JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE

ENGINEERING/PROCESSING

Extrusion Texturization of
Air-Classified Pea Protein
N. WANG, P. R. BHIRUD and R. T. TYLER

ABSTRACT MATERIALS & METHODS

Air-classified pea protein was texturized using a twin-screw
extruder. The effects of moisture, screw speed and barrel
temperature on the physical, functional and nutritional char-
acteristics of texturized pea protein were investigated. In-
creased dough moisture increased product bulk density (BD)
and available lysine (LYS) of texturized pea products, but
decreased water-holding capacity (WHC) and in vitro protein
digestibility (DIG). Raising the screw speed reduced BD and
LYS of texturized pea protein, but increased WHC and DIG.
Bulk density and LYS decreased as barrel temperature was
increased, whereas WHC and DIG increased. Texturized pea
protein resembled commercial texturized soy products with
respect to most physical and functional properties.
Key Words: extrusion, pea protein, functionality,
Materials
Air-classified protein from yellow field peas was obtained from
Parrheim Foods, (Saskatoon, SK, Canada). Procedures for dehulling,
pin milling and air classification of yellow peas were described by Tyler
et al. (1981). The protein fraction contained 6.4% moisture and, on a
moisture-free basis, 55.4% protein, 24.6% total dietary fiber, 4.8%
starch and 3.9% fat. Commercial texturized soy flour (CENTEX 4220)
and texturized soy protein concentrate (RESPONSE 4400) were ob-
tained from the Central Soya Company, Inc., (Fort Wayne, IN).
Extrusion
A twin-screw, co-rotating extruder (Model ZSK 57, Werner &
Pfleiderer, Ramsey, NJ) was employed. Specifications were: screw

ENGINEERING/PROCESSING
texturization, lysine diameter, 57 mm; length-to-diameter ratio, 26:1; die openings, circular
and 5.0 mm dia, with screw configuration as described (Table 1).
Screws were operated at 135-245 rpm. The extruder barrel consisted
of 8 segmented zones. The first segment provided an inlet for mixture
INTRODUCTION of raw materials from the feeder. Barrel temperature was maintained at
TEXTURIZATION BY HIGH TEMPERATURE EXTRUSION HAS BEEN 308C in the first segment, and 85°C in the second and third segments
used for converting vegetable proteins into functional products, prin- (T1). The temperatures in the fourth through sixth segments (T2) and
cipally for application as supplements or extenders in meat food sys- in the seventh and eighth segments (T3) were adjusted (independent-
tems (Harper, 1989). Most process and product development work on ly) to 130, 150 or 1708C. Air-classified pea protein was fed into the
texturization of vegetable protein has been reported for soybean (flour extruder at 27 kg/h using a K-tron T-35 twin screw volumetric feeder
or protein concentrates). Extrusion-texturized soy products have use- (K-tron Corp., Glassboro, NJ). Water was fed into the extruder at 5.5
ful characteristics such as meat-like texture, bland flavor, and an affin- to 8.6 kg/h, so that the final mixture had a moisture content of 24.0 to
ity for fat and water, and they may serve as carriers for minerals, 30.5%. Texturized products with moisture in the range of 15 to 17.5%
vitamins and colors. were oven dried at 508C for 24h to a final moisture of <8.0%.
Air classification (Tyler et al., 1981) is used commercially to pre-
pare starch-rich and protein-rich fractions from dehulled peas. This Experimental design
process essentially doubles the protein concentration in the protein A fractional factorial design 24-1 (Myers, 1971) was employed to
fraction. Although high in protein, lysine, digestible carbohydrate and investigate the influence of moisture content of the dough (M, % wet
dietary fiber, the protein fraction is not widely utilized as a food ingre- basis), screw speed (N, rpm), barrel temperature in the fourth through
dient, due to flatulence factors and indigestible substances, and prob- sixth segments (T2, 8C), and in the seventh and eighth segments (T 3,
lems related to flavor and functionality. Extrusion-texturization of air- 8C). The experimental design generators were T2 5 M?N?T3, wherein
classified pea protein may enable its use in food products. Extrusion-
texturization has improved protein digestibility and protein nutritional
quality (Noland et al., 1976; Hsu et al., 1977a, b; Bressani et al., Table 1—Screw configuration for preparation of texturized pea protein
1978), reduced the levels of flatulence-causing sugars (oligosaccha- Element type No. of elements
rides), and removed bitter flavor in legumes (Borejszo and Khan,
80/40a 1
1992; Neumann et al., 1984). The functionality of extrusion-textur- 80/80 2
ized products is affected by several parameters including moisture 80/40 1
content, barrel temperature, screw speed and screw configuration (Cum- 60/60 1
40/40 1
ming et al., 1972; Aguilera and Kosikowski, 1976; Holay and Harper, 40 IGELb 1
1982; Abdel-Aal et al., 1992). The objectives of our study were: (1) to 40/40 1
determine the feasibility of texturizing air-classified pea protein by 40/20 1
40 IGEL 1
twin-screw extrusion, and (2) to investigate the influence of extrusion 40/40 1
processing conditions on physical, functional and nutritional charac- 40 IGEL 1
teristics of texturized pea protein. 40/40 3
40/20 1
40 IGEL 1
40/40 1
30/30 1
KB 90°/5/60c; KB 45°/5/20 LHd; 30/30 6
The authors are affiliated with the Dept. of Applied Microbiology & Food aScrew elements: pitch (mm)/length (mm).
Science, Univ. of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N bIGEL = mixing element.
5A8. Direct inquiries to Dr. N. Wang. cKneading blocks (KB): stagger °/number of disks/length (mm).
dLH = left-handed.

Volume 64, No. 3, 1999—JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE 509

 Extrusion Texturization of Air-classified Pea Protein . . .
the alias structure was I5M?N?T2?T3, M5 N?T2?T3, N5M?T2?T3,
T 3 5M?N?T 2 , T 2 5M?N?T 3 , M?N5T 2 ?T 3 , M?T 3 5N?T 2 ,
M?T25N?T3? A total of 13 experiments (Table 2) were conducted
with 5 replicates at center levels. The following model was fitted to the
experimental data and analyzed with Minitab statistical analysis soft-
ware (Minitab, 1995):
Yi 5 bo 1 bM?M 1 bN?N 1 bT2?T2 1 bT3?T3 1 bM?N?M?N 1
bM?T2?M?T2 1 bM?T3?M?T3 (1)
where Yi is the response (physical, functional and nutritional proper-
ties), bo is a constant, and bM, bN, bT2, bT3, bM?N, bM?T2 and bM?T3 are
regression coefficients. For each response, 3-dimensional plots were
produced from the equation by holding two variables constant and
varying the other two.
Physical properties of texturized pea protein
The texturized products were crushed with a small roller mill
(Weston Moisture Meter, Model 8012, Daystrom, Inc., Newark, NJ)
and screened to provide particles in the size range of 2.8 to 4.0 mm.
The particle densities (PD) of texturized products were determined
using a specific gravity bottle according to the method described by
Lewis (1987). Values reported are averages of two determinations.
Bulk density (BD) was determined according to British Standard
1743 (BSI 1968). A 20g sample with particle sizes 2.8–4.0 mm was
placed into a 100 mL measuring cylinder. The cylinder was allowed to
drop on a pad ten times from a height of 150 mm, after which the
ENGINEERING/PROCESSING
volume occupied by the sample was recorded. The bulk density was
reported as g/cm3. Two determinations were made for each sample.
The porosity (POR) of the texturized product was calculated ac-
cording to the following equation:
% Porosity 5 [(Particle density 2 Bulk density)/Particle density] 3 100
For color measurements, texturized samples were ground to pass a
100 mesh U.S. sieve. Color was measured on a HunterLab Color
Difference Meter (ColorQUEST, Hunter Associates Laboratory, Inc.,
Reston VA) as “L”, “a” and “b” values standardized with a white color
standard. “L” is the brightness coefficient (dark (0) to bright (1)), “a”
the coefficient from green (2) to red (1), and “b” the coefficient from
blue (2) to yellow (1). Illuminant D65 was used.
Functional properties of texturized pea protein
Nitrogen solubility index (NSI) was determined according to AACC
(1995) method 46-23. Water-holding capacity (WHC) was measured
according to AACC (1995) method 88-04 by centrifuging the sample
at 2,000 3 g for 10 min. Fat absorption (FA) was measured by the
method of Sosulski et al. (1976). Fat emulsification capacity (EC) was
determined according to the procedure of Inklaar and Fortuin (1969).
The integrity index (INT) of texturized products determined whether
extrudates had structural integrity when they were retorted under con-
ditions similar to those used to process foods to which the extrudates
may be added. The integrity index was determined according to Breene
(1977), with modifications. Sample ($50 g) was rehydrated, in a 500
mL glass jar at room temperature, with an amount of water such that
the hydrated mixture contained 18% protein. After 1 h hydration, the
jar was sealed and processed in a vertical retort (Dixie Canner Equip-
ment Corp., Athens, GA) at 1218C for 30 min. The retorted sample
was cooled to room temperature (<23°C). The cooled hydrated sam-
ple was ground in a meat grinder (Hobart Manufacturing Company
Ltd., Don Mills, ON) fitted with a plate with 3.2 mm holes. Grinding
was carried out at the lowest speed setting. Excess water was not
drained prior to grinding. A 50g portion of ground material was spread
evenly on a 20 mesh U.S. screen and spray-rinsed for 1 min with tap
water. The flow rate was 11 L/min. The spray nozzle was held 22 cm
from the screen and moved slowly across and rotated so that the spray
of water contacted the entire screen surface during the rinsing opera-
tion. Excess water was shaken off. After the screen had been allowed
510 JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE—Volume 64, No. 3, 1999
to drain for 4 min, the bottom of the screen was blotted with paper
towels. The residue was then weighed, and the INT was calculated as
the weight of residue divided by the weight of hydrated sample.
Chemical analysis
Protein (N36.25), moisture, fat and starch were determined by
AACC methods 46-11A, 44-15A, 30-25 and 76-13, respectively,
(AACC, 1995). Total dietary fiber was determined by the AOAC
method (AOAC, 1990). Trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) was deter-
mined by the method of Smith et al. (1980). In vitro protein digestibil-
ity (DIG) was determined by the multienzyme technique of FAO/
WHO (1989) using trypsin, chymotrypsin and peptidase. Available
lysine was determined as described by Booth (1971), based on forma-
tion of a yellow complex, dinitrophenyllysine (lmax 435 nm), when
1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene reacted with the e-amino group of lysine.
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
SIGNIFICANT REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS RESULTING FROM FITTING
of the experimental data (Table 2) to Eq (1) are shown (Table 3).
Analysis of variance indicated that the model was statistically accept-
able (p#0.05) and, therefore, could be used to predict values for the
13 response variables during extrusion texturization of air-classified
pea protein.
Effects of process variables on physical properties
The effects of independent extrusion processing variables on phys-
ical properties of texturized pea protein products were determined (Ta-
ble 3). Regression analyses showed that moisture content, screw speed
and barrel temperature T3 had significant effects on BD and PD of
texturized pea protein products. Both BD and PD increased with in-
creasing moisture content, but decreased as screw speed or barrel tem-
perature T3 increased (Fig. 1A-1D). The inverse relationship between
temperature and bulk density confirmed results of Cumming et al. (1972)
on extrusion of soybean meal. At lower moisture contents, more fric-
tional heat would be generated within the barrel, which would cause an
increase in product temperature. As the more highly superheated prod-
uct exited the die and was exposed to atmospheric pressure, it would
expand to a greater extent, thus reducing its bulk and particle densities.
A reduction in bulk density with an increase in screw speed had been
reported by Harmann and Harper (1973) during extrusion of corn grits.
As expected, the POR of texturized pea protein products correlated
negatively (p,0.01) with BD and PD. Porosity increased with increas-
ing screw speed or barrel temperature T3, but decreased as dough mois-
ture content increased (Fig. 1E and 1F). Barrel temperature T2 had a
significant effect on PD only (Table 3). The physical properties of
texturized pea protein and commercial extruded soy products were com-
pared (Table 4). There were no differences in BD, PD or POR between
texturized pea protein and commercial texturized soy products.
The effects of extrusion processing variables were determined on
the brightness (L value), redness (a value) and yellowness (b value) of
texturized pea protein (Fig. 2). Brightness increased as moisture con-
tent increased but decreased when barrel temperature (T2 and T3) or
screw speed increased (Fig. 2A and 2B). Moisture content had a
negative effect on redness (Fig. 2C). As barrel temperature T3 or
screw speed increased, the redness of the texturized product increased
(Fig. 2C and 2D). Barrel temperature T2 had little effect on redness of
texturized pea protein. The yellowness of the product was dependent
on moisture content only, decreasing as moisture content increased
(Fig. 2E and 2F). The texturized pea protein product was as bright in
color as commercial texturized soy flour but less bright than texturized
soy concentrate, and more red and more yellow than texturized soy
flour or soy concentrate (Table 4). The impact of screw speed, barrel
temperature and moisture content on color of texturized pea protein
products was related to the degree of browning in the products. This
was expected due to the known influence of temperature and moisture
on non-enzymatic (Maillard) browning in products like air-classified
pea protein, which contain substantial levels of protein and soluble
carbohydrates (Berset, 1989).
Table 2—Effects of extrusion processing variables on the physical, functional and nutritional properties of texturized pea protein
Experiments
Process variablesa 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
M (%) 24.0 30.5 30.5 27.0 24.0 27.0 30.5 24.0 24.0 27.0 30.5 27.0 27.0
N (rpm) 245 245 245 190 135 190 135 245 135 190 135 190 190
T3(°C) 130 170 130 150 170 150 170 170 130 150 130 150 150
T2 (°C) 170 170 130 150 170 150 130 130 130 150 170 150 150
Responses
Physical properties
BD (g/cm3) 0.36 0.32 0.42 0.39 0.33 0.38 0.41 0.32 0.50 0.38 0.57 0.37 0.36
PD (g/cm3) 1.24 1.18 1.33 1.28 1.20 1.29 1.26 1.22 1.34 1.28 1.38 1.28 1.27
POR (%) 0.71 0.73 0.68 0.70 0.73 0.71 0.67 0.74 0.63 0.70 0.59 0.71 0.72
L 60.98 58.12 73.32 68.70 64.80 64.22 70.09 60.69 71.90 67.29 75.05 62.41 65.06
a 10.38 10.43 5.20 6.93 8.38 9.17 6.21 10.09 5.78 7.13 3.50 9.41 8.52
b 23.76 22.59 22.96 22.57 22.88 23.76 22.66 23.02 24.75 24.12 22.17 23.44 23.43
Functional properties
NSI (%) 25.7 24.2 27.5 24.9 25.5 25.2 25.9 24.0 26.7 25.7 28.1 25.7 25.4
WHC (g H2O/g) 2.18 2.21 2.12 2.07 2.05 2.08 2.02 2.19 1.98 2.07 1.92 2.09 2.06
FA (%) 101.3 96.2 100.0 101.3 102.0 101.2 98.4 103.0 106.3 100.0 100.5 100.0 100.4
EC (%) 12.2 16.5 17.5 17.9 17.5 15.5 20.0 17.5 15.5 18.1 21.2 15.7 18.5
INT 0.60 0.86 1.18 1.08 1.10 1.12 1.26 1.08 1.16 1.11 1.21 1.07 1.12
Nutritional properties
TIA reduction (%) 69.3 70.1 65.9 67.0 68.8 67.2 67.4 69.8 65.5 67.2 64.3 67.3 67.3
DIG (%) 97.1 96.9 96.2 96.2 96.2 96.1 95.8 96.8 95.8 96.3 95.0 96.4 96.2
LYS (g/16g N) 3.7 3.6 4.9 4.2 4.4 4.3 4.1 4.2 4.4 4.2 5.2 4.1 4.3
aM=moisture content (%); N=screw speed (rpm); T and T =barrel temperature (°C); BD=bulk density (g/cm3); PD=particle density (g/cm 3); POR=porosity (%); L=coefficient dark (0) to
2 3
bright (+); a=coefficient green (-) to red (+); b=coefficient blue (-) to yellow (+); NSI=nitrogen solubility index (%); WHC=water-holding capacity (g H2O/g); FA=fat absorption (%); EC=fat
emulsification capacity (%); INT=integrity index; TIA=trypsin inhibitor activity (mg/g); DIG= in vitro protein digestibility (%); LYS=available lysine (g/16g N).

Table 3—Regression coefficients and R2 values for the physical, functional and nutritional properties of texturized pea protein
Regression Coefficientb

ENGINEERING/PROCESSING
a
Properties bo bM bN bT2 bT3 bM•N bM•T2 bM•T3 R2
Physical properties
BD (g/cm3) 1.62*** -2.01×10-2* 8.29×10-4** +++ -3.17×10-4*** 3.65×10-4* 0.958
PD (g/cm3) 1.42*** 1.81×10-2** 4.76×10-4** -5.65×10-3** 3.08×10-3*** 1.73×10-4* -2.12×10-4* 0.982
POR (%) -1.08×10-1*** 1.53×10-2* -5.98×10-4** 1.63×10-3** 0.922
L -9.60*** 4.72* -7.39×10-2** 4.51×10-1** 0.911
a 3.76×10*** -1.83* 3.52× 10-2* -2.31×10-1* 0.886
b 6.11×10*** -1.23* 0.738
Functional properties
NSI (%) -1.50×10-1*** 1.34* -1.47×10-2** 8.38×10-2** 0.917
WHC (g H2O/g) 2.09*** -2.31× 10-2* 7.06×10-4*** -4.08×10-3** 2.12×10-4* 0.989
FA (%) 1.50x102*** -1.13*** -4.00x10-2* -2.73x10-1** 1.20x10-1** 0.962
EC (%) -5.45x10*** 2.73* 5.05x10-2* -1.83x10-2* 0.866
INT -1.91*** 1.52x10-1* -5.15x10-3*** -1.46x10-2*** -1.33x10-3** 0.972
Nutritional properties
TIA reduction (%) 6.76x10*** -6.68x10-1** 3.02x10-2*** 1.13x10-1* -1.14x10-1*** 6.73x10-3* 0.977
DIG (%) 1.01x102*** -3.03x10-1** 1.92x10-3*** -6.34x10-2** -1.54x10-3* 2.69x10-3** 0.985
LYS (g/16g N) -1.38x10*** 7.80x10-1* -5.77x10-3** 1.40x10-1*** -5.58x10-3*** 0.977
aBD=bulk density (g/cm3); PD=particle density (g/cm3); POR=porosity (%); L=coefficient dark (0) to bright (+); a=coefficient green (-) to red (+); b=coefficient blue (-) to yellow (+);
NSI=nitrogen solubility index (%); WHC=water-holding capacity (g H 2O/g); FA=fat absorption (%); EC=fat emulsification capacity (%); INT=integrity index; TIA=trypsin inhibitor activity (mg/g);
DIG=in vitro protein digestibility (%); LYS=available lysine (g/16g N).
bM=moisture content (%); N=screw speed (rpm); T and T =barrel temperature (°C); b =constant; b , b , b , b , b
2 3 o M N T2 T3 M•N, bM•T2 and bM•T3=regression coefficients.
***, **, *=Significant at P<0.001, P<0.01, and P<0.05, respectively.
+++Blank spaces indicate coefficient does not contribute significantly to the model.

Effects of process variables on functional properties
The effects of extrusion processing variables on the functional
properties of texturized pea protein products were determined (Table
3). Moisture content, screw speed and barrel temperature T 3 were
major factors influencing functional properties. Nitrogen solubility
index increased with increasing moisture, but decreased as barrel tem-
perature T3 or screw speed increased (Fig. 3A and 3B). This was
expected as moist heat treatments are more effective in denaturing
protein and reducing its solubility. Barrel temperature T2 had little
effect on NSI (Fig. 3B). Extrusion cooking reduced the NSI of air-
classified pea protein from 85.1 to 25.4% (Table 4). The texturized pea
product exhibited a higher NSI than did commercial texturized soy
flour and concentrate.
The WHC of texturized pea protein was increased (p,0.05), from
1.03 to 2.09 g H2O/g sample, by extrusion cooking (Table 4). Neu-
mann et al. (1984) had reported that the WHCs of extrudates from soy
protein and corn were higher than those of unextruded blends. The
WHCs of texturized products increased as barrel temperature T3 or
screw speed was increased, but decreased when moisture content was
increased (Fig. 3C and 3D). Aguilera and Kosikowski (1976) also had
reported that a lower moisture content increased the WHC of texturized
products. Cumming et al. (1972) observed, for defatted soybean meal,
that higher extrusion temperatures resulted in higher WHCs. There was
no difference in WHC between texturized pea protein and commercial
texturized soy flour and soy concentrate (Table 4).
Increasing moisture content, screw speed, and barrel temperatures
T2 and T3 reduced FA (Fig. 3E and 3F). Extrusion cooking reduced
the FA of pea protein (Table 4). There was no difference in FA be-
tween texturized pea protein and texturized soy flour, but texturized
pea protein exhibited lower FA than did texturized soy concentrate.
The EC of pea protein was reduced (p,0.05), from 73.5 to 17.2%, by
extrusion cooking (Table 4). Fat emulsification capacity increased as
moisture content increased but decreased with increase in screw speed
(Fig. 3G and 3H). Barrel temperatures T2 and T3 had little effect on
EC. The EC of texturized pea protein was similar to that of texturized
soy flour, but lower than that of texturized soy concentrate (Table 4).
The INT of texturized pea protein increased as moisture content
increased but decreased with an increase in screw speed or barrel

Volume 64, No. 3, 1999—JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE 511

 Extrusion Texturization of Air-classified Pea Protein . . .
ENGINEERING/PROCESSING

Fig. 1—Effects of processing variables on bulk density (BD), particle Fig. 2—Effects of processing variables on L, a and b color values of
density (PD) and porosity (POR) of extruded air-classified pea protein. extruded air-classified pea protein.

Fig. 3—Effects of processing variables on nitrogen solubility index Fig. 4—Effects of processing variables on integrity index (INT), re-
(NSI), water holding capacity (WHC), fat absorption (FA) and fat emul- duction of trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), in vitro protein digestibility
sification capacity (EC) of extruded air-classified pea protein. (DIG) and available lysine (LYS) of extruded air-classified pea protein.

512 JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE—Volume 64, No. 3, 1999

Table 4—Physical, functional and nutritional properties of texturized rel temperature (T2 and T3) or screw speed was increased (Fig. 4G
pea protein and commercial extruded soy products a and 4H). However, the loss of LYS was reduced as the moisture
Products content was increased (Fig. 4G). This confirmed results reported by
Propertiesb Raw pea Texturized Texturized Texturized Bjorck and Asp (1983). The dark color of texturized pea protein prod-
protein pea protein soy flour soy conc ucts was probably related to the loss of LYS, since lysine is the most
Physical properties reactive amino acid in the Maillard reactions (Berset, 1989). There
BD (g/cm3) NAd 0.39a 0.32a 0.34a was no difference in LYS between texturized pea protein and commer-
PD (g/cm3) NA 1.27a 1.25a 1.22a cial texturized soy flour and soy concentrate (Table 4).
POR (%) NA 0.69a 0.74a 0.72a
L 86.69a 66.28c 59.04c 78.52b
a 1.46d 7.78a 5.75b 1.64c CONCLUSIONS
b 17.27b 23.24a 16.58b 16.28b AIR CLASSIFIED PEA PROTEIN WAS SUCCESSFULLY TEXTURIZED
Functional properties
NSI (%) 85.1a 25.7b 12.0c 7.2d
using a twin-screw extruder. Extrusion cooking improved both the
WHC (g H2O/g) 1.03b 2.08a 2.02a 2.08a functional (water hydration capacity) and nutritional (protein digest-
FA (%) 121.3a 100.8c 106.3c 112.5b ibility, trypsin inhibitor activity) properties of texturized pea protein.
EC (%) 73.5a 17.2c 15.0c 23.5b The texturized product had a meat-like texture when rehydrated, and
INT NA 1.07a 1.24a 1.30a
Nutritional properties lacked the bitter flavor associated with raw pea (by informal tests),
TIA (mg/g) 5.51a 1.80c (28.5)e 2.67b 2.78b and resembled commercial texturized soy flour and concentrate with
TIA reduction (%) 0.0 67.5 NA NA respect to most physical and functional properties. Application of the
DIG (%) 89.1c 96.2a 97.2a 95.0b
LYS (g/16g N) 6.0a 4.3b 4.1b 4.2b texturized pea protein product as a supplement or extender in meat
aMeans in rows with the same letter are not significantly different (p>0.05) as determined
systems needs to be evaluated.
using Duncan’s multiple range test.
bBD=bulk density (g/cm3); PD=particle density (g/cm3); POR=porosity (%); L=coefficient
dark (0) to bright (+); a= coefficient green (-) to red (+); b=coefficient blue (-) to yellow (+);
REFERENCES
NSI = nitrogen solubility index (%); WHC= water-holding capacity (g H2O/g); FA=fat Abdel-Aal, E.-S.M., Sosulski, F.W., Adel, A., Shehata, Y., Youssef, M.M., and Ibave, J.L.
absorption (%); EC=fat emulsification capacity (%); INT=integrity index; TIA=trypsin inhibitor 1992. Effect of extrusion cooking on the physical and functional properties of wheat,
activity (mg/g); DIG=in vitro protein digestibility (%); LYS=available lysine (g/16g N). rice and fababean blends. Lebensm.-Wiss. u.-Technol. 25: 21-25.
cAverages of 13 treatments. Aguilera, J.M., and Kosikowski, F.V. 1976. Soybean extruded product: A response
dNA=not analysed.
surface analysis. J. Food Sci. 42: 647-651.
eTIA in soy flour (Smith et al., 1980).
AACC. 1995. Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists, 9th
ed. St. Paul, MN.
AOAC. 1990. Official Methods of Analysis, 15th ed. Association of Official Analytical

temperature T2 (Fig. 4A and 4B). At lower moisture content, INT
increased with an increase in barrel temperature T3, whereas at higher
moisture content, INT decreased slightly as barrel temperature T3
increased (Fig. 4A). There were no differences in INT between tex-
turized pea protein and commercial soy products (Table 4).
Effects of process variables on TIA, protein digestibility
and lysine
Much of the TIA in pea protein was destroyed by extrusion pro-
cessing (Table 4). The TIA in texturized pea products was affected by
all processing variables (p,0.05) (Table 3). TIA reduction increased
as barrel temperature (T2 and T3) or screw speed increased, but de-
creased when moisture content increased (Fig. 4C and 4D). Aguilera
and Kosikowski (1976) had reported that low dough moisture content
resulted in lower TIAs in texturized soy products. The amount of heat
supplied to the product depends upon the magnitude of the conducted
heat (through the barrel) and the frictional heat (which was directly
proportional to the viscosity). Harper et al. (1971), working with
cereal doughs in the moisture range of 15–30%, reported an exponen-
tial increase in viscosity as moisture content decreased. Therefore,
higher internal heat would be generated as moisture was reduced.
Thus, a product produced at lower moisture content would be expect-
ed to have lower residual TIA. The TIA in the texturized pea protein
product was lower than that in either commercial texturized soy flour
or soy concentrate (Table 4), since raw pea is much lower in TIA than
is unprocessed soybean.
In vitro protein digestibility (DIG) increased from 89.1% for raw
pea protein to 96.2% for the texturized product (Table 4). Extrusion, in
general, improved DIG, confirming published results (Bjorck and
Asp 1983; Tovar et al., 1990). The DIG increased as screw speed or
barrel temperature T3 increased, but decreased with increasing mois-
ture (Fig. 4E and 4F). Barrel temperature T2 had little effect on DIG.
A higher screw speed would increase the shear rate, thus denaturing
protein and increasing enzyme hydrolysis (Hsu et al., 1977b). The
increase in DIG might also be attributed, in part, to the observed
reduction in TIA. No differences in DIG between texturized pea pro-
tein and commercial texturized soy flour were observed, but DIG in
texturized pea protein was slightly higher than that in commercial
texturized soy concentrate (Table 4).
Available lysine (LYS) in texturized products decreased when bar-
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Ms received 6/27/98; revised 1/29/99; accepted 2/9/99.
We are grateful to the Food Processing Development Centre, Leduc, AB for the use of their extruder.
This project was funded by the Strategic Research Program of Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food,
Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada.

Reprinted from J. Food Sci. 64(3)

©1999 Institute of Food Technologists Volume 64, No. 3, 1999—JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE 513