THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE

Sixth Edition
Contents
Preface
In This New Edition
To the Student
 1
The Origins of Language
◈
The Divine Source
The Natural Sound Source
The Social Interaction Source
The Physical Adaptation Source
The Tool-Making Source
The Genetic Source
Study Questions
Tasks
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
Human Physical Development
Music before Language
A Hum Versus a Grunt
Victor, Genie and Feral Children
“Bow-Wow” Theory, etc.
The Early Sounds Made by Infants
Social Interaction
Physical Development
Gesture
Brain Development
Stone Tools
Innateness
Against Innateness
Other References
 2
Animals and Human Language
◈
Communication
Properties of Human Language
Talking to Animals
Chimpanzees and Language
Using Language
Study Questions
Tasks
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
General Properties of Language
Glossolalia
Animal Communication and Consciousness
Bee Communication
Lemur and Vervet Monkey Communication
Chimpanzee Gestures
Individual Chimpanzees and Bonobos
Other References
 3
The Sounds of Language
◈
Phonetics
Consonants
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
Place of Articulation
 θ

ʃ
ʧ
ʒ
ʤ
ʃ ʧ ʒ ʤ

ɡ
ɡ ŋ
ɡ
θ

ʃ ʧ ʒ ʤ

ŋ
 ŋ
ɡ
 Manner of Articulation

θ ʒ
ʃ

ʧ ʤ

ŋ
A Consonant Chart

θ ʃ ʒ

ʧ ʤ

ŋ
ʔ

ɾ
 Vowels

ɪ ʊ

ε ʌ ɔ

ɪ ʌ ʊ
ε ɔ

α
 Diphthongs

ɪ ɪ

ʊ
ʊ ʊ
ʊ ʊ ʊ
ɪ ʊ
ɪ ʊ

ʊ ɔɪ

ɪ
ɪ ʊ ʊ

ə ɪə ʊə əʊ
 Subtle Individual Variation

ə
ʌ ə
Study Questions
 ɪ ʊ ɪ

ʤ ʊ ɪŋ

ə ʤɔɪ ʧɪ ʤ

ɪ ʊ ʃ
 Tasks

ɹ ɚ
ə

ə ɹθ ɪ ə ə ʌ ɚ ɪ ɪŋ ɪʧ ə ə ɹɑŋɡɚ ɛ ə ɹ əɚ
ə ɑŋ ɹ ɪ ə ɹ əɡɹ ə ə ʌ ɚ ə ə ɪ ɪŋ ə
ɹ əɚ ɪ ɑ ʃʊ ə ɪ ɚ ɹɑŋɡɚ ə ɪ ə ɚ ɛ ə ɹθ ɪ
ə ɑɹ ə ʊ ə ə ɹ ə ɹ ɪ ə ɹ ɚ ɪ
əɹ ʊ ɪ ə ə ɹθ ɪ ɡ ʌ əɛ ɛ ə ʌ ʃ ɪ ʊ
ɹ ə ɪ ə ə ɹ ɚ ʊ ɑ ɪ ə ə ɹθ ɪ ə ə ɪʒ ɪ
ə ɛ ə ə ʌ ə ə ɹɑŋɡɚ ə ə

ɪ
ʃ
 ǰ

ɪǰ ǰɪ ɛə ʊ ɪ

ə ə
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic treatments
More Detailed Treatments
On Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics
On Phonetic Symbols
Phonetic Descriptions of Other Languages
A Phonetics Dictionary
On Pronunciation
Pronunciation of Other Varieties of British English
Other References
 4
The Sound Patterns of Language
◈
 Phonology

ʌ ə ə ə θ
Phonemes
 Phones and Allophones

ʔ
ɪθ
θ
̪
ʰ ɾ ʔ ̪

̪
Phonotactics

ɪɡ ɪɡ
Syllables
ɛ ɪ
Coarticulation Effects
ə
 ɪ

ɪ̃ ̃

ɡ ŋ

ɪ əŋɡ ʊ ə

ə ə
 ɛ ʃɪ

ɛ ə

ɛ ɪ ɪ ə
ə ɪ ə ʊ

→ → ə

→ → ̴̃

→ ə → ə

→ ɪə ə → ɪ ə
Study Questions
 Tasks

ʔ
ɑ ɪ
 Discussion Topics/Projects

ə ɪ
Bob Belviso Translated
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
Syllables
Phonotactics
Coarticulation
Assimilation and Elision
Other References
 5
Word Formation
◈
Neologisms
Etymology
Borrowing

ʒ
Compounding
Clipping
→ →

→ →

→ → →
 Conversion

→ →
Coinage
Derivation
Multiple Processes
Study Questions
Tasks
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
Etymology
Googling
Borrowing
Borrowing in Brazilian Portuguese
Compounding
Hypocorisms
Conversion
Eponyms
Derivation
Infixes
Analogy
Other References
 6
Morphology
◈
Morphology
Morphemes
Morphological Description
 Morphs, Allomorphs and Special Cases

ɔɡ ɔ ə

ʃ ⊘ ⊘
→
ɛ
ɛ
Other languages
 ə

ə
Study Questions
 ŋ

ə əǰ
Tasks
ʔ
 ʔ
ʔ
 ə ə

ə ə

ə ə

ə ə ə

ə
 ə ə

ə ə

ə
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
Specifically on English Morphology
Reduplication
Morphology Exercises
Other References
 7
Grammar
◈
 ɔɪ
əʌ ɔɪ
English Grammar
Traditional Grammar
The Prescriptive Approach
The Descriptive Approach
Subjects and Objects
Word Order
Study Questions
Tasks
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
Grammatical Terms
On the Prescriptive Approach
Constituent Analysis
Subjects and Objects
Word Order and Typology
Gaelic Sentence Structure
English Grammar Courses
English Reference Grammars
Other References
 8
Syntax
◈
Syntactic rules
Deep and Surface Structure
 Syntactic Analysis

→
→

→
→

→ →

→
 Phrase Structure Rules

→
 Lexical Rules

→ →

→ →

→ →
Tree Diagrams
Just Scratching the Surface
 Study Questions

→
 Tasks

⇒
⇒
→ →

→ →

→ →
→ →

→ →

→ →

→
ə ə

ə ə

ə ə

ə ə
→

→
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
Specifically on English Syntax
On Generative Grammar
On Structural Ambiguity
Tree Diagrams
Other References
 9
Semantics
◈
Meaning
Semantic Features
Semantic Roles
Lexical Relations
Collocation
Study Questions
 Tasks

ɪ ɛ ə
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
Referential and Associative Meaning
Semantic Roles
Lexical Relations
Antonymy
Prototypes
Metonymy
Collocation and Corpus Linguistics
Other References
 10
Pragmatics
◈
Invisible Meaning
Context
ɪ ɪ
Reference
Presupposition
Pragmatic Markers
Politeness
Speech Acts
Study Questions
Tasks
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
Context and Co-Text
Reference and Deixis
Anaphora
Presupposition
Pragmatic Markers
Politeness and Face
Speech Acts
Other References
 11
Discourse analysis
◈
Discourse
Cohesion
Coherence
Conversation analysis
The Co-operative Principle
Background Knowledge
Study Questions
Tasks
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
Specifically on Spoken Discourse
Specifically on Written Discourse
Different Approaches to Discourse Analysis
Conversation Analysis
Adjacency Pairs
The Gricean Maxims
Implicature
Schemas and Scripts
Other References
 12
Language and the Brain
◈
Neurolinguistics
Language Areas in the Brain
Tongue Tips and Slips
Aphasia
Dichotic Listening
The Critical Period
Study Questions
Tasks
 Discussion Topics/Projects

→ →

→ →

→ →

→ →

→ →
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
On Phineas Gage
Brain Structure
Brain Imaging
Slips
Language Disorders
Aphasia
Dichotic Listening
The Critical Period
Genie
Other References
 13
First Language Acquisition
◈
Acquisition
The Acquisition Schedule
 ɡ

ɡ
ʌ
The Acquisition Process
Developing Morphology

ə
Developing Syntax
⇒
Developing Semantics
Study Questions
 Tasks

ə ɪ

ʌ ʌ ɪə
ɡ
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
Speech Perception in Infants
Babbling
The One-Word Stage
Morphological Development
Syntactic Development
Semantic Development
Rational and Empirical Perspectives (in that order)
Other References
 14
Second Language
Acquisition/Learning
◈
Second Language Learning
Focus on Teaching Method
Focus on the Learner
Communicative Competence
Study Questions
Tasks
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
Theoretical Perspectives
Translation
Bilingual Acquisition
Comparing First and Second Language Acquisition
The Effects of Age
Focus on Method
Focus on the Learner
Pronunciation with Wine
The Horseshoe Example
Task-Based Learning
Other References
 15
Gestures and Sign Languages
◈
Gestures
Types of Sign Languages
Oralism
Signed English
Origins of ASL
The Structure of Signs
Representing Signs
The Meaning of Signs
ASL as a Natural Language
Study Questions
Tasks
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
ASL Courses
Australian and British Sign Languages
Finger-Spelling
Alternate Sign Languages
Other References
 16
Written Language
◈
Writing
Phonographic Writing
Syllabic Writing
Alphabetic Writing
Written English

ʃ
ʃ
Study Questions
Tasks
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
A Comprehensive Review
Precursors of Writing
Ancient Languages
Cuneiform
Egyptian
Ancient Greek
Cherokee
The Alphabet
Written English
The “Ghost” Story
Other References
 17
Language History and Change
◈
Family Trees
Indo-European
Comparative Reconstruction

→
ʃ
ʃ
ʃ
→ → → ɡ
 The History of English

→ → →
→
 Sound Changes

→ →

ɪ
ɪ
→ → →

→ → →

→
→ → →
→ →

→ →
Syntactic Changes
Semantic Changes
Diachronic and Synchronic Variation
 Study questions

→ → →

→ → →
Tasks
ʻ ʻ ʔ
 ʻ ʻ

ʻ ʻ
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
Language Families
Indo-European
Language Change
History of the English Language
Old, Middle and Early Modern English
On Sir William Jones
Broadening and Narrowing of Meaning
On “Lovely” and “Rather”
Other References

ʻ
 18
Regional Variation in Language
◈
The Standard Language
Dialectology
ɔ ʊ ɪ

ɡ
Bilingualism
Language Planning
Pidgins
Creoles
Study Questions
Tasks
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
American English Dialects
British English Dialects
Other Varieties of English
Standard Englishes
Bilingualism
Language Planning
The Language Situation in Tanzania Now
Pidgins and Creoles
The Dutch–German Dialect Continuum
Tok Pisin (baimbai)
Hawai‘i Creole English
Other References
 19
Social Variation in Language
◈
Sociolinguistics
ɪ
ŋ
Speech Style and Style-Shifting
Speech Accommodation
Register
Slang
African American English
ə
Study Questions
Tasks
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
Speech Accommodation
Register
Slang
African American English
Other References
 20
Language and Culture
◈
Culture
Categories
Linguistic Relativity
Cognitive Categories
Social Categories
Gender
 ↑
↑ ↑
Study Questions
Tasks
Discussion Topics/Projects
Further Reading
Basic Treatments
More Detailed Treatments
Culture
Categories
Color Terms
Linguistic Relativity
The Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis
Cognitive Categories
Classifiers
Social Categories
Developing Social Gender
Gender and Language
Sources of Examples
Other References
Glossary
→
→
→
→
→
ə
References
Index
ƥ