
When a person dies without a will conflicts over the inheritance of the deceased property are more
likely to arise between the children, spouse and other relatives of the deceased

3.-it helps share out the deceased property in a fair way

As long as the deceased in her will have divided his property equally then his or her property will be
shared fairly

4.-It allows family members to benefit from the deceased property

Family members will get to benefit from the deceased property as stated in his or her will

5.-A will can prevent relatives claiming property that does not belong to the deceased or other
people falsely claiming property that belongs to the deceased
In a will a person can state what property belongs to them. This would help prevent confusion as to
what belongs and does not belong to the deceased.

ABORTION

It means the pre-mature termination of the foetus from the mother’s womb or the premature
termination of pregnancy which can be a natural rejection of the foetus or miscarriage which is
referred to as a spontaneous abortion or an induced abortion which means when the pregnancy is
unnaturally terminated.

VIEW POINTS ON ABORTION

1. RELIGIOUS VIEWS POINTS

- Most religious view life as sacred and no one has the right to kill e.g. roman Catholics believe that
life begins at the moment the baby is conceived, they believe abortion is murder and can not be
allowed whatever situation.
-In Islam abortion is allowed if it endangers the life of the mother. Muslims believes the foetus
receives its soul later in pregnancy therefore abortion is acceptable in early stages of pregnancy if
there are special circumstances e.g. when a woman have been raped.
- Other religions accept abortion under certain circumstances e.g. the life of the unborn baby is at risk
or if the child will be born with severe disabilities.
2. PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS
Abortion can be done if;
- It threatens the life of the mother
-the child will be born with severe disabilities
-some people feel that abortion should be judged as right or wrong by peoples own conscience.

BOTSWANA`S LAW ON ABORTION

Abortion can be ligalised in Botswana for the following reasons;
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- If the Pregnancy is a result of rape, defilement or incest and the termination of pregnancy is
requested by the victim. If the victim is unable to make the request, her next of kin or guardian can
make the request
- When there is evidence that there is substantial risk that, if the baby was born it would suffer or later
develop serious physical or mental abnormality, or disease resulting in serious handicap
- It can be done if it is carried out by a registered medical practitioner in a government hospital
-if the girl did not give her consent to sex e.g. if she is under age or she is mentally –disturbed.
- If the pregnancy involves risks to the life of the woman, the injury to her physical and mental health.

COMPARING LAW IN BOTSWANA ON ABORTION WITH THAT OF SOUTH AFRICA

ABORTION LAW IN BOTSWANA ABORTION LAW IN SOUTH

AFRICA
- does law allow abortion -allows abortion -allows abortion

- circumstances abortion
allowed
Time limits on which abortion
is allowed
Who is allowed to perform
abortion
Where abortions are performed
- if the pregnancy is a result of rape
-if the pregnancy threatens the life
of the woman
- when there is evidence that the
baby is likely to develop serious
mental abnormality
-if pregnancy is not more than 16
weeks
- doctors are allowed
- performed in government
hospital, a registered private
hospital or a clinic approved for
abortion
-allows abortion for any given
reason
-maximum time allowed varies,
depends on the reason given for
having abortion e.g.
a) more than 20 weeks if pregnant
woman’s life is in danger
b) up to 20 weeks if the baby
would be born with severe
abnormalities
- up to 12 weeks a doctor or
midwife can perform and after
12 weeks only a doctor can do it
- performed in a government
hospital or an approved medical
institution

MORAL IMPLICATIONS ON ABORTION

-Some people believe that abortion is never morally right as it denies the foetus the right to life.
- Others feel that the mother has the right to have the final choice on carrying out abortion.
- It encourages people to engage in pre-marital, extra marital and unprotected sex encourage
promiscuity.
-it provides solution to unwanted and unplanned pregnancies
-it might leads to infertility if performed under unhygienic
- It creates moral dilemmas to the society as they will not know whether to safe the mother or the child
and if abortion is right.
- Many people regard abortion as wrong and think that it brings shame to the whole family.
- Others say it is better to abort a child than bear a child who will suffer if the mother is not able to
support it.
- A woman who has an abortion can later feel guilty and regret it.
- It gives women freedom of choice and control over their bodies.
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SUICIDE
It is the killing of oneself deliberately or on purpose which could be due to diseases, depression,
personal problems.

REASONS FOR COMMITTING SUICIDE

1. DEPRESSION
The person will always look depressed and stressed.
2. FINANCIAL PROBLEMS
Money is a necessity in today’s’ life. People feel unhappy if they don’t have money and that life is
meaningless. Financial problems leading to suicide include debts, job loss, and collapse of business or
supporting a large family.

3. SOCIAL ISOLATION
A person may always be away from others and she/may feels he/she is not loved and it is better when
she/he dead.

4. DISEASES
Terminally ill people may decide to end their lives and those who suffer incurable diseases.

SIGNS BY WHICH YOU CAN DETECT A TENDENCY OF SUICIDE

The warning includes the following
A) ACTION/EVENT
-drug and alcohol abuse
-night mares
-pregnancy/abortion
-parents divorce
-loss of close friend/ family members
-loss of job, money, self esteem

b) FEELINGS
-Hopelessness- one feels that there is nothing to gain
-Shame-someone hates himself/herself
-Helpless-there is nothing she/he can do
-persisted anxiety/anger-having mood swings repeatedly
c) CHANGE
- Change in personality, e.g. more withdrawn, tired, talkative, outgoing
- Change in behaviour – one cannot concentrate on a routine task
- Change in pattern of sleep- e.g. oversleeping or early sleep or late sleep
- Change in eating – e.g. overeating, loss of appetite
- Loss of interest in friends, hobbies and activities one used to enjoy

d) THREATS
- Statements like ‘how long does it take to bleed to death’
- threats like ‘I wont be around for long’
- plans like putting things in order, giving away favourite things, obtaining and owning weapons

EFFECTS OF SUICIDE

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EFFECTS ON THE INDIVIDUAL
If suicide fails
-survivor may isolate himself and others and he/she may repeat suicidal acts.
-Survivor remains with life long tormenting stigma and shame
-the victim may become mentally and physically disturbed
-Suicide leads to death that denies the right to life

EFFECTS ON THE FAMILY

-CHILDREN LEFT AS ORPHANS

The children of the victim who committed suicide are left as orphans hence no one to taken of them.
As such they become destitute as the victim may have been their breadwinner
-POVERTY
If the person who commits suicide was the bread winner the family may become poor due to lack of
income. Life insurances do not pay out benefits if the person insured dies as a result of suicide. If the
deceased dies whilst having a lot of debts it puts financial strain on the family because the family has
to find money to clear the debts

-THE STATUS OF THE REMAINING SPOUSE CHANGES

If the person who commits suicide is married, the social status of the remaining spouse changes. The
remaining spouse becomes a single parent. A wife becomes a widow and a husband becomes a
widower

-THE FAMILY OF THE DECEASED MAY BE STIGMATISED

This may happen in communities where suicide is considered wrong and immoral. The family of the
person who has committed suicide may be blamed for failing to teach their children proper ways of
dealing with problems. As a result of the stigma, the family member may find it difficult to talk about
what happened

IMPACT ON THE SOCIETY

LOSS OF SKILLED AND EDUCATED PEOPLE

Those who commit suicide may be skilled and educated and would have contributed to the
development of the country. The government would have to spend more money training people to the
jobs left by those who have committed suicide. Loss of important labour force reduces the economic
potential of a country. For example if the society looses many professionals like doctors, nurses and
teachers due to suicide
EMOTIONAL EFFECT
Members of the society may be emotionally affected by suicide if the number of cases is high. This
can raise a lot of concern in the society
STIGMA AND SHAME
The stigma and shame surrounding suicide may affect the society due to increased publicity and loss
of wealth. Therefore the repeated or high number of suicide cases also tarnishes the good image of the
society

INCREASE IN POVERTY
If a lot of people who commit suicide are breadwinners, families in the society can become poor. This
may put a strain on government social welfare funds.

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 - Possible crimes like prostitution that result from the loss of a breadwinners tarnish the name of
the society
- It can also lead to societal breakups in cases where members of the family or community feels
that the relatives are responsible for the death or suicide.

WAYS OF AVOIDING SUICIDE

 Being open about ones problem
People can avoid suicide by talking about their problem with people they trust. This can help
them cope with stress and depression caused by problems they are experiencing. E.g. one may
confide in a parent, a friend, a teacher, or a social worker

 be realistic and positive in working through one’s problems

Individuals should try to develop a positive outlook towards life by remembering that with time
and help problems can be solved. Nothing stays the same forever, problems will end

 build hospitals for terminally ill people

 Avoid being alone, isolated and keeping dangerous secret

An individual who is feeling suicidal should avoid being alone. One may telephone or visit a friend or
family member to talk about his or her feelings and ask for help.

 establish loan assistance schemes for people with financial problems

 people with suicidal tendencies should be open to others

 Preventative and crisis counseling should be offered

 people should remember that suicide is irreversible

 people should learn to differentiate feelings and actions

Individuals should learn to differentiate between feelings and actions. Feeling suicidal does not
mean one should commit suicide

EUTHANASIA
It means an intervention to bring about gently and easy death to a person
It can be referred to as mercy killing or the painless killing of a person suffering from an incurable and
painful disease

TYPES OF EUTHANASIA
1. PASSIVE EUTHANASIA
This is the act of stopping life sustaining treatment. It does not involve the actual doing of anything to
prolong life. Relatives can ask for it if their patient is supported by a machine and cannot have normal
life without a machine.

2. ACTIVE UTHANASIA
This is when death voluntarily induced on a person. A person may ask for it or relatives can ask for it.

PAST AND PRESENT PRACTICES RELATED TO EUTHANASIA

1. PAST PRACTICES

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  during battle severely injured warrior could be stabbed to death by a fellow warrior in order to
save him from suffering due to his injuries
 during times of severe drought very old people who could not provide for themselves were
abandoned and left to die of hunger and thirst, in order to reduce the demand for the little food
available
 babies born with severe physical defects were suffocated to death by midwives immediately
after they are born
 If a mother died in child birth and there was no one willing or able to take care of the baby, the
baby would be buried alive with the mother. This was done because people felt that it was
better for the baby to die than to suffer without its mother

PRESENT PRACTICES ASSOCIATED WITH EUTHANASIA

 withdrawing or withholding intravenous feeding
When close family members of a patient withdraw intravenous feeding system from a
terminally ill person and when the doctor withholds intravenous feeding their action would be
associated with euthanasia
 withdrawing or withholding life support machines
When a terminally ill patient or severely injured person is taken off from a life support
machine, or if doctors do not put a patient on life support machines, they can be said to assist
the terminally ill patient to die.
 Withdrawing or withholding medical treatment
Sometimes medical practitioners withdraw or withhold medical treatment in situations where
there is no hope for a terminally patient to recover. E.g. treatment can be withdrawn or
withheld from patients who are brain dead.
 Withholding surgery
In some cases doctors may decide not to perform surgery on a terminally ill patient because it
would not help him or her to recover. Such patients may be kept in a hospital and be given pain
killers only, to relieve pain, in some cases the terminally ill patient may be discharged from the
hospital and has to be taken care off at home or a hospice until they die.

THE PLACE OF WILLS IN RELATION TO EUTHANASIA

A will can be written by someone stating how h/she wants to be treated incase she/he gets involved in
an accident and she cannot talk afterwards, he/she can opt for euthanasia to avoid misery and pain.
This is referred to as voluntary active euthanasia.

A will can be done by an individual whereby he/she wishes not to be put in a life supporting machine
because it is worth nothing he/she won’t survive for long. This is called voluntary passive euthanasia

EVALUATING THE CONCEPT OF EUTHANASIA

The issue of euthanasia has passed a moral dilemma. Some think it helps terminally ill people to get
out of pain while others think that killing is wrong.

ARGUMENTS FOR EUTHANASIA

 It brings pain and suffering to an end

 Takes away fear of a painful death
 It is cheaper than the medicines needed to keep the patient alive
 Quality of life is more important than the length of it
 It can help shorten the grief and suffering of the patient and the family

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  It helps one to die with dignity rather than the disgrace brought by long suffering

ARGUMENTS AGAINST EUTHANASIA

- Many religions disagree with this because God is the only one who gives life and should be the
one to take it away.
- Relations of trust between the doctors and patients could be destroyed.
- Some people wake from commas, so doctors can make mistakes.
- Modern medicines can help reduce pain.
- Relatives may persuade an old person to ask for mercy killing because they want to inherit
property.
- In Botswana, it is an offence against ancestors and God. They hope one will recover. This is
expressed in a proverb” moya goleele o lefa ka marapo”.

SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF PROLONGING LIFE

It is possible for doctors to keep people alive longer. There are drugs and operations done to prolong
life.

1. The use of artificial respirators

When the person’s breathe fails, respirators can be used to help the patient with oxygen supply. It also
controls the heartbeat when the person has sufficient blood flow.

2. Organ transplant
People can be given organs like kidneys, heart, liver, etc by other people (those people will be referred
to as donors).

3. Intravenous feeding
This is the use of machines top feed those who cannot eat and are weak
4. Drugs
People who suffer from pain e.g. those with terminal cancer are injected with drugs to ease the pain
5. Artificial body parts
Some of the artificial parts can be used to `replace those that are damaged e.g. arteries can be replaced.

6. Blood donations
Blood is screened to check for diseases and then is donated to those in need to save their lives.

7. Use of incubators for pre mature babies

Babies are put there to reach their normal birth date. The machine sustain the baby’s life, it has
suitable temperature and the baby is fed through intravenous machines

MORAL DILEMMAS BROUGHT BY ADVANCED SCIENCE

Use of limited monetary resources

Some scientific methods used to prolong life such as organ transplants and dialysis is very expensive. Many
countries have limited monetary resources (money) to spend on medical care.
The moral dilemma governments and policy makers face is whether to spend the limited money the country has
on scientific life prolonging methods in order to safe the life’s of a few people and risk putting a strain on
government financial resources, or to spend the money on medical treatments that can save the lives of many
and leave the patients who require the expensive life prolonging treatments to die.

Treatment dilemmas
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Medical treatments sometimes have to make very difficult moral decisions as to;
- Who should benefit from life prolonging treatments and for how long
- whether or not to give a patient treatment that will prolong his or her life for just a short time
- Whether or not to violate the patient’s right to give consent to life prolonging treatment. Some people
refuse to accept life prolonging medical treatments such as blood transfusion for religious reasons
The moral dilemma the medical practitioner face is whether or not they should respect the patient’s religious
beliefs and right to consent. If they respect the patients beliefs and rights it may lead to his or her death. if they
ignore the patients beliefs and rights, and do a blood transfusion, they may safe his or her life, but they will have
violated the patients rights to consent and his or her religious beliefs

Quality of life
Sometimes family members face a situation where medical treatment such as dialysis is prolonging the life of
their loved one but he or he is still suffering and has a very poor quality of life. He relatives and other care
givers may question whether or not it is worth keeping the person alive o it is better to let them die and end hi
or her needles suffering

HIV AND AIDS AND SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Differentiating between HIV, AIDS and STIs

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus); the virus that causes AIDS by infecting cells of the immune
system. It is transmitted mainly by exposure to contaminated body fluids, especially blood and semen

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome); a collection of diseases that affect the body as the
immune system weakens due to HIV infection.

STI (sexually transmitted infection) a condition caused by germs (bacteria, viruses, or parasites)
contracted through sexual intercourse or other intimate sexual contacts.

THE NEED TO KNOW ONE’S HIV STATUS

o If individuals think they might have been exposed to the virus, testing can put their minds at
rest. They will know whether or not they are infected.
o Individuals who are HIV positive need to know their status sooner rather than later because
they will need to make important decisions and may have to change their behaviour. For
example..
 they can make an effort to learn about how to live positively with HIV, through diet and
exercise
 they may have to start ARV therapy before their immune system collapses and nothing
can be done to save their lives
 they can take steps to protect their partners by practicing safe sex, This will help avoid
re-infection and transmission of the HIV to another person

o If they want to have a baby, they can adopt measures to ensure that the baby is not infected
with HIV, for example by enrolling in the HIV mother to child prevention therapy
programme.

THE ATTITUDINAL CHANGE IN BOTSWANA TOWARDS HIV TESTING

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The attitude of most Batswana towards HIV testing has changed. Many now go voluntarily and
regularly for HIV testing. This could be of the following reasons;
 The introduction of free ARV therapy in 2002 gave people hope. People now know that when
they test positive, they can receive ARV drugs which help reduce the amount of the virus in
their bodies and prolong their lives.
 Comprehensive education about HIV AIDS issues has now made many Batswana aware of the
importance of testing and knowing ones status. Public campaigns now focus on behavioural
change and no longer threaten people with death.
 The government has opened Tebelopele HIV testing centers all over the country. This has
made it easier and encouraged people to know their status
 When some people went public and announced their status, they encouraged other people to
test and know their status and this also helped remove the stigma and fear of testing for HIV

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF TRANSMITTING HIV INTENTIONALLY

Many people accept that intentionally infecting another person with HIV is morally wrong conduct
because of the following reasons
 It shows lack of empathy and consideration for others. One may infect many who would
otherwise remain HUV negative
 HIV infection has serious consequences. It is an incurable infection that can ruin the other
person’s life. The other person may become infected with HIV, develop ands and die
 It shows lack of respect for human life because it puts the life of the other person at risk
 In a sexual; relationship, a partner may feel that his or trust was violated because they were lied
to and deceived
 In many cases it may be difficult to prove that someone intentionally transmitted HIV to
another person, if there is no proof it would be morally wrong to accuse someone of
intentionally transmitting HIV to another person

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF TELLING SOMEONE ABOUT ONE’S HIV STATUS

 It places a duty on the person who has been told to keep the information confidential, unless he
or she has been given the permission to tell others by the person who disclosed his or her status
 It is easier to disclose ones status, if one is HIV negative because being negative is seen as a
good thing
 If one is HIV positive it can be a stressful decision to make. The fear of stigmatization,
rejection and discrimination may make the individual unwilling or reluctant to disclose his or
her status
 It can help build trust between you and the person being told
 One may be seen as doing something morally right because the information will enable others
to protect themselves. Sexual partners and caregivers can take the necessary precautions to
protect themselves from getting infected
 Would enable others to show empathy and compassion towards you and to know how best to
help you
 Means one would feel free to take the ARV medicines openly. There would be no need to hide
the drugs for fear of people finding out that one is HIV positive
 May encourage behavioural change in order to protect ones health. A person is not likely to
engage in sexually risky behaviour if she or he knows that other people know that he or she is
HIV positive

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CONSEQUENCES OF HIV AND AIDS TO THE INDIVIDUAL, FAMILY, COMMUNITY
AND THE NAT ION

ON THE INDIVIDUAL
- affects the persons health and may lead to death
HIV makes one to be vulnerable to opportunistic infections. If one is HIV positive and their immune
system is weakened by the virus it may result in AIDS which may lead to death.

-emotional and mental stress

After testing HIV positive some people get emotionally stressed. This is because no one likes being
infected with HIV. Some may become even more emotionally stressed when they get AIDS.
-despair
Some individuals despair as a result of testing HIV positive and may end up behaving in morally and
socially unacceptable ways by engaging for example, in drug and alcohol abuse, adultery, prostitution
and intentional transmission of HIV. Some may commit suicide.

-due to AIDS effects some individuals become less productive at work

AIDS patients can become less productive because they are sick. Some may end up losing their jobs
because of this.

-the individual may be isolated and discriminated

They may suffer stigmatization which may lead to having low self esteem and self confidence.

ON THE FAMILY

-Relatives may become emotionally stressed

People do not wish for their members of their family to be infected with HIV or to get sock of AIDS.
Having an AIDS patient at home may be emotionally stressful because family members may have fear
that the patient would die.

-loss of bread winners

Some bred winners may die and leave their families in poverty. This may result in other social
problems such as prostitution and crime.

-increase of orphans in the family

When both parents die children become orphans and relatives may have to assume the responsibility of
taking care of the orphans. This may also result in child headed households.

-change the social status of the family

A wife can become a widow; a husband can become a widower and if both parents die children
become orphans.

-divorce
If one spouse is HIV positive, while the other is HIV negative, this can lead to tension s in the
marriage. The spouse who is HIV negative may accuse the one who is positive of being unfaithful and
may decide to end the marriage. If both husband and wife are positive, they may blame each other for
being the source of the infection. This too can lead to divorce.

-family can become poorer

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Taking care of a patient can be costly because family members may have to spend money visiting their
patient at the hospital, and buying food and drugs for the sick person. The family may have little or no
money left to pay for other family needs and projects.

COMMUNITIES AND THE NATION

-It creates a problem of orphan hood for the community and nation
If relatives are unable or are not willing to take care of the orphans, the community and nation in
which the orphans coke from will have to help. The orphans would have to be taken to orphanage
which the community and the nation would be expected to support. Some orphans may end up living
on the streets.
-it results in loss of skilled and well educated people
In Botswana the government spends a lot of money in educating and equipping people with skills.
When such people die the government will have to spend more money in training more people to
acquire such skills and levels of education.

-it has a negative effect on the economy of the country and the country’s development
The government of Botswana spends a lot of money on buying the ARV drugs, which are given to
AIDS patients for free. This then has a negative impact on the country’s economy and it slows its
developments. If many people in the country are sick it can affect the productivity of a nation and
lowers the economy and slows the development.

-it can lead to loss of investor confidence

If a country has a high rate of transmission and infection of HIV, investors can lose confidence and
can fear to invest in such a country. They may think that they too can get infected or that there is less
productivity in the country.

-it can decrease the population of the country

Countries with low population such as Botswana may experience this problem if the death rate is high
and the birth rate is low.

LIVING POSITIVELY WITH HIV

Having a positive attitude

Having a positive attitude involves accepting one’s HIV positive status and being hopeful about
the future. One does not feel that being HIV positive is a death sentence. Instead one sees it as
chronic condition that can be managed through taking the appropriate medication, diet and
exercise.

Eating a healthy balanced diet

Meals containing all the necessary nutrients help to boost a person’s immune system. One should
have balanced meals that have all the nutrients the body needs to stay healthy. An HIV positive
person should eat food from all the food groups

Exercising
It can help the individual to relieve stress and to keep fit. Exercise can help boost the immune
system

Getting enough rest

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It is important for an HIV positive person to get enough rest because it allows the body to recover
from stress and fatigue one may be feeling. A well rested body helps the immune system to
function properly

Leaving in a clean environment

A clean environment is good for one’s health because it reduces the risk of getting certain
infections such as malaria and diarrhoea.
Using a condom when having sex
Using a condom when having sex protects one from getting re-infection and transmitting the virus
to another person

Early treatment of infection

Infections and ailments should be treated as early as possible so that they don’t make the immune
system to collapse
Adherence to ARV therapy instructions
Those on ARV therapy should adhere to the instructions on how and when to take the medication
and go for regular checkups’. This help to monitor their health

Avoiding alcohol, cigarettes and illegal drugs

Intoxicants such as alcohol cigarettes and illegal drugs reduce the effectiveness of ARV drugs on a
person’s body and weaken the immune system. Taking illegal drugs and alcohol can lead one to
engage in sex without a condom and discontinuing the ARV treatment

THE CAPACITY TO ADOPT HIV RISK PREVENTION MEASURES

There are various measures that people can use to prevent or reduce the risk of becoming infected
with HIV such as the following;
 Using surgical gloves when attending to an injured person who is bleeding
 Having one sexual partner and being faithful to him or her
 Using condom every time when having sexual intercourse
 Male circumcision
 Sexual abstinence

REQUIREMENTS TO START ARV TREATMENT

 CD4 count test

CD4 cells are white blood cells which protect the body against infections. A CD4 count test
is a test in which one’s white blood cells are counted. Healthy people are expected to have
a CD4 count of about 800-1000. Currently if a person’s CD4 count is 250 or below the
person’s immune system is considered to be very weak and will qualify to start ARV
treatment. In the past, to qualify for ARV treatment, the CD4 count had to be 200 or below.

 Viral load test

The viral load test measures the amount of HIV in the body. The higher the viral load the
weaker the immune system. The viral load is checked to ensure that the correct dosage of
ARV drugs is given.

 Treating other infections first

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 Before ARV treatment begins, people who have tested positive for HIV are normally tested
and treated for other infections such as tuberculosis and other sexually transmitted
infections first. This ensures they are as healthy as possible before taking ARVs.

 HIV positive pregnant women

Pregnant women who are HIV positive and use ante-natal services offered at government
hospitals and clinics are encouraged to enroll in the Prevention of Mother to Child
Transmission (PMTCT) programme. They receive ARVs that help to prevent transmission
of the virus to the baby during pregnancy.

 Counseling
A person should receive counseling before enrolling on the therapy. The purpose of
counseling is to:
1. Provide knowledge and understanding of the ARV therapy. For example, patients
will be advised about what to eat, the need for exercise, and need to avoid certain
foods, drinks and medicines.
2. Ensure the patient understands the importance of adhering to instructions of how
and when to take ARV medication.
3. Advise the person about the4 importance of coming for regular checkups at the
clinic or hospital.
4. Encourage them to have a positive attitude and to live positively.

THE EFFECTS OF THE ARV ON THE PERSON

 it controls the viral load in the body

ARV medication slows down the growth rate of HIV in the body. It prevents the virus from
reproducing and this slows down the damage HIV causes to a person’s immune system.
The CD4 count increases resulting in a person’s immune system improving.

 it can prolong a person’s life

An improvement in a person’s immune system due to Arvs, in turn results in a person’s
health improving. The person is likely to live longer than they would have if they did not
take ARVs.

 it can help a person re-gain self esteem

Some people lose self esteem when they test HIV positive. The ARV medication helps
them to recover and re-gain self esteem. The Masa ARV therapy is called ‘the new dawn’
because it gives HIV positive people the hope of continuing to live.

 it can help a person re-gain their health and become productive again
After enrolling on ARV therapy the person can become well enough again, to work and
become productive.

 ARV like all drugs has negative side effects even if they are not taken correctly. Below are
some of the negative effects of ARV on a person’s body.

-muscle pain
-diarrhoea
-skin rashes
-tiredness

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 -persistent headaches
-nausea
-abnormal menstruation patterns
-numbness in the hands and feet

THE EFFECTS OF INTOXICANTS ON ARV THERAPY

 Intoxicants make ARV therapy less effective

Using illegal drugs and alcohol make the ARV drugs less effective. As a result, the immune
system remains weak.

 Patients may fail to adhere to instruction on how and when to take the medicine
When taking ARV drugs, it is very important to follow the doctor’s instructions on how
and when to take them. For example, ARV treatment has to taken everyday at the same
time for it to be effective. Intoxicants can make the patient forget to take the medication or
taking it at the wrong time.

 Intoxicants can lead one to make bad decisions

When HIV positive people are under the influence of intoxicants they may engage in
unprotected sex and get re-infection. Some patients may decide to stop treatment
altogether.

THE IMPORTANCE OF TELLING A FAMILY MEMBER ABOUT ONE”S HIV

STATUS

 Telling someone can be emotionally relieving, especially if one is HIV positive. Knowing
that one is HIV positive and not telling anyone can be very stressful.

 One would have at least one family member to turn to for emotional support.

 If the HIV positive person has AIDS, the family member who knows one’s status can
become a care giver. He or she will know how to take care of the person properly without
putting himself or herself at risk of becoming infected.

 Informing a family member about one’s HIV status can encourage the family member to
test for HIV if he or she has not already tested.

MORAL VALUES THAT CAN BE USED TO DEVELOP A POSITIVE ATTITUDE

TOWARDS PEOPLE WITH AIDS

 Empathy
Empathy is the ability to put oneself in another person’s situation and imagine how he or
she is feeling. People living with AIDS may be in pain and unable to care for themselves.
Empathy would enable us to understand their suffering and needs. If we have empathy we
are likely to be more willing to help others.

 Compassion
Compassion is a deep feeling of empathy for those who are suffering and the desire to help
them. It is necessary to treat people living with AIDS compassionately because this will

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 make them feel that other people care about them. Having a feeling of compassion can
make people turn their feelings of sympathy into action.

 Generosity
Generosity is the willingness to give and to share what one has. There are many ways of
being generous towards those living with HIV and AIDS. This includes donating food,
clothes, or money. It is important to be generous to those living with HIV and AIDS
because it shows that we care.

 Caring
Caring means to feel affection or love, and concern for somebody or something. We need
to care for those living with HIV and AIDS. We can show that we care in various ways
such as: cleaning, washing and cooking for them as well as visiting them regularly when
they are not feeling well.

 Respect
Respect means to admire someone or to treat someone with courtesy and dignity. HIV
positive people deserve respect because having the virus does not make them less human.
They have the same rights like everybody else. We can show respect to people living with
HIV and AIDS in various ways such as respecting their privacy by not gossiping about
their HIV status and speaking to them politely.

THE IMPORTANCE OF HAVING A COMPASSIONATE ATTITUDE TOWARDS

HIV POSITIVE PEOPLE

 It encourages them to accept their status

If we show compassion to HIV positive people, they are more likely to live positively. If
we are compassionate, we will not stigmatise them. This will encourage them to accept
their status and if need be they will enroll for ARV therapy.

 It makes them feel accepted

A compassionate attitude makes them feel that other people accept them in spite of their
HIV positive status. Lack of compassion will make them feel like social rejects and it may
make them despair. Their desperation can lead them to risky behaviour such a drug and
alcohol abuse. They may even think of for example, stopping taking their medication,
dropping out of school and committing suicide.

 It boosts their self esteem

Testing HIV positive can lower a person’s self esteem. When people show compassion to
those who are HIV positive, it can boost their self esteem because they will feel that others
still love and value them.

 It may encourage them to join the fight against HIV and AIDS
A compassionate attitude can help those living with HIV to educate others about HIV
prevention and to live positively with the virus.

WAYS IN WHICH HIV POSITIVE PEOPLE ARE TREATED BY DIFFERENT

STRUCTURES

The family

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- They do not stigmatise family members who are HIV positive. They help them continue having
a
Positive attitude towards life.

-they respect their rights to privacy by keeping their HIV positive status confidential.

-when the HIV person is ill, they make sure that they get the care and medical attention they need.

-they do not blame them for becoming infected with HIV. Instead they provide emotional support
and
encourage them to accept their status
.
-they may be accused of becoming infected because they are promiscuous and a disgrace to the
family. As a result, family members may be unwilling to support and care for the relative who is
HIV positive.

-some family members may not respect their relative’s right to privacy and confidentiality by
disclosing their HIV positive status to other people.
-husbands and wives may divorce their spouses or start ill-treating them when their spouses test
HIV positive. This is because the most common way through which HIV is transmitted is through
unprotected sex therefore they will feel that their spouses were unfaithful

Schools

-learners who are HIV positive should be given special care and attention by the school. For
example, through the guidance and counselling department learners are given counselling to help
them cope with their status.

-staff members are required to respect the privacy and confidentiality of the HIV positive status of
learners and other staff members.

-students and members of the staff should be allowed regular checkups. However just like any
other person they are expected to follow all the proper channels of seeking permission.

-learners who are HIV positive have the right to attend school lessons and take part in school
activities like any other learner. They should not be discriminated against. However, just like any
social group, there may be some individuals who discriminate against people that they know are
HIV positive. For example some individuals may:
 not be willing to sit next to someone whom they have heard is HIV positive.

 Disclose the status of the people they know are HIV positive without their consent. This is
violation of the person’s right to privacy.

The work place

- Some employers run wellness programmes which encourage employees to adopt a healthy
lifestyle. Others provide free ARV therapy to their employees who are HIV positive and have
developed AIDS.

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 - Co-workers show kindness and compassion by visiting their colleagues who are hospitalised.
They may contribute money to buy their colleagues some fruits and vegetables
- Some employees may be dismissed from work after disclosing their HIV status to their
employers
- Individual employees may discriminate against those who are HIV positive

Religious groups

- Many religious groups do not discriminate against people who are HIV positive. Followers are
encouraged to treat them with love, compassion and respect.
- They are given emotional and spiritual support. For example they can be prayed for and
encouraged to have faith and to avoid despairing
- They may be given material support, for example religious groups may donate money, food
and clothes to organisations that support HIV positive people.

Clinics and hospitals

- they are given emotional support through counseling

- They are treated with respect. Patients HIV status is kept confidential from other patients
- they are given guidance on how to lead healthy and positive life
- they are given regular medical check ups

INFERTILITY

Infertility is the inability to have children because of the improper functioning of a part of the body of
either a man or a woman.
 Infertility may be a temporary (such as when one is sick) or it can be a permanent problem
when it is congenital, meaning that it is an inborn defect.

FEMALE INFERTILITY
Female infertility is the inability to conceive, or to produce viable eggs that can be fertilised by the
sperm, or the woman’s womb not being able to carry a fertilised egg to a full term. When a woman
cannot bear children, she is said to be infertile.

MALE INFERTILITY

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Male infertility is the inability to induce conception, or to produce enough sperms to fertilise an egg,
usually caused by impotence. Impotence is not being able to have an erection or not being able to
ejaculate.

TRADITIONAL PRACTICES RELATED TO INFERTILITY

 the use of traditional medicine

Traditional doctors give traditional herbs to infertile people in order to make them fertile or to
enable them to carry a pregnancy to full term.

 Polygamy
If a woman was infertile, a husband would marry a second wife with the hope that the second
wife would be able to bear children for the family.

 surrogate motherhood and fatherhood

If a woman was infertile, her younger sister was allowed to have sex with her sister’s husband,
so that she could bear a child for her. When the child was born, the elder sister would adopt the
child and raise it as her own. If it was the man who was infertile, arrangements were made so
that a close older male relative, for example, his older brother could impregnate his wife.
Normally, the arrangement was kept secret.

 adoption
An infertile couple could adopt children of close relatives and raise them as their own.

MODERN PRACTICES RELATED TO INFERTILITY

 surgery
A woman can undergo surgery to correct the blockage of oviducts. However, this may not be
always successful.

 the use of fertility drugs

A woman who does not ovulate can be treated with fertility drugs. The fertility drugs help to
produce hormones that cause ovulation.

 in-vitro fertilisation ( test tube babies)

This is whereby fertilisation takes place in the test tube or a Petri dish. This method is normally
used when blocked oviducts cannot be corrected through surgery. The woman’s ova or eggs
are collected by sucking them through a thin tube. The collected ova are then mixed with the
man’s semen. They are checked through a microscope to check if fertilisation has taken place.

When fertilisation takes place, several zygotes are then inserted into the woman’s uterus
through a test tube. The zygote develops into a foetus. However multiple births can result if all
the zygotes develop. Usually some zygotes are stored and used if the first transplant is not
successful. If it is successful, the remaining zygotes are disposed.

 artificial insemination
Semen is inserted into the woman’s uterus. This method is usually used when the man has a
low sperm count. The sperm may come from the husband if the woman is married, or if the
husband’s sperm are of poor quality, a donor’s sperm may be used. Some single women use
donor sperm if they want to be single mothers.

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 Adoption
An infertile couple may adopt a child. A child can be adopted from within the family or from
an orphanage. Nowadays a formal and legal agreement has to be made and approved by a court
of law.

 Surrogacy
Surrogacy refers to the arrangement in which one woman (surrogate mother) agrees to bear a
child for another woman.

 egg donation
This method is used when a woman has problems with her ovaries and as a result does not
produce eggs or she produces eggs that cannot be fertilised. Another woman may donate eggs
which would be fertilised and implanted in her womb through the in-vitro fertilisation method.

THE MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF SOME PRACTICES RELATED TO

INFERTILITY

 in-vitro fertilisation
 It brings happiness to a childless couple because they can have a biological child
of their own.
 If successful, it can boost the self esteem of a childless couple. Some couples lose
self esteem when they are not able to bear children because in many societies
infertility is stigmatised. People who cannot bear children are ridiculed and even
insulted. They may be called derogatory names. For example, in Setswana terms
such as moopa, setwatwa or moreba are used.
 Multiple births that can result from in-vitro fertilisation can put a strain on the
woman’s body and can also result in emotional depression of having to take care
of many children born at the same time.
 A child born through this method can lose self-esteem and become ashamed
when other people refer to him or her as a test tube baby.
 The remaining zygotes are disposed. People who believe that life starts at
conception consider it as a murder or disrespect for human life because the
zygotes if implanted in the uterus have the potential to grow into a baby.

 Surrogacy
 Some surrogate mothers are paid. This brings up the question of whether it is
morally right or acceptable to buy a baby or to be paid for the use of one’s womb
to carry a baby for someone else.
 The surrogate mother may develop an emotional bond with the unborn baby. As a
result, she may refuse to give up the baby or experience emotional trauma after
she gives away the baby.
 Later on in life, the child may want to know the woman who gave birth to him or
her. This can result in a conflict between the child and his or her parents.

 Adoption
 Through adoption, a childless couple provides a home to a child who could
possibly be homeless.

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  Adoption can boost the self esteem of the childless couple and that of the adopted
child. Some children appreciate having been adopted rather than having to grow
up in an orphanage.
 When an adopted child becomes a problem, it can result in conflict between the
married couple. They can blame each other for coming up with the idea of
adoption.
 In most cases children are adopted when they are babies or are very young. They
cannot give consent to the adoption.
 The family of the adopted child may want their child back later, and this can
result in a conflict between the family which adopted the child and the biological
family or the parents of the child.
 If the child discovers that he or she was adopted, it can create an identity crisis.
The child may want to know who the biological parents or family are, and may
even want to leave the adopted family and return to the biological family.

 artificial insemination
 Since sperm donors may be anonymous, this denies the child the right to know
their biological father.
 The sperm from one donor may be used to impregnate different women. The
children will never know their half brothers and sisters. This may create a risk of
incestuous relationships later on in their lives.

SOCIAL JUSTICE

Social justice is concerned with treating everyone fairly and equally in order to attain social harmony
in society. Social justice therefore involves;
- giving everyone in the society equal rights and opportunities
- allowing everyone equal and fair access to economic resources and the basic needs of life such
as food, shelter, clothes and medical care
- making everyone equal before the law

FAIRNESS

Fairness can be defined as

-treating people justly
-conforming to established rules which give everyone the same treatment and life chances
- It involves treating everyone in the same way.
- Fairness is about being impartial. Being impartial involves making decisions and treating people
based on objective reasons rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice or favoritism for improper
reasons

EXAMPLES OF FAIRNESS

- Fair decisions are made when all family members are treated in the same way. E.g., for example boys
and girls must take turns in cleaning dishes
-providing public toilets not only for able bodied people but also for people with physical disabilities
who are using wheel chairs
-serving food and drinks only to people who have contributed money for the party
-fairness in decision-making prevails when both men and women are given the same treatment. E.g.
Administering corporal punishment to both men and women offenders

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Other examples of fairness include the following
-applying the same punishment to students who have done the same mistake
- avoiding favoritism in class
- applying rules and regulations uniformly on all people

EQUALITY
Equality means treating people in the same way and avoiding any form of discrimination. People
enjoy the same rights and opportunities
- This refers to giving people equal access to rights and opportunities. Equality means there should be
no bias.

SITUATIONS THAT REFLECT EQUALITY

- In Botswana all the learners have a right to have a meal provided by their school at tea and
lunch time. Boarders are also given breakfast and supper
- Requiring that students wear the prescribed school uniform without exception
- Giving the males and females the same education and employment opportunities. For example
in Botswana both males and females can now work underground at the mine and in the army
- All children have a right to go to school regardless of the economic status of their parents
- Everyone in the country is protected by the law regardless of one’s sex, race, ethnic group, or
place of origin

CASES OF UNFAIRNESS AND INEQUALITY IN BOTSWANA AND SOUTH AFRICA

EXAMPLES OF UNFAIRNESS IN BOTSWANA

- in some cultural groups, a widow is expected to wear mourning clothes after the death of her
husband, while a widower does not wear any mourning clothes after the death of his wife
- School textbooks are not written in Braille for visually impaired students, this affects their
learning and they may not perform to their potential.
- Many public buildings do not cater for people with disabilities. For example some schools,
shops , churches do not have ramps for those using wheelchairs

EXAMPLES OF INEQUALITIES IN BOTSWANA

 SUCCESSION TO BOGOSI
Some ethnic groups still do not allow women to inherit chieftainship. If the oldest child is
a female, her oldest younger brother becomes the chief after the death of their father.
 INHERITANCE CUSTOMS
In some ethnic groups, the only or the youngest male child inherits his parents’ home even
if he did not help build the house. Female children even they helped build the house cannot
inherit the property. In most cases, female children do not inherit valuable properties from
their parents. For example they may inherit kitchen utensils and furniture, while the male
children inherit the homestead and livestock

 CUSTOMARY MARRIAGE
The customary law of Botswana allows Polygyny only. Men are allowed to marry as many
wives as they wish at a time. Women are not allowed to marry more than one husband at a
time

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  LEADERSHIP IN SOME RELIGIONS
In some religions, men and women are treated unequally. Women are not allowed to
become religious leaders. For example, in the Roman Catholic Church, women cannot be
priests, bishops, archbishops or become the pope. In Islam, the imams are always male

EXAMPLES OF UNFAIRNESS IN SOUTH AFRICA

Example 1
A company was taken to court by an employee who had been dismissed from his job with the
company. The court decided that the dismissal was not unfair because the employee had already been
given a final warning about his conduct at work. However, the court ruled that what was unfair was
the employer’s refusal to allow the employees lawyer to represent him at the disciplinary hearing. The
employee was entitled to such representation, by a lawyer of his choice. The company was ordered to
pay the employee twelve months salary as compensation.

EXAMPLES OF INEQUALITIES IN SOUTH AFRICA

Examples of inequalities that existed in South Africa during apartheid rule

- Only white people were allowed to vote during general elections to elect the country’s
government, citizens such as blacks, Indians, coloureds and Chinese did not have the right to
vote.
- Unequal distribution of development and wealth. Most of the country’s wealth was used to
develop areas reserved for white people only.
- There are inequalities in the distribution of health services. Some provinces have more doctors
than others. Most urban areas have better services than rural areas
- There are gender inequalities in the work place, for example senior management positions in
big companies and organisations, are held mostly by men not women

ANALYSING INEQUALITIES IN BOTSWANA

Many inequalities in Botswana are as a result of socialization. Socialization means being made to
believe or behave in a certain way.

1. CULTURAL AND POLITICAL INEQUALITIES

Traditionally a woman was not allowed to inherit chieftainship but today they are being supported by
the government and we have women chiefs like Kgosi Seboko of Balete, Kgosi Moremi of Batawana.
We have women in other institutions like Justice Unity Dow who was the first female in High Court,
even in political positions we do have female representation. We also experience a land-right issue
when it comes to the Bushmen. Traditionally they are the hunters and gatherers and live in Kalahari
National Park where they are no built clinics and schools and therefore the government prefer them to
move to villages and also to apply for hunting licenses which the Bushmen find it not their culture.

2. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC INEQUALITY

The society is divided into classes that is those who are rich, the middle class, the poor and those
extremely poor. Those who have more money can afford better schools for their children and those
that are poor theirs are at a disadvantage. The government is however trying to provide education to all
and school fees are kept low. It also helps the poor by providing social welfare and food parcels and
those families that have been affected by AIDS pandemic.

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3. RELIGIOUS FREEDOM AND INEQUALITY
In Botswana freedom of religion is allowed and there are branches of all main religions e.g. islam,
Christianity, Hinduism e.t.c. in some of the religions there are some areas where women and children
are treated unfairly.

THE ROLE OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS IN PROMOTING FAIRNESS AND EQUALITY

Family
 Children who treat each other unfairly are punished or reprimanded
 Adult members of the family act as role models for their children by treating other people
fairly and equally
 Some parents promote fairness by making sure that chores allocated to children are suitable for
their age
 Some parents promote equality by avoiding gender bias when allocating chores to their
children. E.g both ma le and female children are expected to help with the cooking, cleaning
the house, and washing dishes
 Some man make decisions together with their wives in matters concerning their families
 Parents ensure fairness and equality by ensuring that their children have an equal share of
property in their wills

The school
 By teaching learners and fairness and equality and encouraging treating others fairly and
equally. E g in subjects such as Moral Education and Social Studies
 Ensuring all students have equal and fair access to learning resources such as textbooks and
opportunities to develop their talents
 In every class their monitors and prefects who represent the interest of the learners on issues
that affect them
 By ensuring schools rules are obeyed by all students without exception. Punishment for
breaking rules being fair for all.
 By ensuring all students wear school uniform

Religions
 By teaching followers to treat other fairly and equally
 Religions preach against discrimination, especially of vulnerable people such as the children,
the poor and the disabled. They encourage people to respect others
 As a way of promoting gender equality some religion groups accept women as religious
leaders

The kgotla
 Through kgotla meeting members of the community are encouraged to treat each other fairly
and equally and not violate the rights of others
 To promote fairness, before disputes are settled, every person is given a fair hearing. a person
has a right to appeal to a high court if he or she is unhappy with the judgment
 Both males and females are allowed to attend kgotla meetings
 In order to promote fairness, all people are allowed to voice their views during kgotla
meetings

ANALYSING DICTATORSHIP IN SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

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Dictatorship refers to the act of exercising complete powers over people and forcefully telling them
what to do.

1. FAMILY
- Husbands may make decisions concerning family matters without consulting their wives and except
their wife’s to accept the decisions without complaining or disagreeing. They may even indicate that
their decisions are final.
- A mother in-law dictating to a daughter in law how she should care for her children
- Parents choosing a husband or wife for their son or daughter. Some may refuse their son’s or
daughter’s choice of marriage partner.
- choosing for a spouse, who they should be friends with and who they should not be friends with
without any explanation. The spouse is not allowed to question the decision.

2. THE SCHOOL
- School management making or changing rules without consulting parents, staff members and
students
- scheduling study time over the weekend and insisting that all students attend even if they have good
reasons for not being able to do so.

3. RELIGION/CHURCH
- In some religions, followers are expected to follow their leaders without question e.g they are not
allowed to question how money collected for religious purposes is being spent.
- Some religious leaders indicate how members of the religious group should live their lives

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PRINCIPLE OF FAIRNESS AND EQUALITY IN MORAL

DECISION MAKING

FAIRNESS AS A MORAL PRINCIPLE

Avoiding discrimination should be a principle when making moral decisions. Moral decision refers to
good and fair decisions
Fairness and equality are important in moral decision for the following reasons. The decision would;
 Be accepted by many people because it is likely to be based on good reasons
 Not cause conflicts and misunderstanding between people because it will promote peace and
harmony
 Not promote favouritism and any form of discrimination and would benefit all people
regardless of sex, skin colour, race or age
 Promote trust among people
 Help leaders gain respect from other people
 Promote respect for human rights because fairness and equality are fundamental values on
which human rights are based

MORAL ISSUES ARISING FROM THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

1. ABORTION
Most social institutions believe that the rights of the unborn baby should be protected than protecting
of the mother. That is why abortion is illegal in Botswana. Those people deciding the laws in the
government are those who have grown up in social institutions. If people feel that made laws are
unfair the government will listen to the complaints of the people and amendments are to be made.

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There are situations where abortion can be accepted e.g. rape, incest, pregnancy threatening the life of
the mother. Sometimes people believe that to commit abortion is a personal choice and some may
differ.

Churches are anti-abortion. The religious beliefs of families may lead them to socialize their individual
members to accept that life is sacred and abortion is therefore morally wrong. In such families when a
teenager falls pregnant, even if the parents are angry they would not allow their child to have an
abortion

Schools teach students about the consequences of abortion, the different views and beliefs on abortion
and the moral implications of abortion. This may influence the student’s views on abortion

2. PROSTITUTION
Many societies believe that prostitution is illegal and morally wrong. People believe it impurifies the
human body. People tend to practice prostitution for various reasons e.g. lack of money, food, and
employment. Family, community and schools can influence issues of prostitution. If one gets enough
education and gain skills he will have the chances to get a job. Providing alternatives to work in sex
industries is an impossible issue not only for the individual but also for the whole society why because
prostitutes have multiple sexual partners. They are at risk of STD’s that they can pass to those
uninfected.

3. THE USE OF CONTRACEPTION

Most religions accept the use of birth control methods especially for married couples, however
some religious churches such as the roman catholic are against any form of contraception because they
belief that sex is for procreation not just for enjoyment. Therefore the followers may be influenced by
these teachings and may decide to or not to use contraception

So families may also be influenced by these religious so may therefore decide to or not to use
contraception, however some families may use them as a human right issue.Teachings of
comprehensive sex education in schools on subjects such as Moral Education, Guidance and
Counseling etc influences teenagers who are unable to abstain to consider the use of contraception.
The knowledge the students acquires may influence their decision on whether to use contraceptives or
not

4. CAPITAL PUNISHMENT
It is condemned by most religions, they believe it violates a persons right to life and is cruel, inhuman
and an act of revenge. It violates the teaching of ‘thou shall not kill’. Generally religions are against
violence and do not support capital punishment because it involves violence
The school promotes awareness of capital punishment as a human rights issue. Learners are taught
about views and beliefs held by other people and different organization and these influences the
learner’s views and opinions about capital punishment

6. SUICIDE
Religion considers suicide as a morally wrong thing because life is considered sacred. Those who
commit suicide are considered to be committing a sin. This religious belief may influence the
followers attitude towards suicide and those who attempt to commit it. Families influence its members
to avoid suicide through religious beliefs and teachings of moral values such as respect or life

MORAL ISSUES RELATED TO A SOCIAL INSTITUTION

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1. ISSUE OF BIRTH CONTROL IN ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
Roman Catholic Church is against the use of birth control methods except the natural ones e.g. the
rhythm method, which are not reliable. Government and the community are concerned about the issue
of over population. The more people born the lesser the resources to sustain their well being. Smaller
families are easier to maintain. Catholic families have large numbers because they are forbidden to use
contraceptives, this put pressure on the community resources. The moral dilemma that faces the
catholic is whether to follow teachings of the church or follow the advice about family planning
brought through community health programmes.

2. POLYGAMY IN AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION AND THE AFRICAN

INDEPENDENT CHURCH
Churches preach that polygamy is morally wrong; they believe that a man should only marry one wife
and be faithful to her. However in African tradition polygamy was part of African life and regarded as
valuable and customary. The moral dilemma we see here is not only between clashing of traditionally
permission of polygamy and Christian condemnation of polygamy but also between the teachings of
the different churches. Some churches agree with polygamy therefore it can be thought of as moral or
immoral depending on the background of the church

3. FORMS OF PUNISHMENT AS PRACTICED IN ISLAMIC STATES (SHARIA LAW)

Sharia law is a sacred law of Islam. What people do and is expected from them is specified in the law.
e.g. if you are caught with alcohol you are punished by whipping, repeated theft one is cut four fingers
of the right hand, capital offences include political, crimes, murder and drug smuggling . Why these
punishment are administered Muslims they violate the sacredness of something. In other faiths, these
punishments are seen as evil and cruel because they are irreversible. Some Muslims are caught in a
dilemma to choose between holy law of tradition and their preference for more humane secular law.

4. THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE IN INDIA

In India in the past a widow was to stand be buried with her dead husband. His body will be will be burnt to
ashes together with the living body of his body. Some are burnt with their possessions with the believe to
uphold his duties in the next world. To show a bond to marriage a wife was to commit a painful suicide to
honour the dead man

CITIZENSHIP

The status gives one the entitlement to legal protection by the laws of a country.
- The state of having full rights as a member of a country; either by birth or law
A citizen is-
- An inhabitant of a country
-a member of a nation
-a person belonging to a certain country

WAYS OF ATTAINING CITIZENSHIP IN BOTSWANA

BIRTH
If the person was born in Botswana and both the parents are Batswana

BY DECENT
If one was born in Botswana but both or one of the parents is a Motswana

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ADOPTION
If a non citizen child of not more than three years of age is adopted by a Motswana parent, the child
may be granted citizenship

REGISTRATION
A person who can become a citizen by registration is a foreigner who is granted citizenship by the
president as an honour for having worked hard and shown high commitment and loyalty to Botswana

BY NATURALISATION
If a person has lived in Botswana for attleast ten years may apply for citizenship. But a person who is
married to a citizen of Botswana, may apply after living in Botswana for attleast five years

BY SETTLEMENT
A person who settled in Botswana before its independence in 30th September 1966 and have lived in
Botswana as a member of a particular tribe and community, shall if they so wish, make a declaration
as prescribed and become a citizen of Botswana

RESPONSIBILITIES

 take part in developing his/her country socially, economically and politically

 take part in crime prevention and protect public property
 Participate in national activities, e.g. aids campaigns, litter picking, national tree planting day,
elections, referendum etc.
 work hard to uphold the national principles
 uphold the country’s constitution and obey the laws of the country
 defending their country against enemies

CIVIL RIGHTS
These are the entitlements that one has because of being a citizen of a particular country. They are
drawn up and provided by the government
The difference between civil rights and natural rights is that natural rights are common to every human
being just for being human, whereas civil rights are specific to citizens of a particular country.

MORAL DUTIES OF A CITIZEN

Moral duties are obligations to show good and desirable conduct and abide by the laws of the society.
E.g.
-taking part in developing the country
-abiding by the rules of a country
-taking part in public affairs
-respecting other peoples rights
-taking part in national services
-challenging unjust laws and influencing their amendments

HOW DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES AFFECT CITIZENS IN THEIR DAILY LIVES

a) the responsibility to uphold the constitution helps a person to live a judicial and upright life,
with few crimes or offences
b) the responsibility to defend ones country makes one eligible for military or national service
c) the responsibility to participate in public activities can make people play a meaningful role in
nation building activities, for example Tirelo Sechaba

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 d) the ability to promote the country’s national principles may make people initiate development
projects to be self reliant leading to a spirit of cooperation
e) the responsibility to protect public property from damage and misuse can assist organisations
like crime prevention units and the department of wildlife
f) The responsibility to contribute towards the economic, social and political development of a
country can lead to business enterprise, political activism etc.

TRADITIONS AND THE LAW

Tradition is the passing of beliefs and custom from one generation to the other.

LOCAL AND NATIONAL TRADITIONS

LOCAL NATIONAL
Proverbs Currency
Values National flag
Totems Constitution
Taboos Coat of arms
Riddles National anthem

ROLES OF THE TRADITIONS

1. TABOO (MEILA)
They are meant to ensure the security for people as well as to protect the welfare of the individuals and
the community at large.
The taboos safeguard or protect the secrets of the community to be exposed to other people of a
different community;
They also encourage and discourage certain types of behaviour of the community members.

2. RIDDLES (DITLHAMALAKANE)
They are used to improve the thinking skills and logic of the people
-they are educational.
-They used as a form of entertainment thus keeping youngsters busy and free from danger.
-Riddles illustrate aspects of particular tradition in an area where people are locate
-they provide powerful moral lessons to individuals.

3. TOTEMS (DIRETO)
They are used by people as an identity for their tribe
- give people pride.
- provide peace and harmony amongst people.

4. PROVERBS (DIANE)
They teach people morality,
-they encourage moral values such as respect and cooperation
-they reinforce customs and traditions.

5. NATIONAL FLAG

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It gives the nation an identity and gives the people pride of their country. It strengthens unity amongst
the people of a country as they will be abiding to a common flag.

6. CONSTITUTION
It encourages peace and harmony amongst people; it ensures that everyone’s rights are respected as
well as laying the basic rules and freedoms which people are entitled to.

THE ROLE OF TRADITION IN GOVERNING HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

o Tradition guide and control human behaviour. They guide people’s behaviour and conduct
by telling them what to do and not what not to do. E.g. through taboos and proverbs. It is a
taboo to eat ones totem, as a result people will be careful to avoid eating their totem.
o Some traditions encourage good behaviour and discourage bad behaviour. E.g. bogwera
and bojale teach young people how to behave in morally right ways in the community
o National traditions encourage people to be patriotic. National traditions such as respect for
National symbols and celebration of important political holidays encourage citizens to love
and be loyal to the country
o Traditions unite people; both local and national tradition can unite people. E.g. the singing
of the national anthem, wearing the national colours and coming together for patlo and
bogadi can create a sense of unity among people
o Traditions promote peace and social harmony and cooperation in society. Forms of
cooperation such as majako, mafias,molaletsa and motshelo encourage people to help each
other. This in turn promotes peace, kagisano and cooperation among people

DIFFERENTIATING BETWEEN RULES AND LAWS

Rules are statements of what can and cannot be done in a particular circumstance e.g.
- do not litter
- keep left past right
- Speed limit 60km/h
- do not use vulgar language

Laws are the rules supported by the power of government to control the behaviour of the citizen’s e.g.
- No one should murder
- do not drink and drive
- do not give false information.

RULES IN INSTITUTIONS

FAMILY RULES
 Do not come home from playing or visiting friends after dark
 Always wash your hands before and after eating
 Do not use vulgar language
 Do the chores assigned to you on time
 Respect your elders

SCHOOL RULES
 All students should be punctual to school
 All students should wear proper school uniform

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  The use of vulgar language is not allowed within the school premises
 No weapons and sharp objects such as knives are allowed in school
 Students should respect other students and all members of staff

HOSPITAL RULES
 Visitors should adhere to the visiting times
 Children below age of 12 are not allowed to visit patients
 Switch off cellphones when you are in the consultation room
 Visitors are not allowed to eat in the wards
 The hospital shall not be held responsible for the loss of valuable property belonging to the
patients

SOME LAWS GOVERNING BOTSWANA

 Marriage laws- govern registration of marriages, making an oath in marriage and any
matter concerning marriage
 Citizenship laws- governs how one becomes a citizen of Botswana
 Consumer protection law- protects the rights of consumers
 Domestic violence law- protect victims of domestic violence
 Corruption and economic crime law-
 Adoption of children- the law sets out the procedures for adoption

HOW CHANGE IN MORAL PERCEPTION AFFECTS THE LAW

1. AMMENDING THE LAW/ CHANGE IN LAW

Sometimes made laws loose their status because we are living in a changing world, e.g. in the past
polygamy was practiced and accepted but nowadays it is discouraged due to many factors including
the issue of HIV/AIDS.

2. REIN-FORCEMENT OF THE LAW

Some laws when being amended they need to be reinforced to make people see the seriousness of what
is entailed. Some crimes such as those of rape, abortion and murder they need to be looked into and
their sentence should be made in such a way that people would refrain from doing such crimes.

3. ABOLISHMENT OF LAWS
Sometimes laws that have been made long time back may loose their importance as they may address
issues that no longer taking place or happening so they need to be terminated or stopped to be on use.

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 CRIME
Crime can be defined as
- An act punishable by law
- An action forbidden by the law
- An activity which breaks the law and is a subject to official punishment

TYPES OF CRIME
-Offences against property- theft, burglary, house breaking
- Offences against public, disorder, nuisance, insulting behaviour
- Offences against the road traffic act- dangerous driving, over speeding
- Offences against morality- rape, bestiality
- Offences against persons- murder, assault, abuse

CAUSES OF CRIME
- Poverty and Unemployment-
Some people may commit crime because they are very poor and have no means of earning a living.
E.g. they may engage in criminal acts such as stealing and receiving stolen goods in order to earn
money or to acquire items they need to support themselves

- Greed
Some people want more money and property than they actually need or can afford. As a result they
engage in crime in order to try and satisfy their desire to acquire as much money and property as
possible

- peer pressure
Some people especially young people may engage in criminal activities such as theft and robbery
because of peer pressure from their friends.

- Unfair and unequal distribution of wealth in society

If in a country, wealth is distributed unfairly or unequally, this can result in a very wide income gap
between the rich and the poor. This also creates a gap in developments between different parts of the
country/. Some areas will have more developments, while other areas have few developments and
limited employment opportunities. Some people may end up committing crimes in order to also
benefit from the wealth of the country.

Alcohol and drug abuse

Some people commit crime while under the influence of alcohol or illegal drugs. For example they
might fight with others; commit rape, murder, and manslaughter. Others may steal in order to have
money to buy alcohol or illegal drugs
Other causes may include the following
- experimenting
- testing the enforcement of the law
- mental illness
- poor and irresponsible parenting

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EFFECTS OF CRIME TO THE CRIMINAL

-LOSS OF LIFE
The victim can kill a criminal during the time of the crime as a way of self-defense and to defend his
belonging, Or may be sentenced to death as a punishment. E.g. in Botswana where capital punishment
is practiced, a murderer can be sentenced to death

-LOSS OF EMPLOYMENT AND EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES

When one has been involved in a crime and end up being caught he or she may end up being found
guilty and be chased from the employment. Job seekers who have criminal records often find it
difficult to get jobs because of potential employers do not trust them

-LOSS OF DIGNITY
A criminal may lose dignity or his worthy when he is caught in an act of crime. If he was a well
known somebody people will turn to discriminate towards him.

-LOSS OF PROPERTY
The criminal can loose her property when caught in act of crime so her belongings can be re-possessed
to be sold in order to repay those who she stole from.

-RISK OF BECOMING INFECTED WITH STI’S

Rapists who do not use condoms can become infected with STI’S such as HIV

-LOSS OF FREEDOM
All crimes are punishable by the law. A person suspected of committing crime can be arrested and
tried in a court of law. If found guilty he or she cab be punished by being imprisoned. Imprisonment
involves the loss of freedom.

-PERMANENT INJURIES
When caught in an act of crime such as theft and robbery, a criminal may be injured by the criminal.
The victim may shoot him/her in self defence. Some people who commit crimes such as shoplifting or
mug people in public places are beaten by members of the public and as a result they may sustain
permanent injuries

EFFECTS OF CRIME TO THE VICTIM

-LOSS OF LIFE
Victims of murder loose their life’s. Other violent crimes such as robbery, assault and battery can
result in loss of the victim’s life

-PERMANENT DISABILITY
Some crimes such as robbery and rape involve the use of violence. The criminal may cause permanent
injuries to the victim while committing the crime. For example the criminal may stab or shoot the
victim resulting in the victim becoming paralysed

-LOSS OF SELF ESTEEM

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Crimes such as rape, defilement, assault can damage the victim’s self esteem and self confidence. The
loss of self esteem may be due to the feeling of embarrassment, helplessness and fear of stigmatization
for what happened to them. The crime may make them feel devalued and worthless

-SPREAD OF DISEASES
Victims of rape and defilement can become infected with sexually transmitted infection such as HIV.
This can affect their health badly

-MAY EXPERIENCE ECONOMIC DRAW BACK

Victims of criminal activities such as theft robbery and fraud can experience an economic draw back
as a result of loosing their hard earned money or property to the criminals

-SUFFER LONG LIFE FEAR AND DEPRESSION

This can happen to victims of criminal activities such as rape defilement and kidnapping

-LOSS OF TRUST IN OTHER PEOPLE

Victims of crimes such as theft, rape, defilement and kidnapping may loose trust in other people. Some
crimes are committed by people who the victims know as a result, they may find it difficult to trust
people around them.

MORAL IMPLICATIPONS OF CRIME

 Crime is considered anti-social and immoral behaviour because it violates the rights of the
victim to be safe and secure, to privacy and to their property. People live in fear to become
victims of crime
 Crime destroys trust, unity and the spirit of Botho among people. People do not know whom to
trust and this can discourage from helping others.
 Crime tarnishes the images of families and the whole country, even if it is only some of its
members who are criminals
 Crime can hinder the existence of peace and harmony in the society and make the society an
unsafe place to live in.
 Crime can lead to some members of society benefit unfairly from a country’s resources and
wealth. E.g. through corruption, some people acquire a lot of land while others have none

ECONOMIC CRIME

Economic crime is any act of gaining wealth illegally for oneself, an organization or a company and
results in a financial loss to the victim

EXAMPLES OF ECONOMIC CRIME

1. FRAUD
Fraud is the act of intentionally deceiving other people in order to obtain their money or property.
Facts are deliberately misinterpreted to mislead a victim. E.g.
 Forgery or counterfeiting
 False pretences- involve a person pretending to have certain qualities and abilities that they do
not have. E.g. using faked or altered certificates to gain admission into an educational
institution or to obtain employment.

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  Embezzlement- is taking money or property entrusted to one’s care, custody, or control
without permission, and using one’s benefit. E.g a finance officer who receives money for the
organization she works for and then deposits the money in his or her personal account or uses it
for his or her own personal benefit

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF FRAUD

 Fraud is considered immoral because it involves lying and dishonesty
 Trust is an important part of good relationships between people. Fraud destroys trust
people have in one another. E.g. when employees commit fraud they breach the trust
between them and the employers
 Fraudsters can loose the respect of relatives, friends, colleagues at work and other
people in the community
 Victims of fraud may seek revenge and this may lead to conflict in the community
 Fraud can cause physical injury or kill victims. Eg counterfeit medicine can kill people

2. TAX EVASION

- it is an illegal practice whereby a person, an organization or a company intentionally does not

pay, any tax or the correct amount of tax due.

MORAL IMPLICATIONS
- It is considered morally wrong because it involves being untruthful and dishonest
- It violates moral values of fairness and justice. People who deliberately evade paying tax place
a greater and unfair burden on honest tax payers.
- It violates the standard of morally acceptable conduct in the society because it involves
abandoning one’s civil responsibility. It results in loss of income for the government and this
can threaten its ability to develop the country and provide services that benefit the whole
country.

3. CUSTOMS DUTY EVASION

- It is the practice of deliberately not declaring, declaring false values, or wrongly classifying
imported goods or services in order not to pay any duty or to reduce the amount of duty to0 pay

MORAL IMPLICATIONS
- It is considered morally wrong because it involves being untruthful and dishonest
- It violates moral values of fairness and justice. People who deliberately evade paying duty on
imported goods and services places an unfair tax burden on people who honestly declare the
value of their imported goods and services
- It violates society standards of morally acceptable conduct, because it violates the principle of
social responsibility. It results in loss of income for the government and this can threaten its
ability to develop the country and provide services

4.MONEY LAUNDERING
- Is the process by which money obtained illegally, is made to appear to have been earned
legally. This is done by hiding its original illegal source and legitimizing it for future use. This
makes it difficult to trace the original source of the money

MORAL IMPLICATIONS
- Money laundering is considered morally wrong because it involves being dishonest and
benefiting from money obtained illegally, and usually from criminal activities

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 - It can tarnish the image of a country and its financial institutions. This can result in loss of
investor confidence
- Money laundering is considered immoral conduct in the society because it violates the civic
responsibility people have to obey and uphold the law

CORRUPTION

It is an illegal action that benefits an individual, organization or company financially or materially

BRIBERY
- The practice of offering or asking somebody for money or other incentives to do something
dishonest or illegal.

MORAL IMPLICATIONS

- Bribery benefits the individual official at the expense of the organization or the nation he or
she is employed to serve
- Bribery can increase the cost of doing business in a country because extra money has to be paid
to the officials. This can have a negative impact on the economy of the country
- Bribery can result in low productivity because officials will not perform their duties unless
they are bribed
- Bribery makes the public loose trust in the government or an organization because of officials
who take bribes.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST
Conflict of interest is a clash between the public and private interest of somebody in an official
position and involved in making decisions for an organization, a company or the government

MORAL IMPLICATIONS

- A person with a conflict of interest not makes just and fair decisions. They may want to favour
themselves or their relatives and friends
- The public can loose confidence and trust in the process of decision making of the organization
or government
- Individuals who do not disclose conflict of interest, may benefit themselves or their relatives
and friends unfairly and unjustly from the decisions and activities of the organization and the
government at the expense of the greater good of the organization or the country

POSSESION OF UNEXPLAINED PROPERTY

- It refers to having money or property that is above one’s known sources of income or assets.

MORAL IMPLICATIONS

- if offenders are not punished by the government, it may encourage others to engage in crime
and corruption in order to acquire the same kind of wealth
- some people may begin to feel resentful or jealous of people with unexplained property
- it may make people fearful of people with unexplained property and they may not want to
associate with them because they suspect that they acquired the property through illegal means.
E.g. selling drugs or robbery

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VIOLENCE

 Violence is physical force used to hurt or harm somebody.

 Violence means to ill-treat or abuse some one using physical force.
This may result in injuring or hurting people, destruction of property and violation of law.

TYPES OF VIOLENCE

Physical violence
It is the use of ones hands or an object to cause physical pain or injury. It involves actions such as
punching, kicking, hitting, slapping, pulling hair, pouring hot liquid over someone and burning
someone

Sexual violence
Sexual violence involves use of physical force to make another person engage in sexual activities
against their wish or without their consent e.g. cases of rape. Rapists may use victims as their sex tools
(use them any how). This kind of violence may lead to injury, HIV/AIDS, unwanted pregnancies and
also inability to have a long term relationship. However sexual violence also includes situation such as
using force to kiss someone, or to touch their breasts, buttocks and genitals

Domestic violence
This is a form of violence which takes place in the home. It involves different kinds of abuse between
family members. For example, spouses who beat their partners at home and children who are
deliberately hurt by their parents or care takers.

Social violence
Social violence is the type of violence that occurs in the society e.g. robbery, burglary, rape, murder
and others.

Political violence
Political violence refers to the use of physical force against people to achieve a political objectives or
goals. it is the type of violence that result in issues such as when one group tries to impose their beliefs
or views unto other people. , war, injuries, assassination and other related brutal acts. It involves
beating up people murder rape and torture in order to force them to vote for a particular political party
or because of disputes over election results.

Religious violence
Religious violence happens as a result of religious reasons. People can fight because of intolerance.
This is a situation where religions do not accept others or when they speak bad thing about others
religious beliefs.

CAUSES OF VIOLENCE

Poverty and unemployment

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Lack of money can make people to be violent as they will be bitter about their lives. Others will be
having no money to buy food and they take people’s belongings by force

Media influence
When some people see violent acts on television or doing certain things they just copy such behaviour.
The viewers end up committing such acts of violence shown on television.

Socialization from a violent family

When children grow up in a violent family they tend to grow up with that behaviour and see it as
normal. If parents always fight in presence of children, the children may think that the proper way of
resolving conflict is through fighting

Peer pressure
Some people become violent as a result of being influenced by their age mates. E.g. young people may
influence others to belong to violent gangs and to go around beating and terrorizing other people in the
communities

Excessive use of substance

Some people become violent as a result of substance or drug abuse since they will be under the
influence of such substances.

Selfishness and greed

If a person is selfish or greedy s/he can cause violence since s/he may want to have everything to
themselves. Sometimes this can happen when there is some property of the deceased relatives which is
supposed to be shared among siblings or relatives.

EFFECTS OF VIOLENCE ON THE;

1. VICTIM
- Loss of life
Violence may lead to loss of life because it involves the use of physical force. the death of the victim
may be caused intentionally or unintentionally
- Physical injuries
Violence often results in physical injuries. Some of the injuries can lead to permanent disabilities. E.g.
loss of teeth, eye, ear or limbs. A person can become paralysed for life
- Transmission of STI’S and other diseases
Sexual violence can result in a victim becoming infected with infections such as HIV, syphilis or
gonorrhea. A female victim may even fall pregnant as a result of having been raped and this may force
her to have an abortion
-Emotional stress
The experience of violence may lead to depression and feelings of anger, guilt, humiliation and
resentment. This can affect the victims’ mental health negatively
- Fear
Victims of violence live in fear of the perpetrator of violence against them. They will not feel safe or
secure wherever they are, e.g. at school, home and at work. Living in constant fear of being attacked
can affect a person’s self confidence and ability to live a normal life.
- Some will be depressed, have mental disturbance and think of committing suicide so as to be free
from violence.
- Loss of self esteem.

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The victim of violence may loose self esteem and may no longer feel good about himself or herself.
E.g. victims of rape may have a low self esteem

2. EFFECTS ON THE PERPETRATOR

- may result in imprisonment
Violent acts such as murder, assault and rape are punishable by the law. A perpetrator can be arrested
and if found guilty by a court can be imprisoned as punishment

- Loss of life
A perpetrator may be killed during the course of committing violent acts. E.g. a victim of violence
may kill him or here in self defence. If the perpetrator is found guilty of murder, he or she can be
sentenced to death.

- Physical injuries
Violence often results in physical injuries. Some of the injuries can lead to permanent disabilities. E.g.
loss of teeth, eye, ear or limbs. A person can become paralysed for life

- The perpetrator may be stigmatized

Members of the community will have a negative attitude towards him or her because violence is
considered morally unacceptable conduct. Violence is regarded as a shameful behaviour

- Loss of respect
Violence is regarded as morally unacceptable behaviour. People who are violent are normally not
respected by other people. E.g. a man who physically abuses his wife may loose the respect from his
children, friends and neighbours

3. FAMILY
 Domestic violence may lead to family breakdown. This may lead to children and spouse
running way from home in order to escape from suffering.
 Children may run away from home and end up being street kids and they may resort to crime
as way of surviving.
 If parents die in the act of violence children will become orphans.
 Children become bitter and want to revenge when one of their family members is disabled or
loose life due to violence.
 Violence breed violence; being socialized in a violent environment may lead to children
being violent since children learn through imitating what people do.
 If children were abused sexually they may not want to be involved or form healthy
relationships in future.

4. SOCIETY

 Under development; if there is violence in the society e.g. political violence involving war,
property may be damaged hence this would be costly to repair damage property or replace it
and also people will be scared to take part in development activities.

 Low production; as people die due to violence, both unskilled and skilled personnel/labour
would be lost hence there will be less production which may lead to down fall of the economy.

 Lower economic growth; violence may lower the economic growth as investors will not come
to the country. When public property is damaged as a result of the violent acts such as riots,

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 money that could have been used for other developments, has to be spent fixing or replacing
the damaged or destroyed property

 Refugee problem; as there is violence in the society, many people may leave their homes or
country to find safety in other countries. This leads family breakdown.

 Displacement from settlements; political violence may result in people being chased away
from their homes; this may lead to poverty as their property will be taken or left behind.
 Ill health; violence may lead to diseases in the society as people may be crowded in refugee
camps. This may also lead to water borne diseases as sometimes they may be chased to
unhygienic environment.

 Street kids; children may decide to run away from home to be street kids to escape from
violence. The society will be burdened with taking care of them.

POSSIBLE RESPONSES TO VIOLANCE

1. VIOLENT RESPONSE
This means meeting violence with violence. If someone have been violent on to you, you are going to
revenge to him through violence. E.g. a person who is battered by a spouse may decide to fight back or
a country may decide to fight back when attacked. There is a saying that goes “an eye for an eye “or
“violence breeds violence”.

2. PACIFISM
It means solving the differences in a peaceful way without using any violent means. Mahatma Gandhi
used to say ‘an eye for an eye and soon we shall perish’. If people are having problems, they have to
solve them through discussions.

3. NEGOTIATION
It is another means of responding to violence whereby people meet and discuss their differences and
end up reaching a common agreement to solve their differences. Negotiation often involves both sides
in a dispute accepting less than what they originally wanted.

4. MEDIATION
When people fight against each other, an individual or a group of people who are not involved in the
conflict can be asked to mediate in order to end the violence. Mediators are not supposed to take sides.
Their role is to end the conflict peacefully. E.g. in most cultures when a married couple fight, normally
their parents or close relatives act as mediators to encourage them to resolve their conflicts peacefully.

5. SURRENDERING TO AVOID CONFLICT

Some people respond to violence by surrendering or giving into a violent person or situation in order
to avoid conflict. This kind of response is sometimes is referred to as ‘turning the other cheek’ e.g.
men and women who are victims of domestic violence may remain in a violent relationship and even
blame themselves for the behaviour of the abuser

6. WALK OR RUN AWAY

Some people respond to violence by walking away or running away from a violent person or situation.
E.g. in war torn countries people run away and seek refuge in other countries. In cases of domestic
violence a person can leave the home, and seek refuge with relatives, friends or organizations that help
abused people

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 CRIMES RELATED TO SEXUAL PRACTICES

- Killing or threats to kill a lover

Killing or threats to kill another person, including a sexual partner is considered a crime in most
countries including Botswana.

- Rape
Rape is forcing someone to have sexual intercourse against his or her will. Being in a sexual
relationship does not give one the right to force one’s partner to have sexual intercourse

- Defilement
Defilement is having a sexual relationship with any person under the age of 16. if a person is found
guilty of defilement the penalty is a minimum of 10 years and maximum of life imprisonment

- Homosexuality
Means being sexually attracted to people of the same sex, men are usually attracted to other men, and
women are sexually attracted to other women.

- Incest
Incest refers to sexual activity between family members who are closely related by blood, for example,
brothers and sisters, parents and children. According to the law in Botswana, incest is having sexual
intercourse with someone who is one’s grandchild, child, brother, sister or parent.

- Bigamy
In Botswana people who are married under civil marriage laws can only have one living husband or
wife at a time. If a person while still having a living husband or wife marries someone else under civil
marriage law, they are guilty of the offence called bigamy

- Domestic violence
In Botswana, the domestic violence act of 2008 deals with violence in sexual relationships. e.g.
between couple that is married, cohabiting or dating. This act considers any abusive behaviour that
harms the health or safety of one’s sexual partner as a crime

REASONS WHY LOVERS KILL EACH OTHER

Selfishness
Some people are selfish and only think about themselves and their needs. They do not have empathy
for others and are usually inconsiderate of the needs of others. E.g. when the lover of a selfish person
decides to end the sexual relationship, he or she may feel rejected and decide to kill the ex lover.

Unfaithfulness and suspicion of unfaithfulness

In sexual relationships, most people expect their partners to be faithful. If one partner is unfaithful or
suspected to be unfaithful, his or her lover may become bitter and have feelings of extreme jealousy,
insecurity, anger, humiliation and loss of dignity. if these feelings are not controlled and dealt with
properly they can result in person killing their lover as personal revenge.

Obsessive possessiveness

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Possessiveness is a believe that one has to own something or someone as a possession and feeling that
one cannot function without it or them. Possessiveness can become an obsession which may lead to
unreasonable behaviour and may result in some people killing their lovers.

Economic reasons
Some people kill their lovers when their lovers want to end the sexual relationship because they feel
that they have spent a lot of money on them. Usually lovers spend money on each other.

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF KILLING A LOVE PARTNER

- killing ones lover is a violation of the dead person’s right to life

- killing a love partner violates morally acceptable ways of dealing with problems in
relationships, especially intimate relationships and of expressing our discontent or unhappiness
with our lovers

- Killing a love partner violates our understanding of what love is. It is betrayal of the trust the
partner had in the person they were having or had an intimate relationship with

- The love partner who is killed may the mother or father of a child or children the couple had
together. This can be emotionally traumatic and can also put the children in a moral dilemma.
They do not know whether to love and trust the parent who committed the crime.

- It can break up family relationships because the dead person’s family will always blame and
even hate the killer for the loss of their loved one

WAYS OF CURBING CRIMES RELATED TO SEXUAL RELATIONSHIPS

Enforcing laws
The police should enforce laws by quickly arresting people who threaten their sexual partners. The
threats should never be treated as a private matter. There are laws that make certain behaviour illegal.
E.g. domestic violence act of 2008 makes it illegal to intimidate, harass, damage property, stalk and
abuse a sexual abuse.

Punishing people who commit crimes against their sexual partners

All crimes are punishable by the law, people who commit crimes against their sexual partners should
be tried in court of law and if found guilty, they should be punished according to the law
Obtaining a restraining order
People who are being threatened or abused by their sexual partners can apply to court of law for an
order stopping their lover from threatening or abusing them
Counseling
Partners can go for counseling in order to find ways to solve their problems peacefully. E.g. they can
be taught conflict resolution skills and interpersonal and coping skills
Infusion in school curriculum
Teaching learners about why it is wrong to commit crimes related to sexual relationships and how to
deal with problems that may arise in their interpersonal relationships may help them to avoid engaging
in crimes related to sexual relationships

Public education

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People can be educated on how to deal with problems which may occur in relationships which could
lead to crimes involving sexual partners, e.g. through drama performances at public events and the
mass media

PUNISHMENT

 This is the disciplinary action against somebody who has broken the law or committed an
offence.
 Punishment can be seen as a penalty given to an offender or someone who has done wrong.

TYPES OF PUNISHMENT

 Fine; the offender pays a certain amount specified by the court as a form of punishment.
 Imprisonment; this means keeping someone in a correctional institution for a period of time
in such a way that s/he may not interact with the public for a certain period of time.
 Probation: this is when a criminal usually a first time offender is let off but warned. The
offender is placed under official supervision for a period of time not to repeat the same
criminal activities.
 Manual labour; this involves giving an offender physical work for a period of time e.g.
cutting grass
 Corporal punishment; this involves giving an offender who has been found guilty of breaking
rules or laws some strokes/lashes (i.e.) whipping
 Capital punishment; this involves sentencing a criminal to death.
 Community arrest/service; this is when an offender has to work for period of time helping in
community projects or facilities.
 House arrest; this is when people are confined to their houses. This is often used on political
prisoners of high social status.
 Expulsion; being forced to leave the place or an institution as a form of punishment.
 Compensation; the offender pays the equal financial loss to the victim.

MORAL ISSUES RELATING TO PUNISHMENT

- does the punishment fit the crime

A generally accepted principle of justice is that the punishment should fit the crime. This means
more serious offences should be punished more severely than minor offences. This is seen as just
and fair and therefore morally right.

- is the punishment cruel, abusive, inhuman or degrading

punishment is considered cruel, abusive, inhuman and degrading punishment if it involves
deliberately causing loss of dignity, damaging a persons physical and mental health and inflicting
severe pain and suffering on a person. Eg. When a person is beaten until he/she faints

- does the punishment violate human rights

Some types of punishment are believed to violate human rights of the people being punished. Eg.
Some people believe capital punishment violate the right to life

- Is the punishment age appropriate

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 Normally when children are punished, punishment is expected to be age appropriate for their age.
Children are not punished in the same way as adults because they are considered immature and
unable to make informed decisions when they break rules and laws

- are people being punished equally and fairly

Punishing people equally means that people who commit similar crimes should be given similar
punishment. However they should also be punished fairly.

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF CORPORAL PUNISHMENT

 It can help correcting deviant behaviour and maintain the moral standards of the society.
This is because most people fear pain and will avoid misbehaving in order not to be beaten
 If correctly administered, only the wrong doers are punished. It is instant punishment and
does not involve inconveniencing other people unlike other types of punishment such as
detention
 It can help reduce overcrowding in prisons. This would allow prisons to focus on
rehabilitating and supervising offenders who have committed more serious crimes
 Corporal punishment when administered in anger and excessively can be cruel degrading
and humiliating. It can also make children rebellious
 can damage the relationship between parents, guardians or teachers and children
 it has a negative effect on the self esteem of the person receiving the punishment
 teaches people that it is morally acceptable to use violence and inflict pain as a form of
punishment

THE PURPOSE OF PUNISHMENT

1. Vindication
This is based on the desire to revenge not to forgive. This could be cruel or unfair

2. Retribution
This is the idea that someone deserves to be punished, if s/he breaks the law. The criminal is punished
in such a way that s/he will feel the pain s/he has caused the victim. This is ‘eye for an eye’ and ‘a
tooth for a tooth’. It is assumed that a person was aware of what s/he was doing and should pay the
price for bad behaviour. -it makes wrong doers pay a price for what they have done, that is an eye for
an eye. If you have done something wrong you have to be made to feel the consequences so that you
do not repeat it.
-it gives a clear message on a society’s expected moral behaviour, it means that punishment serves at
uplifting the societal norms of values of keep law and order in society by punishing the wrong doers.

3. Rehabilitation/ Reformative
This is idea that someone can become a better person after a period of punishment i.e reform or change
the character of the criminal to a responsible person. In contrast to retribution, it assumes that the
criminal can not take full responsibility of him/herself when s/he committed crime.

4. Protection
This is intended to offer people security against criminals. The most common way to offer security
against criminals is to lock them up in prison. -it protect people from criminals by putting them in
prisons that is those wrong doers will be separated from the society thus helping in reducing number of
criminals
-to ensure that there is peace and harmony in society because wrong doers will be put into trials and
can end up being secluded

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5. Deterrence
This is intended to scare off potential criminals. It aims to stop people from committing crimes more
than once and also hopes to stop people from ever committing crime.

THE ROLE OF CORRECTIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Correctional institutions are concerned with punishing criminals and improving their behaviour

1. THE KGOTLA
-It tries cases and ensures that criminals are punished e.g. if someone stole a goat he may repay back
with a goat or two
- The Kgosi and the elders give the criminal guidance and counseling in order to improve his
behaviour
-it uses corporal punishment a lot in order to punish the criminal and to prevent others who were
thinking of doing the same offence.

2. PRISONS
-they protect the society from criminals by keeping criminals away from the society
-they provide criminals with some opportunities for self improvement e.g. being trained in carpentry,
brick laying, and knitting.
-they act as deterrent because they discourage criminals from committing crimes again and deter those
who were thinking of committing similar crimes
- The criminals are offered guidance and counseling about the moral implications and consequences
of committing crimes

3. REHABILITATION CENTRES
- They are concerned with correcting and improving the behaviour of offenders
-they provide offenders with programmes that will help them to recognize what they have done
wrong, boost their self confidence and make them less likely to commit crimes again.

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT
Capital punishment refers to death penalty or when person who have committed a serious crime is
punished by being killed.

TYPES OF CAPITAL PUNISHMENT

- hanging the person by the neck
- electrocution whereby a person is put into an electric chair and is given a very large electric
shock which will kill him
- lethal injection is when a person is given an injection that causes instant death
- firing squad the person is blind folded and a small group of soldiers shoot him/her till he/she
dies
- Stoning
- Gas chamber
- beheading

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF CAPITAL PUNISHMENT

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 It deters some people from committing offence s punishable by death such as murder
 By putting a dangerous criminal to death ensures that he or she does not re-offend and the
rest of society would feel safer
 People, who are found guilty of serious crimes such as murder, do not deserve to live. By
committing such crimes, they would have given up their right to life
 The death penalty brings justice to the victim, the victim’s family and the offender
 There is a risk of killing innocent people because the police who investigate cases and
judges in the courts are not perfect
 It is permanent and irreversible form of punishment. It is morally unacceptable to impose
punishment on people that leaves no possibility of correcting wrongful convictions and
helping people reform

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HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights are
-universal ethical principles
-are universal moral rights that belong morally to all people because they are all human beings
-are what people are entitled to irregardless of their gender race and colour or age
A right is an entitlement

ARTICLE 1
- “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one another in the spirit of brotherhood”
This article states that all people are free and equal simply because they are human beings. People
should be treated the same and there should be no discrimination. Human beings can tell the difference
between right and wrong, so they should treat each other well. Our conscience and ability to reason
should enable us to treat each other in the spirit of brotherhood and that involves treating each other
with kindness, dignity, equality, fairness, respect empathy, generosity, botho etc.

REASONS FOR UPHOLDING THIS HUMAN RIGHT

- To encourage people to treat others as equally worthy to be treated with respect and dignity
- To encourage individuals and governments to act in a morally acceptable ways
- To give individuals a sense of worth or that they are valuable simply because they are human
- To protect individuals from discrimination, abuse and exploitation especially by governments
and individuals who have power
- This is the minimum necessary for human beings to live in dignity

ARTICLE 2.
- “Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this declaration, without
distinction of any kind such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political, or other
opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no
distinction shall be made on the basis of political, jurisdictional or international status of
the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-
self governing or under any other limitation or sovereignty”
This article acknowledges that people and countries are different in many ways. However the article
requires that these differences should not prevent people from enjoying their rights and freedoms as
stated in the UDHR. Human rights are for all, without distinction and regardless of the status of the
country or territory to which they belong. This article is based on the principles of equality and non-
discrimination in the enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms

REASONS FOR UPHOLDING THIS HUMAN RIGHT

- It protects all human beings from suffering as a result of being denied their human rights
- It protects individuals from discrimination
- It encourages tolerance and respect for all human beings regardless of our differences

ARTICLE 4
- “No one should be held in slavery or servitude; slavery or the slave trade shall be
prohibited in all their forms”

Article 4 prohibits slavery, servitude and the slave trade in all their forms. Slavery is the status or
condition of a person who is owned by another person as his or her property. Servitude is the condition
of being forced to work for someone else and having no freedom to determine ones way of life.

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Slavery is a form of servitude. Slave trade refers to the buying and selling of human beings so that
they can be used as slaves

REASONS FOR UPHOLDING THIS HUMAN RIGHT

- To prevent exploitation of other people by forcing them to work under harsh conditions and not
paying them
- To encourage people to treat others with dignity. Making other person to work as a slave
violates their right to dignity
- To enable all human beings to enjoy their human rights and freedoms

ARTICLE 13
1. Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the boarders of each
state.

2. Everyone has a right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country

This article protects the right of individuals to move freely and choose where to live within a country.
Freedom of movement and residence within a country is essential for one to be able to travel, work, or
build a home in any part of the country. International travel and migration and being able to return to
ones country of origin are also protected by this article. For instance a person should be able to legally
go and work or study in another country and come back to his or her country.

THE REASONS FOR UPHOLDING THIS RIGHT

- To protect the independence and autonomy of every individual to decide when to travel, where
to and where to live for example people can go to other countries to study or work.
- To protect t the right of refugees and other migrants to return to their countries of origin, even
if they have been away for many years

ARTICLE 15
1. Everyone has a right to a nationality.
2. no one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality or denied the right to change his
nationality

This article protects every person’s right to a nationality, which is a person’s status of belonging to a
particular nation or state. It also protects individuals from having their nationality taken away or being
prevented from changing nationality or n o good reason. Having a nationality is important because it is
part of a person’s identity.

REASONS FOR UPHOLDING THIS HUMAN RIGHT

- Having a nationality gives people a sense of belonging, identity and worth
- Nationality enables individuals to claim protection for their human rights from the country they
belong to. Without nationality, a person becomes stateless and cannot claim to be a citizen of
any country or state.

ARTICLE 16

1- Men and woman of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion,
have a right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to
marriage, during marriage and its dissolution

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 2- Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses
3- The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to
protection by society and the state

This article protects the rights of every adult to marry and have children if they want to. A person
cannot be prevented from marrying and having children due to their race, nationality or religion. Men
and women have the same rights when they marry and when they divorce. Individuals have to give
their free and full consent and should not be forced to marry.

REASONS FOR UPHOLDING THIS HUMAN RIGHT

- To ensure that no adult is denied the right to marry and establish a family
- It promotes gender equality. Men and women have the same marriage and divorce rights
- It recognises the autonomy of individuals and their right not to be forced into marriages
- The family is recognised as the foundation of the society and should be protected by society
and the state

WHY WE SHOULD NOT VIOLATE OTHER PEOPLES RIGHTS TO ATTAIN OUR

RIGHTS

- All human beings are equally entitled to human rights, therefore when we claim or exercise our
rights, we should do it in the ways that do not prevent others from enjoying these rights. It is
important that each person is able to enjoy his or her rights without interference

- Not violating other peoples rights can help create peace and harmony in society. Violating
another person’s right to attain ones rights may results in conflicts people between people
which could lead to violence.

- Not violating the rights of others shows tolerance and promotes mutual respect. Mutual respect
and tolerance are essential for building good relationships among people. Good relationships
lead to people to trust each other and live and work well together

- We should lead by example by allowing other people to enjoy their rights as we exercise ours.
It would not be fair or just to demand that other people respect our rights when we don’t
respect theirs

- By not violating other peoples rights we are carrying out moral duty to respect human dignity
and equality

POSSIBLE HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS IN BOTSWANA

- violence against women and the abuse of women

- corporal punishment- this is commonly used in our customary courts and schools
- incest, rape and other forms of child abuse

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 - capital punishment- it is a violation because it denies people the right to life
- Relocation of Basarwa from the Kalahari game reserve- they have lost access to their ancestral
land. They are vulnerable to exploitation due to isolation, ignorance of rights and lack of
representation in local or national government
- Ageism- it is common in Setswana culture to discriminate old people because they are usually
associated with witchcraft.
- Tribalism- we still have people who discriminate others on the basis of tribe in Botswana
- Discrimination against people with disabilities
- The failure of the ministry of education to provide schooling in indigenous languages for
minority tribes, this amounts to discrimination on ethnic basis
- Obtaining evidence through coercion(force) by the prosecution, despite the fact that such
evidence is not accepted in Botswana courts
- Child labour
- Discrimination of women in customary marriages- women in customary marriages are still
regarded as minors under the control and authority of their husbands
- Discrimination against men
- Mob justice
-

POSSIBLE HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS ELSEWHERE

1. SLAVERY AND SERVITUDE

A slave is a person who is ill-treated and owned by another person and he/she has no rights as an
individual as he/she is treated as slavery, people are made to work heavy tasks against their will and
they are not paid. In the past, there has been slave trade whereby black people were traded because
they were seen as inferior and inhuman

2. THE USE OF TORTURE

The use of torture to get information or confessions from people suspected of having committed
crimes and to punish political opponents occurs across the world

3. DEATH PENALTY
The death penalty is still used in many countries to punish various crimes. Some use it only for murder
and treason. Others use it for various crime s including drug trafficking corruption and adultery.
.

4. DISCRIMINATION ON THE BASIS OF HIV STATUS

Discrimination against people who are HIV positive has been reported in many countries. For example
some people living with AIDS have been denied employment and training opportunities or have been
dismissed from work because of their status

5. RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE

Religious intolerance has been reported in many countries in the world. Sometimes this has led to
violent attacks against people of different religions and to discriminatory laws being made

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 5. ATTACKS ON FOREIGN IMMIGRANTS

Attacks by citizens on foreign immigrants has been reported in many countries, including South
Africa, Germany etc. foreigners are attacked for a variety of reasons, including xenophobia and the
claim by the citizens that the foreigners are taking away their jobs by accepting low wages

JUSTIFICATION FOR ACTIONS THAT MAY BE HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS

Death penalty
Supporters of the death penalty give various reasons to justify the use of capital punishment. Below
are some of the reasons they give.
- By committing murder, the murderer loses his or her right to life.
- It deters others from committing crimes punishable by death such as murder. `
- A dangerous criminal cannot re-offend once they are put to death. This helps make the society safer.
- The death penalty brings justice to the victim and victim’s family.

Corporal punishment
Corporal punishment is still practiced in some societies, including Botswana. Supporters of corporal
punishment give various reasons as justification for use of corporal punishment. Below are some of
the reasons they give.
- it helps in moral development of the children because it corrects deviant behaviour. For example, the
setswana proved ‘ya mosimane ke e nkgwe’ encourages the use of corporal punishment in disciplining
children
- Corporal punishment is part of the traditional culture of the community. It has always been used to
punish offenders and is an accepted by the community.
- It helps reduce overcrowding in prisons because instead of sending offenders to prison, they receive
their Punishment quickly and are released.

Child labour
Some people give the following reasons to justify the use of child labour.
- Many of these children are from very poor families. The money they earn enables their
families to pay for their basic needs and to survive.
- Preventing children from working on farms, in factories, mines and private homes, may lead
some of them to engage in immoral ways of earning money for example, through stealing,
selling illegal drugs, and even prostitutions.

The use of torture

Some of the reasons gives by governments to justify torturing people suspected of committing crimes
include the following
- it enables the police and security officers to get confessions that suspest would not otherwise
make voluntarily.
- The information obtained from suspects can help solve crimes or prevent further crimes being
committed.

Discrimination on the basis of HIV status

Some of the reasons given for discriminating against people who are HIV positive include ;
-they may infect other people around them, for example friends, co-workers or school mates
-an HIV positive person will become sick in future. The company cannot afford to employ and pay
someone who will be absent from work often due to an HIV related illness.

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Religious intolerance.
Some of the reasons given to justify religious intolerance or discrimination include;
- a particular religion is the only true religion or faith. Other religions or faiths are false or
wrong.
- Members of a particular religion or faith are a threat to the security of the country.
- The beliefs and teachings of a religion are against the political, moral and social values held by
the majority of people in the society.
-
HOW HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS AFFECTED HUMAN LIFE

Human rights violations have many negative effects on the life of individuals. Violations also affect
whole groups of people such as families and communities. Below are some effects of human right
violations on human life.

Loss of life
Some human rights violations may lead to death of some individuals whose rights are violated. Some
women have died as a result of domestic violence. It can also result in loss of life for the person who
violates the rights of others, for example, a person who commits murder may be sentenced to death as
punishment. The denial of right to health care can lead to the unnecessary deaths of people from
diseases that are preventable or can easily be cured with available medicines.

Physical and emotional trauma

Victims of human rights violations acts such as domestic violence, torture and rape may suffer from
physical injuries and emotional trauma. Some of them may be unable to work and live a normal life
again because of their experiences. Physical injuries caused by torture may result in a person being
paralysed and to walk again.

Disruption to family life

Human rights violations such as arbitrary arrests and the unlawful killing of political opponents or
crime suspects can disrupt family life. If the victim is the breadwinner of the family, his or her family
can become poorer as a result.

People’s ability to earn a living is limited

Human rights violation can affect the ability of people to earn a living and improve the quality of their
life. For example, people who are denied the right to .education will not have opportunities get the
skills, knowledge and qualifications they need to seek good paying jobs. Arbitrary arrest and
imprisonment without being tried by a court of law can lead to people losing their jobs.
In South Africa, under the apartheid system, black people were offered poor quality education and
most well paying jobs were reserved for white people. As a result, even after apartheid was abolished,
the majority of black people are still very poor. Most of the unemployed are black people.

Lack of peace and security

When there is violation of human rights in a country, conflict between communities may occur which
may lead to civil war. War and conflicts may result in people being attacked in their homes .the lack of
safety, usually forces them to become refugees in other countries. For example, in war torn countries
such as Somalia, Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of Congo, many people have fled and sought
refuge in other countries in Africa and elsewhere.

OTHER EFFECTS COULD BE THE FOLLOWING;

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1. PERSONAL 2. SOCIAL
Fear hatred
Low self esteem depression
Death lack of trust in humanity
Physical and emotional pain anger
Psychological trauma

3. GLOBAL

Wars
conflicts
Mistrust between nations
Lack of social, economic and cultural development

ORGANISATIONS THAT RESPOND TO HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS

1. AFRICAN UNION
It has laid objectives that it uses to ensure that all African citizens have access to the basic rights to
safety, education, peace, health and stability. E.g. the economic cooperation in transportation and
communication, healthy sanitation, cooperation for defence and security. One of the objectives of the
AU is to promote and to protect Human and the people’s rights in accordance with the African charter
on human and people’s rights and other relevant Human Rights instruments

2. RED CROSS SOCIETY

The main task of Red Cross is to care for the sick, destitute’s, provide social welfare, HIV/AIDS
programme, blood donation, to help those who are affected by natural disasters like floods and hunger.
Its work is guided by the principle that all human beings have the right to life.

3. EMANG BASADI WOMEN’S ASSOCIATION

It aims at removing all the laws that discriminate against women at home and at the work place. It also
offers psychological and legal advice to abused women. Increases awareness among women and the
public in general about the specific problems faced by women in all sectors. It also mobilise women to
take steps that will help change the social, political, economic and legal position of women in
Botswana.

4. WOMEN AGAINST RAPE (WAR)

It is a human right organisation which assists mainly women and children who have been raped and
sexually abused. They do also help men who need their services

5. THE BOTSWANA CENTRE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS (DITSHWANELO)

It hosts workshops in which it offers information and advocates on human rights issues, with the main
aim of promoting and protecting human rights, especially for the underprivileged and discriminated. It
ensures that every citizens rights are observed as stated in the declaration.

6. AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL

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It is a voluntary body and is independent of any government, political faction, ideology or religion. It
is responsible to protect human life all over the world especially to fight against imprisonment and
torture of prisoners of conscience that is people locked up for their beliefs or religions. It aims at fair
trials on people who are imprisoned and to abolish the death penalty throughout the world. It also
campaigns against immigration laws, which prevent women and their families from joining their
husbands in different countries.

7. BOTSWANA NETWORK ON ETHICS, LAW AND HIV/AIDS (BONELA)

The aim of the organisation is to create a just environment for those infected and affected by HIV and
AIDS. It strives to fight HIV related stigma and discrimination and to promote respect for human
rights

SUCCESSES AND LIMITATIONS OF ORGANISATIONS

ORGANISATION SUCCESS LIMITATIONS

AMNESTY -With its publication of countries, which -requires more material and human
INTERNATIONAL violate human rights, most countries are resources to do a better job.
improving their way of treating people. -hindered by a serious lack of
-has more than 2.2 million members cooperation by certain
supporters and subscribers in over 150 governments and unconstitutional
countries policies made within some
countries
DITSHWANELO -has established a fulltime human rights -lack of adequate resources both
centre and organized many human rights material and human.
debates. -Poor moral support from many
-it has succeeded in informing and local stakeholders.
educating people against the cases they -ignorance by many citizens
have been unfairly judged concerning their rights due to lack
-has done much to educate people about of education.
the dangers of HIV/AIDS
ORGANISATION OF - it has settled boarder disputes -there are disputes between
AFRICAN UNITY -it has supported blacks majority rules in members that OAU cannot solve.
some countries -disagreements between countries
leading to action taken
RED CROSS -has build day care centers for children’s -lack of safety e.g. during wars
education and rehabilitation centers -lack of moral support
-offers emotional support -lack of human and natural
-raising funds to help the needy resources
-support is given to those who need it,
e.g. restitutes, those affected by natural
disasters

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN GENDER AND SEX

 Sex refers to the biological characteristics that a person is born with as a male or female

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  Gender refers to characteristics or attributes such as the social and cultural roles, rights,
responsibilities and behaviour that a particular society or culture consider appropriate for males
and females.

PRACTICES THAT VIOLATE WOMEN’S RIGHTS

A) MARRIAGE RIGHTS

Women have less marriage rights than men. According to the Botswana marriage act when parents of
a minor disagree on the consent of a minor’s marriage, the father’s consent is sufficient for the minor
to get married. All people should be treated equally because women rights are human rights. They
have the same saying as the males. Women are to be respected for their skill and knowledge in the
matters of childcare, cooking and house keeping

B) ECONOMIC RIGHTS

Women have less property than men. If they need something, e.g. getting a bank loan, they have to
seek permission from their husbands. Nowadays they are free to own property and are entitled to apply
for the same jobs as men and get the same pay

C) DIVORCE RIGHTS

Women are also entitled to sign divorce papers to their husbands if they feel the marriage does not
work. She has the right to divorce her husbands on the grounds of adultery, desertation and
unreasonable behaviour
D) FORCED MARRIAGES
some parents force their daughters to marry. Girls as young as 13 years have been forced into
marriages arranged by their parents. Such cases have been reported in countries such as United
Kingdom, Zambia Nigeria and others.

E) WIFE SECLUSION
It refers to the practice of not allowing a married woman to interact with the members of the public.
She is kept isolated from the outside world and she can only leave her home with the permission of the
husband. When she goes out her whole body must be covered. this practice is found in Islamic
societies such as Saudi Arabia and Nigeria

PRACTICES THAT VIOLATE MEN’S RIGHTS

1. RESPONSIBILITIES CONCERNING CHILDREN

Responsibilities of men and women over the care of the children are not balanced. Only men can be
charged and punished for child maintenance. This may be done irregardless of the financial status of
the man. Even though the husbands are sometimes denied the custody of their children they may be
directed to pay maintenance fees until the children reach 21 years of age.

2. SEXUAL HARASSMENT

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In the Botswana penal code, females (unlike males) are supposed to be protected from different forms
of sexual abuse and harassment, like indecent assault, defilement of girls under 16 years, detention of
females for immoral purposes etc. this needs to be changed as males also need protection.

3. PUNISHMENT

Male punishment is often harsher than the female punishment. E.g. the Botswana penal code states
that “ no sentence of corporal punishment shall be passed upon females”. According to the Botswana
education act, male students can be beaten on their buttocks, backs and palms of the hand but female
students can be beaten on the palms.

STATUS OF MEN AND WOMEN IN MARRIAGE

In Botswana, the status of men and women in marriage depends on the marriage law under which a
couple is married. There are two legal systems for marriage; the common or civil and the customary
law.

Status of men and women in customary law marriage

Under the customary law, men and women do not have the same status. The abolition of Marital
Power Act 2005 which indicates that indicates that men and women shall have equal powers in
marriage, does not apply to people married under the customary law. In customary law marriages, men
have marital power over women. Husbands are the heads of their families and they have guardianship
rights over women and children.

Under the customary law,

 If a married couple divorce, the custody of the children is traditionally granted to the father’s
family.
 Women have limited rights to family assets and resources. For example cattle are said to
belong to men.
 Polygamy is acceptable; however a man can only take another wife with the consent of the first
wife.
 Where there is no written will, the eldest son has more property inheritance rights than his
sisters and mother. The widow and daughters are not entitled to inherit much of the family
estate, especially valuable property such as cattle. The eldest son is regarded as the principal
heir and becomes the guardian of his mother and sisters.

Status of men and women in common or civil law marriage

In Botswana, people who marry under the common can choose to marry ‘in community’ or ‘out of
community of property’. Below is the status of men and women in marriage ‘in community of
property’ and ‘out of community of property’.

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Status of men and women in community of property

Since the abolition of Marital Power Act of 2005 was passed, men and women married in community
of property have equal status in the ownership and control of family property and resources, including
the property they owned before they got married. In addition,

 They can register immovable property in their own names.

 No spouse can sell or get rid of property without the consent of the other. The act requires that
the consent of the other spouse has to be sought when selling or giving away property since
the property is jointly owned.
 In case of the death of the spouse, the surviving spouse has the legal right to inherit the
property.
 Decisions in the family have to be jointly made. The views of the husband and wife should be
taken into consideration during the decision making process.

Status of men and women out of community of property

Being married out of community of property means that the husband and wife own their property
separately, except where it can be proven that they both contributed to the cost of buying the property.
In case of death of the spouse, the surviving spouse only has the legal right to inherit the property
jointly owned. For property individually owned, each partner can decide who his or her beneficiaries
are.

STATUS OF MEN AND WOMEN IN EDUCATION

When formal education was introduced in Botswana, many families did not consider taking girls to
school. Most of the children who were sent to school were boys. Many families preferred to pay
school fees for a boy child because boys were expected to become providers for their families later in
life. Girls were socialised to know that they do not need to be educated because they would marry and
be provided by their husbands.

In present day Botswana, males and girls have equal status in access to education and training.
However, some subject choices still appear to be gender biased.

STATUS OF MEN AND WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT

Men have led development in Botswana because they occupy most of the leadership and decision
making positions in private companies and government. Men also own and control most of the
resources that individuals use to create wealth, for example, cattle and land, and as a result, men
dominated development efforts in the country. Formal employment statistics also show that more men
than women are employed.

Increasing acceptance and understanding of gender equality has helped improve the status of women
in development. For example,

 Discriminatory laws were changed to allow women to work underground in mines and married
women can apply for loans without having to seek approval of their husbands first.

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  Women now actively participate in the development of the country in various ways. For
instance, some are business owners, many women are in formal employment and a few hold
high positions of leadership in private companies and in government.

 The government has invested a lot of money improving facilities and services for the health
care of women, for example, ante-natal clinics, and prevention of mother to child transmission
of HIV.
THE STATUS OF MEN AND WOMEN IN ZIMBABWE

THE STATUS OF MEN AND WOMEN IN MARRIAGE

The status of men and women in marriage in Zimbabwe varies according to the law under which the
couple is married. E.g. civil law marriage or customary law marriage

- Polygyny is not allowed under civil marriages

- in civil marriages spouses have equal rights with regard to parental authority
- The legal minimum age for civil marriage is 18 years for men and 16 years for women. This
makes the girl more vulnerable to early marriages, early pregnancies, and premature
motherhood.

- The customary marriage act allows a man to marry many wives. Under this act a man can sue
for adultery but the wife cannot do the same

- young widows an be inherited by their late husbands relatives and more often the brother

- Some men dominate women. they have more control and power in the family matters than
their wives

- Their are some cases in which childless widows are chased from their homes by their in-laws

THE STATUS OF MEN AND WOMEN IN EDUCATION

Currently Zimbabwe is one of the countries with a high literacy rate compared to after independence
when the country inherited a racially biased education system from the colonial government. This
education negatively affected the black people especially women. It lowered the status of men and
women in education.

The political and economic crises in Zimbabwe have negatively affected the education system. since
education in Zimbabwe is not free, parents struggle to keep their children in schools and schools have
a serious shortage of resources

THE STATUS OF MEN AND WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT

Traditionally men dominated development because they owned or controlled most of the economic
resources e.g. land cattle, and money. They also dominated the important political and economic
positions in the society. Most women did not own or control resources that would have enabled them
to participate effectively in economic development. However as a result of efforts by various non-
governmental organisations and the government, more women are able to participate in and benefit
from development

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 CHILDREN’S RIGHTS

What are children’s rights?

-What children are entitled to or have.
-Are there principles of fairness and justice that ensure children’s freedom?

CHILD
-According to the UN charter a child is person under the age of 18.
-the children’s act defines a child as the person under the age of 14.
-adoption of the children act defines a child as the person under the age of 19.

Law Position of a child in the law Rights of a child in the law

The defilement of -A child is a person under the age of
a child act 16
-A child is a minor who legally is
not old enough to give informed
consent to sex
The employment -The minimum age for basic
act employment of children is 15 years.
-The minimum age for basic
employment of children for
hazardous work is 18 years.
-The law protects children from
being exploited as cheap labour and
being exposed to situations which
endanger their life.
The child -A child is a person below the age of
maintenance Act 18 years. However, if the child is
still a student, the age limit can be
extended until such time when a
child is no longer a dependent.
The Adoption of a -A child is a person under the age of
child 19.
-A child is a minor, so the law
requires that a court of law has to
approve an adoption. This is done in
order to protect the rights and
interests of the child to be adopted.
-A child cannot apply to be adopted.
It is the adult or the adults, who
want to adopt the child who have to
apply for permission to adopt.
Deserted Wives -A child is the person under the age
and Children of 16 years, or who is older than 16
Protection Act tears but less than 21 years old and
is not earning his or her own living.
-A child is said to being having been
deserted by his or her father if that
The right to be protected from sexual
abuse and exploitation
- The right to be protected from
economic exploitation and from
hazardous work.
- The right of the child to rest and
leisure, to engage in play and
recreational activities.
- The right to education.
- The right to protection from
neglect.
- The right to a standard of living
adequate for his or her physical,
mental, spiritual, moral and social
development.
-The right to a standard of living adequate
for his or her physical, mental, spiritual,
moral and social development.
-The right to be protected from abuse,
neglect and exploitation.
-The right to a standard of living adequate
for his or her physical, mental, spiritual,
moral and social development.
-The right to be protected from any form
of abuse.
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 child is without adequate means of
support and the father has without
sufficient cause refused or neglected
to provide such a child with food or
other necessaries of life, or the child
has left or has been removed from
the home of the father because of the
acts of cruelty of the father or the
father is a habitual drunkard.

THE RIGHTS OF A CHILD AS INDICATED IN THE CHILDREN’S CHARTER

 The right to be treated without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of race, colour, sex,
language, religion or other status.
 The right to life, survival and development.
 The right to be registered immediately after birth, have a name, a nationality and to preserve
his or her identity.
 The right to be protected from injury or abuse including sexual abuse, while in the care of
parents or any other person.
 The right to a standard of living adequate for the child’s mental, spiritual, moral and social
development.
 The right to education that develops the child’s personality, talents and mental and physical
abilities.
 The right to be protected from economic exploitation, from hazardous work and all other forms
of exploitation.
 The right to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age
of the child.
 The right to enjoy his or her own culture, religion or language.
 The right to the highest attainable standard of health including access to primary health care,
nutritious foods and clean drinking water.
 The right of the disabled child to special care and the right to enjoy a full and decent life in
conditions which ensure dignity.

CHILDREN’S RESPONSIBILITIES INCLUDES THE FOLLOWING;

Learn and be aware of their rights.

When children are aware of their rights they will be able to know when their rights are being
violated. They will know what is right and wrong and know when they are being exploited.

Report violations of their rights

Children who are abused by elderly people should take the responsibility and report the behaviour.
At
times parents and care givers are unable to identify when their children are abused until the
children
report the act. Reporting a violation of rights will bring a stop to the abuse and make a child to
take
control of their life and develop well.

Not violate the rights of other people

Children have the responsibility not to violate other people’s rights. They should respect other
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 people’s rights, both young and old.

Work hard at school and do the best they can

Children have a right to education, however, they have a responsibility to work hard at school
and
do the best they can. It is the child’s responsibility to pay attention in class, do their assignments
on
time and prepare well for tests and examinations.

Obey family rules and the laws of the country

Families have rules which govern the behaviour and rules of its members. Children have the
responsibility to obey those rules. For example, older children may be required to help at home by
doing age appropriate family chores. They may be asked to be responsible for giving food to their
families’ pets. Children also have the responsibility to obey and uphold the laws of their country.

THE PLACE OF CHILD IN THE FAMILY AND SOCIETY

 Children represent the continuity of the family and society. Children are the future generation.
They grow up to become adults and have children of their own. They are the future leaders of
the society. This allows the family and the society to continue to exist.
 Children bring happiness and pleasure to the family. Most parents want to have children of
their own to love and watch them grow. In many cultures, having children is seen as a sign of
adulthood.
 In patrilineal cultures the boy child is valued because he carries the family name. When he
grows up, marries and has children, the children bear his surname. This helps to continue the
family name.
 Children help with the family chores such as cooking, cleaning, washing and sweeping. In the
past, children were an important source of labour in the family, for example, they helped raise
crops and livestock. For the society, children are the future workers. This is why countries
spend a lot of money on educating and training children and young adults.
 In cultures where bogadi is given to the woman’s family upon marriage, the girl child is valued
for her future potential to bring wealth to her family.
 In some cultures, children were valued because later on in life, they took care of their elderly
parents and would advise them. A Setswana proverb says ‘ Botlhale jwa phala bo tswa
phalaneng’ meaning that children can advise their parents.
 Children are considered the rightful heirs to their parent’s property.

THE PLACE OF A CHILD WITH DISABILITY IN THE SOCIETY

Some children have disabilities, for example, they may be visually or hearing impaired or have a
physical or mental disability. It is important that children with disabilities are equally important in the
society and are worthy of special care and protection like all other children.

Children with disability in Botswana are entitled to all the rights and protections stated in the UN
Children’s Charter. They are also entitled to the rights stated in the Constitution and to the children’s
rights protected laws of Botswana

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Disability is not inability and therefore children who have disabilities should be given opportunities to
develop and use their talents as best as they can. For example, special education relevant to their
disability should be made available to enable them to go to school. Public buildings such as schools,
clinics, hospitals and offices can provide ramps, wide doors, and special toilets to accommodate
children who use wheel chairs.

PARALLELS BETWEEN THE BOTSWANA’S CONSTITUTION AND THE

CHILDREN’S CHARTER

Both the constitution and the charter put emphasis on certain rights. For example;

-The right to life

-the right to education.
-the right to privacy.
-the right to freedom of expression.
-The right to name and nationality.
-The right to protection from all forms of discrimination
- The right to protection against any form of abuse and inhuman treatment

The difference that we find that the constitution at tempts to into practice include the following ;

*the age of which someone is a child in the constitution is when he/she is under the age of 21 but in
the charter is 18 years.
*Botswana law does not guarantee non-discrimination on the basis of gender.
*provision of right within Botswana’s constitution do not have certain restriction however, enjoyment
of right in children charter do have certain restrictions
* Unmarried women have the responsibility of raising the child alone without contact from the father.
*in the constitution and in education act it is unclear in addressing punishment but charter for birds
punishment and regard it as inhuman treatment.
Different acts vary in their definition of a child e.g. the children’s act says that a child is a person
under the age of 14, while the adoption of children’s act says that a child is a person under the age of
19

CHILD ABUSE
It is deliberate cause of pain and suffering to children.
- any deliberate act by an adult that violates the rights of a child and harms the welfare and the
wellbeing of the child

COMMON CHILD ABUSE PRACTICES.

1. PHYSICAL ABUSE.
Physical abuse involves the deliberate use of physical force that causes pain and injury to the physical
body
The abuse affects the body e.g. severe beating, broken bone, and bruises on different parts of the body,
swollen body parts, wounds, and burns. It can also take the form of kicking, pinching, scratching or
pulling the hair. This affects the body of a child and can sometimes lead to death if it excessive.

2. EMOTIONAL VERBAL AND MENTAL ABUSE.

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Emotional abuse involves practices that hurt a child’s feelings and negatively affect the child’s self
concept, self esteem and self confidence
Examples of emotional abuse include, constant and unfair criticism, humiliating a child, threatening a
child, ignoring a child, preventing a child from engaging in normal social interactions, not showing
love and affection to a child, nagging etc.

3. SEXUAL ABUSE

This may include rape or any form of sexual contacts, sexual harassment, encouraging children to
watch pornographic videos, incest. The child may end up showing signs of inappropriate behavior,
acting older than their age, inability to form healthy relationships.
Other forms of child abuse include torture, abduction, denying the child the right to education.

CAUSES OF CHILD ABUSE.

-alcohol and drug abuse.

-unreliable expectations from the child.
-unwanted childbirth.
-social isolation and rejection.
-marital conflicts and misunderstanding.
-shortage /or overcrowded accommodation.
-lack of family structure and stability.
-the ‘circle of disadvantage’, where by the parent’s abuse their children because they have been abused
when still young and their children later do the same.

SITUATIONS THAT MAY LEAD TO CHILD ABUSE

1. ACCEPTING GIFTS

Abusers normally tempt children by buying them presents and offering gifts and in return demand
sexual favours
2. DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE
Children who use drugs or are given drugs and alcohol by the abusers are likely to indulge in
unplanned sex or are even raped because they will be under the influence of such drugs

3. POVERTY
Children from poor families may be tempted into prostitution in order to get material support such as
clothes, food, money etc.

4. SINGLE PARENT FAMILIES

A parent who has lost a loved one can be frustrated, lonely and stressed and may end up abusing the
children.

5. STEP PARENT FAMILY

Stepparents may sexually abuse their stepchildren because there is no biological or emotional link
between them.

6. OVERCROWDED OR INADEQUATE ACCOMMODATION,

This can encourage incest and under- aged sex because of lack of individual privacy

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THE MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF CHILD ABUSE

- Morality demands that we should not deliherately harm others, especially those who cannot
protect themselves and are therefore most vulnerable, such as children. Child abuse harms
children. Child abuse harms children. It has serious negative effects on children and may
affect their behaviour, personality, health and ability to live normally for the rest of their lives.
This makes child abuse morally unacceptable

- Peole who abuse children are doing what is morally unacceptable, therefore every individual
and government has a morally duty to prevebt it. Report it and stop it. People should be
informed and awareness should be raised about child abuse issues. Offenders should be
punished

- Parents and other adults have a moral duty to love and care for children. Child abuse is an
abondonment of this duty and it is the ultimate form of betrayal of trust in a relationship
between a parent and a child or an adult and a child.
- The consequences of reporting child abuse can create a moral dilemma for the child who is
being abused, the person who is dealing with the child abuse case, and other people who may
be aware of the abuse. For example reporting the abuse may lead to..
 The break up of the family
 the child being thrown out of the home and becoming homeless
 invasion of the privacy of the child and family
 a moral dilemma. If an abused child tels you about the abuse and asks you to keep it a
secret

THE IMPORTANCE OF TAKING CARE OF A CHILD

- Children cannot take care of themselves. They depend on their parents and other adults to
provide for and meet all their needs, for example, food, clothing and shelter. Children who are
not well cared for may:
 Suffer from malnutrition and die young
 Be forced to drop out of school and work in order to earn a living to survive
 Become involved

THE EFFECTS OF CARING FOR ONES CHILDREN

CHILD ABANDONMENT

Abandonment is to neglect, desert or leave alone

REASONS FOR CHILD ABANDONMENT

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a. UNPLANNED AND UNPLANNED PREGNANCY

Women who fall pregnant as a result of rape or incest normally desert their babies

b. TEENAGE PREGNANCY

Young girls who fall pregnant find the reality of raising a child as difficult and stressing. They
normally throw away, kill, or leave the baby alone in the bushes because they are afraid of their
parents and want to continue with their education

c. POVERTY
Children from poor families may be tempted to prostitution in order to feed themselves, get money to
buy drugs, clothes and even money. Poor families that cannot feed their children normally leave them
behind so that someone can find them and take care of them. Sometimes they leave the babies in the
act of showing love and desperation and what is best for the children.

d. SINGLE PARENTHOOD
Single parenthood can be a very difficult and traumatic experience a women .When they are kept
by their babies father and mothers cannot provide for the child’s need she can child or leave it
with other family member

THE MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF CHILD ABANDONMENT

THE POSITION OF THE LAW WITH REGARD TO CHILD ABANDONMENT

In Botswana the law that the parents have to care for their children until the age of 21. If parents fail to
provide for their children and are found guilty, they may be imprisoned, punished and made to pay
maintenance of child abuse.

SOLUTIONS TO CHILD ABANDONMENT

-Avoiding unwanted pregnancies by the best use of contraceptives

-Acceptance of children irrespective of their physical or mental disabilities
-More severe punishment by the law courts
-Seeking adoption societies
-Support given to families for children with disabilities
-Support given to single parents
-Children’s rights been known by everyone and enforced by law.

ANIMAL RIGHTS

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Just like human beings, animals have rights. These rights also have to be respected. Even the smallest
of all animals do have rights. Just the mere fact that they exist on along with human beings should
indicate that they have a purpose to serve. These animals play a very important role in the environment
as they balance the ecosystem.

FUNCTIONS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS

- They are source of food e.g. they produce meat and milk
- They can be used to provide security. e.g. dogs
- They can be used to provide transport, e.g. donkeys and horses
- They can be used as pets e.g. dogs and cats.
- They can be used as guidelines for the disabled people. E.g. dogs
- They can be used to provide raw materials e.g. we get leather from animal hides.

FUNCTIONS OF WILD ANIMALS

- they are used as source of tourists attraction

- they are used on sporting activities like circus
- they are used as tribal identification like totems
- they are used as a source of raw materials as we obtain skins and tasks that can be used to
manufacture goods from animals

THE CONCEPTS OF ANIMAL RIGHTS

The concepts animal rights refer to the idea that animals have rights separate from human demands. As
people we should respect and care for the animals. They need to be treated with respect because they
are living things.

RELATIONSHIP OF ANIMALS TO PEOPLE

- they are used for companionship by people, e.g. dogs

- Animals are used as totems to symbolize an identity for tribes. These animals are respected by
their tribes, they don’t kill or eat them
- animals are used in African stories as characters, to teach moral stories
- they are sometimes used for worship purposes to make a sacrifice

CRUELTY TO ANIMALS

a) VIVISECTION
Using animals for scientific or medical experiments. New medicines are tested on animals before they
are tried on humans. Illnesses are sometimes deliberately induced on animals and scientists try
medicines on them before administering them on people.

b) PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPERIMENTS
Psychological experiments done in those animals that display similar behaviour pattern of humans.
e.g. apes and monkeys. They are ill-treated or denied certain things to see their
emotional/psychological effects.

C. BESTIALITY

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This is where humans use animals to satisfy their sexual needs. It is a serious abuse on animals
because they cannot give consent to that.

D. VICIOUS BEATING

Beating animals in trying to make them run while carrying heavy loads usually causes wounds on their
bodies

E. CAPTIVITY

Placing animals in cages and denying them freedom of movement is a form of abuse.

F. STARVATION
Some people do not take care of their animals. Such animals are therefore forced to fend for
themselves especially dogs.

G. IN HUNTING SPORTS
Some animals may hunt animals for competition and they end up killing then indiscriminately

WAYS OF PROTECTING ANIMALS FROM CRUELTY

- establishing laws that can protect animals against various forms of cruelty to animals
- allowing captive animals to live in larger areas like private wildlife parks
- establishing alternative ways of developing drugs other than using animals
- people must adopt modern modes of transport other than using animals like donkeys and
horses
- establish organizations that will promote public campaigns on animal rights, and speak
strongly against all forms of animal abuse
- drawing up legislation that regulates the proper keeping of pet animals
- legislating against cruel methods of hunting and animal trapping

NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS THAT REACT TO CRUELTY OF ANIMALS

i) SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO ANIMALS(SPCA)

- It provides public education, awareness, and enforcing laws related to animals care and rights
-
1. KALAHARI CONSERVATION SOCIETY
- It helps campaigns against cruelty to animals by condemning poaching and uncontrolled
hunting. It raises public awareness and influences government policy through the media
seminars and conferences
- it helps in relocating animals to keep them in safe places

2. WORLD WIDE FUND FOR NATURE

- It safes endangered species
- It conserves the environment in which animals live
-
3. THE INTERNATIONAL FUND FOR ANIMAL WELFARE
- It protects wildlife

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 - It reduces commercial exploitation and trade of wild animals
- It works to improve the welfare of domestic and wild animals

GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS THAT REACT TO CRUELTY TO ANIMALS

1. DEPARTMENT OF WILDLIFE AND NATIONAL PARKS

- Informs public about wildlife
- It monitors animal numbers and their well being
- It is responsible for management of game reserves and national parks

2. BOTSWANA DEFENCE FORCE ANTI POACHING UNIT

- It guards against poachers in some national parks e.g., they provide security at chobe national
park.

3. DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HEALTH AND PRODUCTION

- It mostly controls animal diseases and provides treatment to animals when they are sick.

THE ROLE OF INDIVIDUALS AND VARIOUS ORGANISATIONS IN PROTECTING

ANIMAL LIFE

INDIVIDUALS

- people should assist the government in enforcing the Laws on animals protection and welfare
- people should campaign against cruel and degrading acts like bestiality, and other forms of
abuse
- people should resort to being vegetarians so that they reduce demand on meat of animals
- initiate and support research to improve animal treatment
- ensure that their pets and working animals are well fed and are protected from harsh weather
conditions
- campaign against the use of animals in zoos and circuses

ORGANISATIONS

- They should influence anti poaching laws in the country

- Contribute in protecting endangered species against poaching. E.g. keeping them in more safer
places like the Khama rhino centuary

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BIO ETHICS

WORK ETHICS

HUMANKIND AND THE ENVIRONMENT

What is physical environment?

It is the surroundings in which we live, which includes natural and physical features such as hills,
vegetation, rivers and man made objects like buildings.

Importance of the physical environment

 It provides the necessities for human life like food from natural vegetation.
 It is important for human survival, as it enables human beings to cultivate land to grow
food, and serve as natural pastures for livestock.
 It provides holy places to humankind E.g Mountains and forests can be used as places of
worship by people.
 it can provide people with raw materials that people can use to make their shelter, e.g. sand
from rivers.

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  It provide water resource, as many villages in Botswana are supplied with underground
water
 Wild animals, which form part of the physical environment, can serve as an important
aspect of national/international tourist attraction, hence enabling the country to earn a lot of
revenues.
 Some elements of the physical environment like rivers and animals can serve as a national
pride, since they are resourceful to the country.

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

It means looking after the environment so that it retains its natural look for a longer time, such that the
future generations will be able to use it as well

MORAL IMPLICATIONS OF HUMANS AS CARETAKERS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

 Human beings have a right to use the environment for their daily needs though they have to be
responsible such that they avoid all types of pollution and over population

 They should avoid cutting down trees especially those that are scarce, so that the environment
retains its natural beauty

 They should ensure endangered species of animas are kept in a more safe, secure and well
guarded place to avoid extinction

 They should avoid desertification of agricultural land so that it remains productive for them
over a long period of time
.
 They should avoid substances that are not ozone friendly to avoid the depletion of the ozone
layer.

PEOPLE’S RIGHTS TO USE THE ENVIRONMENT

People have the right to the following from the environment

 adequate standard of living

 everyone has the right to develop themselves to their full potential by using what is available in
the natural environment
 countries have the right to economic and industrial development using natural resources

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN BOTSWANA

There are a number of organization and individuals who take care of the environment in Botswana.
Some of these organizations include governmental and non governmental organization.
The Botswana government has established several departments, which are responsible for
environmental management.

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  Department of wildlife; which is responsible for managing wildlife through protecting
animals against poachers, and controlling hunting.

 Department of crop production in the ministry of agriculture; it educates people regarding

effective ways of cultivation such that they avoid soil erosion

 Department of animal production. Helps through educating the community on common

livestock diseases and how to control such diseases. E.g. foot and mouth. It provides free and
skilled personnel for vaccinating the animals

 The Botswana government has established a national tree-planting day, where people are
educated on the importance of trees as they serve as windbreakers around their homes.

 In every district, the councils have established waste management departments, which collect
waste in villages including toilet draining.

 In Botswana there are annual cleaning campaigns, which aim to educate people about the
importance of keeping the environment clean.

EFFECTS OF LARGE POPULATION ON THE ENVIRONMENT

An increased population results on the increased demand over available resources on the environment.
Some of the effects of large population on the environment may include;

 Pollution; if the population increases, the rate at which it brings about waste increases, hence
become unmanageable and may lead to spread of diseases.
 Increased poverty; the large number of people in an area may lead to shortage of land to grow
crops and keep animals which may lead them into poverty
 Keeping large number of animals in a small area may lead to depletion vegetation hence
causing soil erosion and extinction of some plant species.
 The large population of people may lead to high demand on natural resources like vegetation
that they use to construct shelter, hence leading to extinction of certain type of plants that are
mostly used
 Global warming: large population leads to many animals in a given environment and even
cutting firewood. This will lead too much carbondioxide in the atmosphere, which would
lead temperature changes.

ENVIRONMENTAL MISMANAGEMENT

 Destroying the environment

 Using the environment unwisely
 Failing to protect the environment

EXAMPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL MISMANAGEMENT

 Pollution of rivers and seas- this reduces water quality since its contaminated leading to
various diseases to humans such as water-bone diseases.
 Climate change- ozone being destroyed leading to cancer(Global warming)
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  Deforestation and desertification this may leave the land bare thus being vulnerable to erosion
and global warming.
 Release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and green house gases, release of carbon dioxide and
other pollutants into the atmosphere and destroy the ozone molecules leading to the ozone
layer being weak such that it cannot effectively protect us from the sun’s violent rays.(ozone
depletion)
 Littering- this involves dumping of waste products and this is not good to peoples health and
animals.
 Acid rain – This is rain water in which gases such as sulphur dioxide have dissolved to make it
acidic. This is caused by burning fossil fuels and sulphur dioxide therefore may damage rivers,
lakes, ground water, soil and forests.

WAYS IN WHICH PEOPLE CAN REACT TO ENVIRONMENTAL MISMANAGEMENT

 Re-duce, Re-use, Recycle litter

 Tree planting: Afforestation
 Conserve water- avoid pollution of water by litter
 Walk instead of drive: reduce pollution of air by car fumes
 Joining environmental organizations
 Share resources
 Protect endangered species: fight poaching
 Join clean up campaigns

IMPACT OF ORGANISATIONS THAT REACT TO ENVIRONMENTAL

MISMANAGEMENT

Green Peace
An international environmental organization founded in 1969. It promotes direct non-violent action to
try and prevent [project activities that they consider to be a threat to the environment. They managed
to reduce seal hunts, dumping toxic waste in the sea.

Worldwide Fund For Nature

It aims at protecting wild life and wild lands. It directs its conservation efforts towards protecting
endangered spaces, addressing global threats and saving endangered species.

Friends of the earth

The largest international network of environmental groups. It campaigns on the following: forests,
ozone, desertification, climate change, sustainability, e.t.c

IMPACT OF ORGANISATIONS IN CONSERVING THE ENVIRONMENT

INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT

1. AGENDA 21

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It stands for the agenda of the 21 st century. Brazil hosted the Rio summit in 1991. the summit was
held as a result of global environmental worries. Agenda 21 is not a fixed law, so it needs to be
adopted by each national government if it is going to be effective, and those who are committed to the
environment can adopt it.

2. THE BIODIVERSITY CONVENTION

It aims to protect the wide variety of animal and plant life that exist on the planet, before it is made
extinct. In 1996, it was recognized that 25% of the mammal species and 11% of the bird species were
still at the risk of total extinction.

3. THE MONTREAL PROTOCOL

It was formed in 1987 and an agreement was made to cut the use of chemicals that damage the ozone
layer. They agreed to reduce them by half by 1996 and to stop using them altogether by the year 2000.
Without this agreement, levels of ozone depletion would have five times higher by 2050.
In the year 2000, the hole in the ozone layer above South America was causing people to experience
burnt skin within 7 minutes of being exposed to the sun.

4. THE REGIONAL SEAS PROGRAMME

It was developed by United Nations environment programmes for neighboring countries to work hand
in hand to prevent pollution in their common sea. Agreements concerning other places e.g.
Mediterranean sea, red sea were also drawn up but some still experience pollution.

5. MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS

Large companies can have some impacts in the way people relate to the environment. Companies may
encourage people to consume items they really do not need through advertising. Therefore, to control
the power of the corporations the UN has drafted some guidelines for their conduct. One of the
recommendations is ; to observe the international standards and national laws on consumer protection
and environmental protection

NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE ASPECTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION.

Negative
*Taxes
*Rising acts of goods e.g. petrol, paraffin..
*Restriction of freedom.
*areas not allowed to be developed.
*restrictions of using resources e.g. ivory.

Positive
*health of humankind
*clean, healthy environment
*sustainable development
*preservation of species that may lead to new medical treatment

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*protection of biodiversity i.e. maintaining a wide variety of plants and animals species

WAYS OF PROMOTING ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION

-.government should set aside land for game parts and nature reserves.
.-environmental education should be taught in schools.
.-companies should package their products in environmental friendly containers.
.-people should be made for those who mismanage the environment.
.-vision 2016 building a prosperous, productive and use water wisely preserve natural resources for --
the future generation.

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