Introduction to Computers Guide

Introduction To Computer
Seven Star Health Science and Business

College
Business Department
Distance education coordination office
Introduction to
Computer
final Module
May /2022
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Contents
1.0 Aims and Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Data
1.3 Source of Information
1.3.1 The value of information
1.3.2 Characteristics of valuable information
1.4 What is Technology?
1.5 Components of IT
1.5.1 Computers
1.5.2 Communication networks
1.5.3 Know How
1.6 History of Computers
1.6.1Abacus
1.6.2 Napier’s logs and bones:
1.6.3 Slide rule
1.6.4 Calculating machines and Pascal’s calculator:
1.6.5 Babbage difference and analytical engines
1.7 Generations of Computers
1.7.1 First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes
1.7.2 Second Generation Computers (1956-1963): Transistors
1.7.3 Third Generation Computers (1964 - early 1970s):
1.7.4 Fourth Generation Computers (Early 1970s – till date):
1.7.5 Fifth Generation Computers (Present and beyond):
1.8 Types of Computer
1.8.1 Microcomputers
1.8.2 Mini Computers
1.8.3 Mainframe Computers
1.8.4 Supercomputer
1.9 Importance of Computers in Business
1.10 Computer Applications
1.10.1 Business Applications
1.10.2 On-Line Applications
1.10.3 Real-Time Applications
1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
After successfully completing this unit, the learner should able to:
Understand History of Computers
Identify Generations of Computers
Describe Types of Computer
Understand Importance of Computersin Business
Point out Computer Applications
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Dear learner! We collect and use information in one way or the other in our daily life
What is information?
Dear learner! Information: is collection of meaningful facts and figures that can be
used as a base for guidance and decision making.
Dear learner! When it is said that information serves as a base for guidance; it means
information guides the activities of individuals; business organizations or societies. It is
on basis of relevant information that we make decisions. For example you don’t go to
school for registration unless you have information that registration is scheduled for
specific date or you don’t iron your shirt if you don’t have the information it is washed.
1.2 DATA
Dear learner! The word data is the plural form of datum. However it is become standard
practice to treat the word data as singular rather than plural. Data means any collection of
raw hand figures and facts that represents features, or details about peoples, objects,
places, ideas, events, and etc. data can represent small items so small that individual
items have no meaning on their own. For example black hair, 100km, red bull, tall
building, dense forest, etc are representation of data and are known as data elements or
data items. In short data is the raw material for information. Data may be numerical such
as payroll, employee Number, etc. or non-numerical like Student names, Product names,
etc
ACTIVITY
Dear learner! Differentiate data and information
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Dear learner! Below are given the difference of data and information and please
compare it with your attempts.
DATA vs. INFORMATION

Data Information
-Raw records -Completed One
-Un ordered -Ordered
-Unrefined Data - Refined Data
-What prevails - What is necessary?
1.3 SOURCE OF INFORMATION
Information can be obtain from different sources .In general the various source
information are classified in to two major categories 1.documentary sources and 2.
non documentary sources
Documentary sources are documented or recorded sources of

information in different forms. Further categorized in to three groups
primary source ,secondary source and tertiary sources. The order in
which they are available to public use is also in this sequence.
1. primary documentary source are the first published record of original research
and development undertakings. It also be description of new application or new
interpretation of an old idea.in other word if a documents represents unfiltered
and original idea it is known as primary source.
2. secondary documentary source are those sources which are either compiled
from or referred to primary documentary source of information. In order to
serve a particular purpose the original information in primary sources is
modified, selected/or reorganized ,digested and repackaged knowledge rather
than new knowledge. It is easy to get secondary documented source of
information than primary documented sources.
3. Tertiary documentary source
Tertiary documented source of information contain refined,or distilled and

collected from primary and secondary source of information. Tertiary sources are
organized with the aim of assisting th searcher of information in the use of primary
and secondary sources.
Non Documentary sources non documentary sources are those sources

which are non intentionally organized and documented to serve a wide
range actual and potential user. It form a substantial part of
communication particularly in science and technology
1.3.1 The value of information
Information should be valuable to the user information is required to make decision or to
take action. The value of information can be measured in terms of
The time it saves to make decision
The increase in profits it brings to the organization and
Cost benefit
1.3.2 Characteristics of valuable information

Valuable information should have to the following characteristics: accuracy,
completeness, flexibility, reliability, relevance and accessibility. It should also be timely
and economical.
1.4 WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY?
Technology refers to all the means people use their inventions, and discoveries to satisfy
their needs and desires .also science and technology are complementary, they are not the
same science attempts to why and how things happen. Technology is concerning with
making developments. Also it can be defined as uses computers to gather, process, store,
protect, and transfer information. Today, it is common to use the term Information and
communications technology (ICT) because it is unimaginable to work on a computer
which is not connected to the network .Information Technology (IT in short) is the
use of modern technology to aid the capture, processing, storage and retrieval, and
communication of information, whether in the form of numerical data, text, sound or
image.In this definition, the phrase: modern technology: is used to exclude the traditional
methods of information handling using simple tools such as pencil and paper.
1.5 COMPONENTS OF IT
Information technology is dividing into three primary components: computers,

communication network, and know-how the ways in which these elements are combined
create opportunities for people and organization to be productive, and generally are
successful.
1.5.1 COMPUTERS
In simplest terms, a computer is a machine that can be instructed to accept Process, store ,
and present information The computer has become a part of The day-to-day existence of
people around the globe. It is difficult to think of any field that does not involve or is not
affected by the rapidly advancing computer technology.
1.5.2 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
A network is a system composed of interconnected computers, peripherals,

telecommunication and other specialized devices that allow information to be moved
between two remote point of communication.
Networking has many advantages. Those are:
Speeding the transmission of information.
Facilitates sharing of resources
Use media of communication to transport information from one location to
another
1.5.3 KNOW HOW

It includes:
Familiarity with tools of IT
The skills needed to use this tools

Understanding when to use IT to solve a problem or capitalize on an
opportunity
1.6 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
In the early days of mankind, man used to count the head of cattle by putting lines on
trees. Slowly these lines changed to numbers. To do calculation on numbers he started
inventing machines.
1.6.1Abacus
In 5000 B.C an early manual calculating device was Abacus. It was probably the earliest
of counting devices consists of rectangular wooden frame with two compartments and
beads sliding along the steel wires for counting. Multiplication and divisions are done
using repeated additions and subtractions. Even today in which cross strings are fixed.
Beads are inserted on to the strings. There are a number of rows of beads.
1.6.2 Napier’s logs and bones:
John Napier, a Scottish mathematician invented logarithms. The use of logarithms
enabled him to transform multiplications and division problems of addition and
subtractions. In the beginning he called logarithms as artificial numbers. But later he
named them logarithms. Napier also invented a computing device consisting of sticks
with numbers carved on them. These sticks are called bones as they were made of bones.
These bones helped a lot in multiplication involving large numbers.
1.6.3 Slide rule
As the name indicates, the slide rule has one scale sliding within the other. Suppose you
want to add two numbers 3 and 5, set 3 on the fixed scale and slide the moving scale. So
that its “0’ coincides with”5” of sliding scale. This is the sum of 3 and 5. The process of
reading could be quick if you are trained in the use of slide rule.
1.6.4 Calculating machines and Pascal’s calculator:

A French mathematician, Blaise Pascal invented a machine based on gear wheels. He was
the son of tax collector who had to do lot of calculations as part of his job. Blaise Pascal
wanted to make his job easier by inventing a calculator. You might be familiar with gear
wheels in use in your bicycle which meshes with a driving chain. He used similar gear
wheels with ten teeth for each digit position. He fixed them together so that one wheel
drives the other. When the wheel corresponding to units position rotated by ten teeth, it
drove the wheel corresponding to the next higher position by one tooth. Thus one could
make calculations. Pascal provided dials, which indicated numbers stored on each wheel.
He also used suitable “dialling system” to operate the
gear wheels. Other people also made a number of such calculators. Computer scientists
honoured Pascal by naming a programming language Pascal after him.
1.6.5 Babbage difference and analytical engines
Babbage, a British National and the son of a wealthy banker wanted to correct the errors
in the logarithm tables being used during his time. In 1822, he made a machine which
calculated the successive difference of expressions (X2 + ax + b is an example of an
expression) and prepared table which helped him in his calculations. The royal
Astronomical society awarded a gold medal to him for his invention and granted a large
sum of money to carry out further work. He wanted to make an accurate calculating
machine called “Babbage’s Analytical Engine”. The analytical Engine was supposed to
be very accurate. So it needed lot of parts made with precision. Babbage could not make
such parts. He conceived that his machine would use input devices, would have a
processing part called “mill” where you can perform calculations, would also incorporate
It consists of rectangular frame in which cross strings are fixed. Beads are inserted on to
the strings. There are a number of rows of beads .Since he was about 100 years ahead in
his ideas, he could not get parts needed for his machine. This is because there were no
tools to make such precision parts. He did lot of work related to making precision parts
and spend all the grants (and lot of his money too) but failed in his attempt to make a
machine. He ultimately died as a frustrated man.
1.7 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
1.7.1 First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes

First generation computers were vacuum tube / thermionic valves-based machines. These
computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. A magnetic
drum is a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on which data and
programs can be stored. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output
was displayed on printouts. First generation computers relied on binary-coded language
(language of 0s and 1s) to perform operations and were able to solve only one problem at
a time. Each machine was fed with different binary codes and hence were difficult to
program. This resulted in lack of versatility and speed. In addition, to run on different
types of computers, instructions must be rewritten or recompiled. In 1947 john Mauchly
and Eckart completed the first large scale Electronic Digital Computer, ENIAC. In this
computer, each time a program was changed, the wiring had to be completely rearranged.
It weighed 30 tons, contained 18,000 vacuum tubes and occupied a space of 30 50 feet.
Maurice V.Wilkes of CambridgeUniversity completed EDSAC in 1949. EDSAC was the
first computer to operate on the stored program concept.
Characteristics of first generations computers:

These computers were based on vacuum tube technology.
These were the fastest computing devices of their times. (Computation time was in
milliseconds)
These computers were very large, and required a lot of space for installation.
Since thousands of vacuum tubes were used, they generated a large amount of heat.
Therefore, air conditioning was essential.
These were non-portable and very slow equipments.
The lacked in versatility and speed.
They were very expensive to operate and used a large amount of electricity.
These machines were unreliable and prone to frequent hardware failures.
Hence, constant maintenance was required.
Since machine language was used, these computers were difficult to program and
use.
Each individual component had to be assembled manually. Hence, commercial
appeal of these computers was poor.
1.7.2 Second Generation Computers (1956-1963): Transistors

In the sixties, there was lot of development in semiconductor field - a field of materials.
In vacuum tubes, a filament is heated to emit electrons,(the basic component of an
atom)that carry current. In 1946,Willam Shockley and a few of his colleagues invented
transistors, which do not need any heating to liberate electrons in addition to being
smaller in size, they saved power due to the absence of heating and hence the cooling
needed. the smaller size resulted in smaller distances that the electrons have to travel to
transmit information from one part of the computer to another. Hence calculations
became faster. Magnetic core storage and the reliability also increased. Today you
cannot see any second generation computers. The smaller size of components saw mass
production of computers which became cheaper. Many companies started buying and
using them increasing the demand. Computer programming languages developed further
to make programming easier and user friendly. yet if you compare today’s computers,
they were a lot behind. The increased use of computers and the consequent mass
production sent the prices crashing down. Computer scientists and electronic engineers
were developing more sophisticated computers.
Characteristics of second generation computers:

These machines were based on transistor technology.
These were smaller as compared to the first generation computers.
The computational time of these computers was reduced to microseconds form
milliseconds.
These were more reliable and less prone to hardware failure. Hence, such computers
required less frequent maintenance.
These were more portable and generated less amount of heat.
Assemble language was used to program computers. Hence, programming became
more time efficient and less cumbersome.
Second generation computers still required air conditioning.
Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was still required.
1.7.3 Third Generation Computers (1964 - early 1970s): Integrated circuits

In second generation computers, one could recognize the circuit components such as
transistors, resistors and capacitors distinctly. There were physically separate or
“discreet”. Slowly scientists started integrating these components together so that they are
not separate. They were fused into the circuits. People called it large scale integrated
circuits (LSI). Computers using such components were called third generation computers.
Since components were packed together more densely, the size of computers became
smaller. Programmers also developed more sophisticated software. Improved secondary
storage device, new input and out put devices(visual display magnetic ink reader, and
high speed printers) was discovered.
Characteristics of third generation’s computers:

These computers were based on integrated circuit (IC) technology.
They were able to reduce computational time from microseconds to nanoseconds.
They were easily portable and more reliable than the second generation.
These devices consumed less power and generated less heat. In some cases, air
conditioning was still required.
The size of these computers was smaller as compared to previous computers.
Since hardware rarely failed, the maintenance cost was quite low.
Extensive use of high-level languages became possible.
Manual assembling of individual components was not required, so it reduced the
large requirement of labour and cost. However, highly sophisticated technologies were
required for the manufacture of IC chips.
Commercial production became easier and cheaper.
Integrated circuit increased the speed of computer by factor of 100,000 over first
generation
1.7.4 Fourth Generation Computers (Early 1970s – till date): Micro processors
More and more circuits were packed in a microprocessor. The components were
integrated further and very large scale integration (VLSI) technology revolutionized
computer field further. Intel Corporation made chips such as 8080 and 8086 to be
followed by 80286, 80386, 80486 and now the Pentium processor. These chips perform
calculations faster. They are not only used in computers, but also in measuring devices
and even in house hold devices such as washing machines.
Computers using such VLSI chips progressively shrunk in size. Computers using the
microprocessors are termed as microcomputers. The software technology also developed
further. Programmers developed more sophisticated and user friendly software. In course
of time, the cost of these computers have come down so much that even individuals
bought them so they came to be known as personal computers.
Characteristics of Fourth generation computers:

Fourth generation computers are microprocessor-based systems.
These computers are very small.
Fourth generation computers are the cheapest among all the other generations.
They are portable and quite reliable.
These machines generate negligible amount of heat, hence they do not require air
conditioning.
Hardware failure is negligible so minimum maintenance is required.
The production cost is very low.
GUI and pointing devices enable users to learn to use the computer quickly.
Interconnection of computers leads to better communication and resource sharing.
1.7.5Fifth Generation Computers (Present and beyond): Artificial Intelligence

Up to fourth generation, the classification was based purely on hardware. Fifth generation
computers are classified based on software also. VLSI technology is used in fifth
generation computers. They have large main memories. The speed is also high. In
addition to all this, Fifth generation computers run software called ‘expert systems’.
Characteristics of Fifth Generation computers:
Mega Chips:
Fifth generation computers will use Super large Scale integrated (SLSI) chips, which will
result in the production of microprocessor having millions of electronic components on a
single chip. In order to store instructions and information, fifth generation computers
require a great amount of storage capacity. Mega chips may enable the computer to
approximate the memory capacity of the human mind.
Parallel Processing:
Most computers today access and execute only one instruction at a time. This is called
serial processing. However, a computer using parallel processing accesses several
instructions at once and works on them at the same time through use of multiple central
processing units.
Artificial Intelligence (AI):

It refers to a series of related technologies that tries to simulate and reproduce human
behaviour, including thinking, speaking and reasoning. AI comprises a group of related
technologies: expert systems (ES), natural language processing (NLP), speech
recognition, vision recognition, and robotics.
1.8 TYPES OF COMPUTER
Different types of computers are used in different organization and offices based on the
individual and organization needs. In general computers can be categorized in four types
based on their processing speed, power, cost and size. These are Microcomputers,
minicomputers, mainframe computers and supercomputers.
1.8.1 Microcomputers
Microcomputers (often called personal computers or pcs in short) are smallest but most
important and most frequently used category of computer for end users. They are
relatively small and compact in size and identified by their brand names :IBM, APPLE
,COMPAQ DELL, HAWLET PACKARD(HP),NEC ,ZENITH, TOSHIBA etc. basically
they can be grouped in to three :laptop, palmtop, and desktop Laptop computers
Small versions of microcomputers about the size of a brief case designed for portability.
Unlike desktop pcs that have mostly detachable components laptops include all their
components (except printer) in single unit. They It has high capacity and processing
speeds as the desktop pcs. They are used in the home, in conference places, and other
areas.
Palmtop computers
Palmtop computer is smallest microcomputers that about the same size in pocket
calculator.
Most portable
Is growing popularity among the latest entries in the microcomputer companies
Used for limited numbers of functions
Desktop computers
Desktop computers are most widely used type of personal computers. Unlike laptop
and palmtop computers desktop computer have detachable parts. It is larger than the other
types of pcs. Not easily portable. It needs table on which the computer can be placed for
convenient operation.
1.8.2 MINI COMPUTERS

Minicomputers are midrange computers that are large and more powerful than most
microcomputers but smaller and less powerful than mainframe computer. It is cost less to
buy and maintain than mainframe.
Are being used for a large number of business and scientific application
They are popularly used in scientific laboratory, research centres, universities
and colleges..etc.
Play major role in computer aided manufacturing(CAM) and computer aided
design (CAD)
1.8.3 MAINFRAME COMPUTERS
Dear learner! Main frame computers are designed to handle the information processing
needs of organizations with many employees and customers or with complex
computational problem. Used by the organizations those have enormous and complex
data assignments. Such government can be government agencies like Ethiopian central
statistics authority, large bank, hospital, Airlines, industrial and manufacturing
organization. For example AAU since 1980s has been using mainframe computer.
1.8.4 SUPERCOMPUTER
Extremely powerful computer designed for high speed processing .
Characterised as being the fastest,
Most powerful
Most expensive
Requires highly trained data processing professionals to operate computers
It Can take inputs from over 10,000 individual computers and users at the same
time.
Research institution, military defence system, national weather forecasting
agencies, large corporations, aircraft manufacturers ,etc largely use
supercomputers.
1.9 IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS
Computer plays an important role in business environment as every organisation adopts it

in some form or the other to perform the tasks in effective manner. In the past few years’
rapid development in IT, particularly in communications, electronic service networks,
and multimedia have opened up new opportunities for corporates. All these are
contributing towards new and effective ways of processing business transactions,
integrating business processes, transferring payments and delivering services
electronically. It has affected the business in the following ways:
1. Office Automation
Computers have helped automation of many industrial and business systems. They are
used extensively in manufacturing and processing industries, power distribution systems,
airline reservation systems, transportation systems, banking systems, and so on.
Computer aided design (CAP) and computer-aided manufacture (CAM) are becoming
popular among the large industrial establishment.
2. Stores large amount of date and information
Business and commercial organizations need to store and maintain voluminous records
and use them for various purposes such as inventory control, sales analysis, payroll
accounting, resources scheduling and generation of management reports. Computers can
store and maintain files and can sort, merge or update as and when necessary.
3. Improves Productivity
With the introduction of word processing software, Computers have recently been
applied to the automation of office tasks and procedures. This is aimed at improving the
productivity of both clerical & managerial staff
4. Sharing of data and information
Due to networking of computers, where a number of computers are connected together to
share the data and information, use of e-mail and internet has changed the ways of
business operations.
5. Competitiveness
Computers offer a reliable and cost-effective means of doing business electronically.
Routine tasks can be automated. The customers can be provided support round the clock,
which is 24 hours a day. With advancement in IT sector, corporates are spreading
business around the world thus, increasing their presence and entering new markets.
6. Security
To provide security to data and important computer programs, almost every organisation
has some security programs to avoid the illegal access of the company’s information by
unauthorized persons. The three fundamental attributor of a security program are
confidentially, integrity and availability which allow access to only authorized persons in
an organization.
7. Cost Benefits
The extensive availability of internet based information means that companies have a
wider choice of suppliers which leads to a more competitive pricing. Due to the presence
of internet the role of the middleman becomes less important as companies can sell their
product or services directly to the customer.
8. Marketing
Corporates engaged in e-business can take help of their respective websites to create
brand awareness of their products, thus, creating new avenues of promotion of their
products. In addition, companies’ websites can also provide better services such as after
sales service to the customer.
1.10 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
Computer plays a very important role in each and every aspect of our life, be it banking,
insurance or transportation, it is useful for preparing payroll of the employees,
maintenance of optimum inventory level, sales order processing, reservation of tickets
etc. It processes the transactions very quickly and accurately. So, it finds applications in
various stages of business
1. Computer is useful in business processes like payroll processing for generating
statements useful for various departments like provident office, ESI etc.
2. It is useful for inventory control activities such as maintaining optimum inventory
level and re-order level.
3. Online applications in banking and reservation have brought about advantages
like saving of time and money.
4. Car manufacturing industries and other production functions use real time
applications effectively.
1.11 BUSINESS APPLICATIONS
The following are some of the areas of business in which computers are applied:
1. Payroll Processing:
Business means selling goods and services. To carry out such activities, business
management employs people. They have to be paid monthly salaries and the details
regarding pay particulars of employees have to be kept track.
Business community employs computers for such payroll applications and runs a
program consisting of a number of smaller programs or modules. Each module performs
a particular function of the payroll. Sometimes we call this set of programs as payroll
system. To calculate the pay of an employee, management normally uses the following
details of employees.
(1) Employee number (This is a unique number assigned to the employee to identify
him just as your roll number in the school)
(2) Name, (3) Basic pay, (4) Allowances (House rent allowance and other allowances),
(5) deductions (Example Provident Fund deduction) and (6) Bank account number.
These details above the employees do not change but they have to be used every month.
So they are entered into a file in a computer storage medium and permanently stored.
This file goes with the name master file. The file creation module of the payroll system
creates this file once. Before calculation of the pay of employees every month, some
figures in the master need changes. For example, if an employee completes a year of
service, he normally gets an increment. Such figures are updated using the master update
module of the payroll system.
After updating, another module of the payroll system reads details from master file and
calculates net pay. The program also prints out pay slip for each employee to be handed
over to him. A pay slip shows the employee number, name, basic pay, various
allowances, various deductions and net pay. The payroll system also generates a number
of statements. It prints out the statement showing employee number, name, bank account
number and net pay. This statement is sent to the bank, which transfers the net pay from
the company’s account to the individual employee’s account in the bank. Some
companies copy this statement on to a floppy and send to the bank Which processes this
statement on its computer. The payroll system generates a provident fund deduction
statement. This statement shows the employee numbers, names and amount deducted.
Another statement showing the names, employee numbers and tax deducted is printed.
The company sends it to Income Tax office. Thus we see that a number of statements can
be printed from the same master file.
2 Inventory Control:
The second application is the use of computers to keep track of the purchase and issues of
parts and raw materials needed in an organization. These parts and raw materials are
called inventories and the set of programs used to keep track of the purchase and issue of
these inventories constitute the inventory control system.
In business, a particularly quantity of each item or raw material has to be stocked. Too
less a stock would result in non-availability of these items, when the manufacturing
activity needs it. Too much of stock of these means, more money in terms of investment
in buying the excess stock. Business pays interest on money invested, and the excess
interest paid on cost of excess stock is a loss to business. So the business maintains an
optimum quantity of material. The inventory control system maintains a file with part
number, name, quantity on stock a level of stock at which the company orders for fresh
quantity (called reorder level) and the suppliers’ addresses. This file is the inventory
master. When an item is issued, the inventory update program updates the inventory
master reducing the stock by the quantity issued. If the resultant stock falls below the
reorder level, the inventory control program prints out an order to the supplier of the item
automatically. It can be mailed to the supplier. When the supplier supplies the item, the
inventory control program updates the stock on hand.
The inventory control system keeps track of the supplies and issues. So, it can tell the
management of the company the usage of these items over a period of time quickly. It
also maintains an optimum level of stock of these items.
2. Sales Order Processing
Real –time systems offer the possibility of a greatly prompt service to the customer. His
order can be processed within virtually no time. The finished goods inventory file may
have data terminals throughout the sales territory. So much that the CRT’s can be made
to display the invoice on a terminal for the salesman who is in the customer’s plant and
can input the particulars there and then! The customer would be made immediately in the
general ledge. The invoice can also be posted to the accounts receivable file
instantaneously. The selection of warehouse that is closest to the customer can also be
made and a copy of the invoice could be displayed at the warehouse terminals. Beside,
the following functions can be performed rapidly.
The inquiries about the customer’s accounts status can be answered by the salesman.
Credit appraisal can be carried out on-line.
Sales analysis master file can be updated online. This file provides a ready
Information to the sales manager regarding sales trends, etc.,
Inventory replenishment order can be determined as a part of the sales order
processing.
ACTIVITY
List out any two application of computers in business
1.12 ON-LINE APPLICATIONS
1. Banking:
In banks the customers, present cheques for withdrawing money. The clerk verifies from
the register the signature of the customer. (The customer has signed in the application
form while opening an account). Then he checks from a ledger the customer’s balance. If
the customer has sufficient balance to cover the cheque amount, the clerk passes the
cheque for payment, and updates the balance. There are a number of operations that the
bank carries out of which the above is an example. We will see how the above operation
called personal banking is computerized. Suppose you want to open a bank account. The
bank official hands over a form to you. You fill up the details (such as name, address,
profession etc.) and sign the application. The bank stores this information in a computer
on which a banking software runs. The customer’s signature is scanned by suitable
devices and incorporated in the computer file. If you present a cheque to the clerk in the
bank, he can check the signature manually. If he is satisfied with the correctness, he can
enter your account number and the cheque amount into the computer which checks your
account and updates the amount. The clerk then pays you the money. In the method, the
payment is manual and accounting is automatic. There is another way where the checking
of you accounts as well as payment is made by computer using an automatic teller
machine. Let us study this. A machine similar to automatic coffee vending machine is
installed at selected places. It is connected to the bank’s computer. When you open an
account, the bank gives you a special type of card. Your name, account number and
address are suitably recorded. Your signature is magnetically recorded in that card. All
these details are suitably converted and recorded in the computer also. When you want to
withdraw money, you go to the teller counter and press a few buttons. You then insert
your card in the slot provided in the machine. The machine reads your account number
and signature from the card. It sends them to the computer which checks your account
number and signature. If they tally, the computer sends a relevant message to the
automatic teller machine. It asks you to enter the amount. You may enter the amount
through the buttons on the machine. Again the computer checks if you have sufficient
balance. If so, it instructs the machine to pay you. The ATM then delivers the cash on the
tray fixed in it. You may collect the money.
This is only one example of application of computer in banks. Now large systems
installed at the head office of a particular bank are connected to systems installed at its
branches all over the country. The computers of different banks are also connected
together. By sending suitable messages money can be transferred from one bank to the
other. This is called Electronics Funds Transfer.
1. Railway Reservation System:
Application of computers in railway reservation has made tremendous impact in different
countries. For example in India. Now let us study how the computerized railway
reservation system works. There is a central computer with a number of terminals
connected to it the details of all trains for which reservation is done at the region are
stored in the computer. The railway reservation system runs on this computer. The
terminals are situated in booking counters. It is possible to install the terminals in a far off
place and connect them to the computer through cables. When the passenger presents the
reservation form to the booking clerk he enters the train number, date, name, age and
other details of the passenger. The program checks availability of seats in that particular
train on that particular date. If accommodation is available, the clerk presses a button on
the key board and the computer prints out the ticket on the printer connected to the
terminal. It also updates the computer file to reflect the new reservation position. Suppose
you wanted the ticket for train number 1, but you get only a waiting list. The clerk tells
you your position in the waiting list. If you want you can get a wait listed ticket. If not,
you tell the clerk to check for accommodation in a different train to your destination. The
clerk only has to re-enter the train number.
The computer checks availability, reserves you ticket on that train if a seat is
available and prints the ticket. Thus you can go to any booking counter and request for
reservation in any train being operated on that station. Also the errors found in the
manual reservation method are eliminated. The reservation system is broader based as
follows: Today computers in different cities are connected together. (It is called
networking .The reservation data for a number of trains over a period of time is available.
By suitable software, the railway authorities can prepare the data regarding passengers
travelling in different trains to different places during different periods. This helps them
plan for new trains, reschedule the running trains and make lot of analysis regarding
passenger traffic.
2. Air Lines Reservation System:
We saw how computers handle the railway reservation and offer a number of advantages.
They can be used also in Airlines reservation. Only difference will be that some booking
counters in the reservation network may be situated in different countries. This means
that we have to connect computers across the countries. Such networks are operational
now. In the coming years, computerized reservation systems will become very common.
Even hotel accommodation reservation systems for major hotels are coming up. If we
integrate flight and hotel reservation, it is convenient for the passengers.
1.13 REAL-TIME APPLICATIONS
In real time applications, computers control an on-going activity. Let us consider the
example of a manufacturing process. A product C is made from raw materials A and B.
The quality of C depends upon, among other things, the quality of A and B and their
quantities. In big manufacturing processes, raw materials are fed by machineries. Due to
problems in machineries, the performances may vary from machine to machine. This
affects the quality of final product. Manual inspection of quality and operation of these
machineries to control the quantity are slow. This slows the manufacture of C from raw
materials A and B. Signals from Care fed to the computer. Suitable sensors are installed
in the lines carrying raw materials as well as finished product. These generate signals.
The values of these signals for correct proportion of
raw materials are stored in the computer. When the process is on signals keep coming
from the output line depending up the quality of finished product. Let us see what
happens if either A or B varies in quality. The quality of the finished product also suffers.
The sensor in the finished product line senses this. The signals generated
by it change in strength. They are sent to the computer. It compares the signals with
already stored signals. The difference is used to change the quantity of raw materials A
and B. Manual control of this process is slow. Moreover, if people inspect quality and
operate machineries feeding raw materials, they become tired after sometime. But
computer does not. So the quality of product is uniform. Moreover, there may be
processes where the presence of human beings continuously for hours together will be
injurious to their health. In such places computer control avoids such ill-effects.
ACTIVITY
1. Explain in detail about the application of computers in business.
2. Explain in detail about on-line applications.
3. Write short notes on Real-Time Applications.
UNIT 2: COMPUTER SYSTEM
Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Computer Hardware
2.2.1 The Computer Physical Setup:
2.2.2 The Computer Case
2.2.3 Expansion Slots and Cards
2.2.4 Power Supplies
2.3 Operational Setup of Computer:
2.3.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU):
2.4 Input Devices:
2.4.1 Keyboard:
2.4.2 Pointing Devices:
2.4.3 Speech Recognition:
2.4.4 Digital Camera:
2.4.5 Scanner:
2.5 Output Devices:
2.5.1 Monitors:
2.5.2 Video Adapter Cards:

2.5.3 Printers:
2.6 Storage Unit:
2.6.1 Primary storage:
2.6.2 Secondary storage:
2.6.2.1Magnetic storage devices
2.6.2.2 Optical Storage Devices
2.7 The Bus System:
2.8 Factors that affect the processing speed of a computer
2.9 Computer Software
2.9.1 Relationship between Software and Hardware:
2.9.2 Software Categories:
2.9.2.1 System Software:
2.9.2.2 Application Software:
Understand ad identify computer hardware and software
Describe Relationship between Software and Hardware:
Identify Factors that affect the processing speed of a computer
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Dear learner! A Computer system is a group of hardware components and associated

software, designed and assembled to perform a specific function or group of functions. It
is a complete, working computer that includes not only the computer, but also any
software and peripheral devices that are necessary to make the computer function. In
general a complete computer system includes four distinct parts: Data, Users, Hardware
and Software.
A. Data
Dear learner! Data are raw facts which the computer can manipulate and process into
information that is useful to people. Computer data is digital, or in the form of digits or
numbers.Data may be simple numbers for mathematical calculations, text such as names
and addresses or more complex structures such as pictures or drawings. The instructions
that make up the program define what data is tobe processed, in what form and at what
time. The computer reads and stores all data as numbers.
Data can be semi information that need to be processed more and generates complete
information.
Information is the output of the computer that can be used by human beings to do some
decisions.
B. Users
The users are the people operating the computers.
C. Hardware
The term hardware embraces the physical components of the system that you can touch
and fill:
1 The box which contains the printed circuit boards, power supply, etc.
2 The display screen, keyboard and mouse for user interaction.
3 The peripheral devices such as disks and printers.
Dear learner! The internal electronic circuits of modern computers are made up from a
number of integrated circuit chips and other components. An integrated circuit chip is a
small packaged device a few centimeters square which contains complex electronic
circuits. The heart of the modern computer is the microprocessor which is an integrated
circuit chip containing the central processing unit (the basic control and processing
circuits) of a small computer system. A complete microcomputer system contains a
microprocessor plus memory, input/output devices, power supplies, etc. However, before
the computer hardware can perform a task (for example add numbers or read a character
from a keyboard), it requires a program to tell it what to do.
C. Software
Dear learner! Software comprises the programs that tell the hardware what to do. A
program is a sequence of instructions stored in the memory of the computer system. The
central processing unit fetches an instruction, decodes it and then executes the required
operation (e.g. to add two numbers). When an instruction has been executed the next
instruction is fetched, decoded and executed, etc. A program may be very simple, for
example, to calculate the average of ten numbers, or very complex, as would be required
to draw a television quality picture on a display screen.
2.2 COMPUTER HARDWARE
Dear learner! Computer hardware is one component of computer system whichis the
physical components of the computer. It is the part of the computer or any accessory
attached to the computer called “peripheral” which you can touch or feel. The computer
case, monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, modem and scanner all constitute hardware.
2.2.1 The Computer Physical Setup:

When you look at a computer Monitor
externally, it simply consists of Printer
the system unit and the most System Unit
common peripheral devices,
namely the monitor, keyboard,
Keyboard
mouse and (optionally) printer.
Mouse
2.2.2 The Computer Case
Dear learner! The computer case houses all the major components of the computer. On
the front end of the case may be found on/off switch, reset button (optional), status
indicators (power and HDD indicators) and openings to floppy disk drives, CD–ROM
drives and tape cassettes. On the rear end of the case are found ports for connecting
peripheral devices with the PC and a power socket for connecting the PC to the electrical
power source.
2.2.3 Expansion Slots and Cards

Dear learner! Expansion cards are small circuit boards that are used to upgrade a
computer. These include: enhanced graphics cards, modems, networking cards, sound
cards, etc. Expansion cards are inserted into expansion slots in the motherboard (a board
into which most of the basic components of the computer are built).
i) PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) is a local bus system that allows devices to
be inserted quickly and easily (plug–and–play compatible). Most of the computers today
come with PCI slots and cards.
ii) AGP (AcceleratedGraphicsPort) is a new platform bus specification that enables high
performance graphics capabilities, especially 3D graphical display applications.
iii) USB (Universal Serial Bus) defines a class of hardware that makes it easy to add
serial devices to your computer. It provides an instant, no-hassle way to connect a new
digital joystick, a scanner, a set of digital speakers, a digital camera or a PC telephone to
their computer. To install a USB device, plug the cord from the device into
any USBPort on your computer.
2.2.4 Power Supplies
Dear learner! Power supply converts normal household electricity, alternating current
(AC), into electricity that can be used by the computer, direct current (DC). It also
lowers the voltage level. In Ethiopia, the normal household voltage is 220V/50Hz AC.
The capacity of a power supply is measured in watts (W). A power supply of 150–200 W
is large enough for most computers.
2.3 Operational Setup of Computer:

Dear learner! The hardware part of a computer system is composed of a number of
interacting parts. The central element in the system is the CPU. Connected to the CPU
are a number of peripherals (such as the keyboard, display monitor, and printer), which
are used to get data into and out of the computer and to store data and programs.
All what a computer does is that takes input (of various forms), processes it (according to
some set of instructions), and produces an output (of various forms). The internal
architecture design of computers differs from one system model to another. However the
basic organization remains the same for all computer systems. A block diagram of the
basic computer organization is shown in the fig. It displays the four major building
blocks or functional units of a digital computer system namely input unit, output unit,
central processing unit and storage unit.
Storage Unit
Secondary Storage
Program Input Output Information

and Data (Results)
Unit Unit
Primary Storage
Indicates flow of
Control Unit instructions and
data
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Arithmetic Logic Unit Indicates the
control exercised
by the control unit
Basic Organization of a Computer System

2.3.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU):
Dear learner! The CPU is the computing part of the computer; it is referred to as the brain
of the computer. It controls and manipulates the data to produce information. In a
personal computer the CPU is usually a single, fingernail-size “chip” called a
microprocessor, with electrical circuits printed on it. The CPU and other components
necessary to make it work are mounted on a main circuit board called a motherboard.
The main components of a CPU are the Control Unit (CU) Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU) and registers. The three components work together to provide the operational
capabilities of the computer.
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) – this is the part of the CPU that executes the
computer's commands by doing arithmetic or the logical comparisons. The data
and instructions, stored in the primary storage prior to processing are transferred as
and when needed to the ALU, where processing takes place. Intermediate results
generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred back to the primary storage until
needed at a later time. Data may thus move from primary storage to ALU and back
again to storage many times before the processing is over.
• Control Unit (CU) - directs the operation of the entire system. It obtains
instructions from the program stored in main memory, interprets the instructions,
and issues signals that cause other units of the system to execute them. It acts as a
central nervous system for the other components of the computer system.
• Registers – The registers are special purpose, high speed temporary memory units.
They hold various types of information such as data, instructions, addresses and the
intermediate results of calculations. Essentially they hold the information that the
CPU is currently working on. Registers can be thought of as CPU’s working
memory. The important registers within CPU are Program Counter, Instruction
Register, Accumulator, Memory Address Register, Memory Buffer Register and
Data Register.
2.4 Input Devices:

Dear learner! An input device is defined as an electronic device that allows the user to
feed information (data) into the computer for analysis, storage, and to give commands to
the computer. Data and instructions are entered into the computer’s main memory
through an input device. Input devices capture information and translate it into a form
that can be processed and used by other parts of the computer.
Input devices can be classified into the following categories:
2.4.1 Keyboard: Keyboard is the standard input device. Using a keyboard, the user can
type text and execute commands. Keyboard is designed to resemble a regular typewriter
with a few additional keys. Data is entered into computer by simply pressing various
keys. The number of keys in a typical keyboard varies from 82 keys to 108 keys. The
keys are arranged as follows:
a. Alphanumeric keys – used for typing, similar to that of a typewriter.
b. Numeric keypad – found at the right side of the keyboard, it is used for
entering numbers and moving the pointer.
c. Function keys – these are the twelve function keys, F1 – F12, at the first row of
the keyboard. They may be programmed to perform different tasks.
d. Modifier keys – include keys like Alt, Ctrl and Shift.

e. Cursor movement keys – found between the alphanumeric keys and numeric
keypad, they are used to move the cursor.
2.4.2 Pointing Devices: A pointing device is used to communicate with the computer by
pointing to location on the monitor screen. Such devices do not require keying of
characters, instead the user can move a cursor on the screen and perform move, click or
drag operations.
ons. Some of the commonly used pointing devices are mouse, trackball,
joystick, light pen and touch screen.
i) Mouse: Mouse is a small hand held pointing device. Usually a mouse contains two or
three buttons for left clicking, right clicking and for scroll
scrolling.
ing. The mouse may be
classified as a mechanical mouse or an optical mouse, based o the technology it uses.
A mechanical mouse uses a rubber ball at the bottom surface, which rotates as the
mouse is moved along a flat surface to move the cursor. An optical mouse uses a
light beam instead of a rotating ball to move the cursor. Some of the common mouse
actions are pointing, click, Right
Right-click, Double-click, Drag and drop.
ii) Trackball – issimilar
similar to a mouse except the ball is
on top where it can be moved with the thumb.
iii) Track pad (or touchpad) – is a touch-sensitive pad that is used
to move the pointer by gliding your finger across its surface.
iv) Touch screen – is a type of display screen device that is placed on the computer
monitor in order to allow the direct selection or activation of the computer when
somebody touches the screen.
v) Integrated pointing device – is a small joystick built into the keyboard.
You can move it in the direction that you want to move the pointer.
2.4.3 Speech Recognition: Speech recognition is the technology by which sounds, words
or phrases spoken by humans are converted into digital signals, and these signals are
transformed into coding patterns where the meaning has been assigned. It is more
generally called as sound recognition.
2.4.4 Digital Camera: Digital camera stores images digitally rather than recording them
on a film. Once a picture has been taken, it can be downloaded to a computer system and
then manipulated with an image editing software and printed.
2.4.5 Scanner: A scanner is a device that scans an image and transforms the image into
ASCII code. These images can be edited, manipulated, combined and printed. The
common types of scanners are hand held scanners and flatbed scanner.
Other devices like devices for hand- include pens, and game controllers;
optical input devices- include bar code readers; audio devices- include microphones
also used as input device.
2.5 Output Devices:
Dear learner! Output devices are peripheral devices through which processed data is
made available for humans. An output device is an electromechanical device, which
converts machine readable data or the information into human readable form. The
computer output generated by output devices is of two forms: Hard copy and soft copy.
The printed form of output is referred as hard copy while the form of output which is
shown on a display screen or is in audio or voice form is referred as soft copy.
Based on the hard copy and soft copy outputs, the output devices are classified into tow
types: Hard copy output devices and soft copy output devices. Among the most
extensively used output devices are Video adapter cards, monitors and printers.
Output Devices
Hard Copy Soft Copy
Printers Plotters Microfilm Monitors Audio Projectors

Response
Output Devices of Computer

2.5.1 Monitors:
Dear learner! The monitor displays the output of the computer. Monitors are categorized
by the colors they produce and by the technology they use.
By the colors they produce, monitors are classified as follows:
• Monochrome - one color text/image on single color background, i.e. white on

blue, or green on black.
• Grayscale – shades of gray on a white background.
• Color – can display different colors, from 16 to 16 million colors.
By the technology they use, monitors are classified as follows:
• Cathode ray tube (CRT) – in these monitors, electrons are fired at phosphor dots
on the screen. The dots are grouped into picture elements called pixels, which
glow when struck by electrons. In color CRT monitors, each pixel contains a red,
green and blue dot. These glow at varying intensities to produce color images.
• Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) – these screens use an entirely different technique.
The screen is still made of dots but is quite flat. LCD displays are made of two
layers of a polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution in between. An
electrical signal makes the crystals line up in a way that keeps light from going
through entirely or just partly. A black screen has all the crystals lined up so that no
light gets through. A color LCD screen uses groups of 3 color cells instead of 3
phosphor dots. The signal for a picture cleverly lets just the right spots show their
colors. Your eye does the rest.
When comparing monitors, consider the following
• Size – the diagonal measurement of its face I inches. 17” is common.
• Resolution – number of pixels on the screen. This is important especially for

graphics, page layout and CAD.
o VGA (Video Graphics Array) monitors have resolution of 640 X 480 pixels.
o SVGA (Super VGA) monitors have resolutions ranging from 800 X 600 pixels
to 1024 X 768 pixels or more.
• Refresh rate – indicates how often the picture is redrawn on the monitor. If the
rate is low, the picture will appear to flicker. Flicker is not only annoying but also
causes eye strain and nausea. So, a high refresh rate is desirable. 60 times per
second is tolerable at low resolutions for most people. 75 times per second or more
is better and is necessary for high resolutions.
• Dot pitch – is the distance between phosphor dots that make up a single pixel. A
dot pitch of .28 is very common and .26 should be good for nearly all purposes,
however it is measured.
When the same image is displayed on a monitor for a long time, it leaves a
“shadow” or “screen burn”. To avoid this effect, “screen saver” program that
blanks out the monitor or displays a moving image or text when not in use for a
prolonged time, is used.
2.5.2 Video Adapter Cards: Video adapter cards convert information from the CPU
into a format used by the monitor and the monitor displays the information sent to it by
the video adapter card. The video adapter card can be built into the motherboard but, in
most cases, it is installed as an expansion card.
Video adapter and monitor standards ensure that your video adapter card and monitor are
compatible with all popular programs and operating systems. The following standards
exist at the moment.
VGA (Video Graphics Array), which is suitable for low–budget home and business
applications. It has a resolution of 640 X 480 pixels.
SVGA (Super VGA), which is ideal for business applications, has greater resolution
(800 X 600 pixels) than VGA and also supports true colors.
XGA (extended Graphics Array), which is ideal for more graphic–intensive

applications like desktop publications and CAD/CAM, has a resolution of 1024 X
768 pixels.
Dear learner! Video adapter cards come with their own memory, separate from the
computer’s main memory. The amount of memory installed on the video adapter card
determines the maximum number of colors that can be displayed at a given resolution.
For example, a video adapter card with 1MB video memory can display up to 16.7
million colors at VGA resolution but only up to 256 colors at SVGA resolution. At the
moment, video adapter cards may come with up to 16 MB video memories. The
minimum amount of video memory required for windows applications is 1MB.
2.5.3 Printers:
Dear learner! Printers are used to produce “hard copy” of documents, programs and data.
Some printers use serial communication (RS232 standard) while others use parallel
communication to transfer information from the PC to the printer. In serial
communication, data is transferred one bit at a time while in the case of parallel
communication; one byte (8 bits) is transferred at one time.
The printing method (the actual forming of characters) also varies. Based on the printing
method used, printers are categorized as impact printers and non-impact printers.
Impact printers strike an inked ribbon, pressing ink from the ribbon onto the paper while
non-impact printers use different methods to place ink on paper.
• Dot–matrix printersare common types of impact printers. The print head has an
assembly of tiny pins that are activated in a row and physically “hit” the paper
through the ribbon to produce the desired impression. Speeds are expressed in
characters per second (cps) and vary between 180cps and 400cps. These printers
are loud, inexpensive and slow. The quality of the printout is not so good as that
of inkjet or Laser printers. But, we can have carbon copies and printouts on
stencils from these printers.
• Inkjet printers are non-impact printers. Tiny particles of ink are electrically
charged after leaving the nozzle. The droplets are then guided to the right position
on paper by electrically charged deflection plates. The print quality is very good.
We cannot use them with stencils nor can we produce carbon copies using these
printers. Inkjet printers are available for color or black and white.
• Laser (Light Amplification by Simulated Emission of Radiation) printers are the

most advanced of all. In this printer the laser beam forms an image of the
characters to be printed on to the light sensitive drum. Ink then sticks to the
character images and is transferred from the drum and fused onto the paper. Laser
printer speeds are specified in pages per minute (PPM), e.g. 6PPM, 12PPM or
24PPM.
Factors to be considered while selecting printers include: speed (measured in PPM or

CPS), quality (measured in dots per inch – dpi), initial cost, cost of operation and special
features like support for color and large page formats.
Other Output Devices: PC Projector– connects to a PC and is used to project images on

a large screen; Sound systems– multimedia PCs come with a sound card, speakers and a
CD-ROM or DVD drive. A sound card translates digital signals into analog that drive the
speakers.
2.6 Storage Unit:

The data and instructions that are entered into the computer system through input units
have to be stored inside the computer before the actual processing starts. Similarly, the
results produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside
the computer system before being passed on to the output units. Moreover, the
intermediate results produced by the computer must also be preserved for ongoing
processing. The storage unit of a computer system is designed to cater to all these needs.
It provides space for storing data and instructions, space for intermediate results, and also
space for the final results.
The storage unit comprises of two types of storage:
2.6.1 Primary storage:

Dear learner! The primary storage, also known as main memory or RAM (Random
Access Memory), stores data and program code needed by the CPU. Contents of RAM
change rapidly and often. RAM can hold information only while the computer system is
on. As soon as the computer system is switched off or reset, the information held in the
primary storage disappears. Additionally, the primary storage normally has limited
storage capacity because it is very expensive. The primary storage of modern computer
systems is made up of semiconductor devices.
• RAM contains a large number of cells (or locations) in which are the data and
instructions stored. Each location is specified by an address.
• ROM (Read Only Memory) is a non-volatile memory whose contents cannot
be changed by the user and contains minimum instructions that the computer
needs to get started
2.6.2 Secondary storage:

Dear learner! The secondary storage, also known as auxiliary storage, is used to take care
of the limitations of the primary storage. That is, it is used to supplement the limited
storage capacity and the volatile characteristic of primary storage. It is much cheaper
than primary storage and it can retain information even when the computer system is
switched off or reset. The secondary storage is normally used to hold the program
instructions, data, and information of those jobs on which the computer system is not
working on currently, but needs to hold them for processing at a later time.
The physical material that actually holds data is called storage medium. The surface of
floppy disk (or the diskette) is storage medium. The hardware that writes data to or reads
data from a storage medium is called a storage device. A floppy disk drive is a storage
device.
There exist two technologies for secondary storage: magnetic and optical. Floppy disk,
hard disk, magnetic tape is examples of magnetic storage. CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, CD-
R, CD-RW are examples of optical storage.
2.6.2.1Magnetic storage devices – the medium contains iron particles, which can be
polarized, i.e. given magnetic charge in one of two directions. Each particle’s direction
represents a 1 or a 0, representing each bit of data that the CPU can recognize. A disk
drive uses read/write heads containing electromagnets to create magnetic charges on the
medium.
o Formatting maps the disk’s surface and determines how data will be stored.
During formatting, the drive creates circular tracks around the disk’s surface, and
then divides each into sections called sectors. The OS organizes sectors into
groups, called clusters, and then tracks each file’s location according to the cluster
it occupies. Formatting also deletes any information that exists on the disk.
o During formatting, the OS creates four areas on its surface.
Boot sector – stores the master boot record, a small program that runs when
you first start the computer.
File allocation table (FAT) – a log that records each file’s location and each
sector’s status.
Root folder – enables the user to store data on disk in a logical way.
Data area – the portion of the disk that actually holds the data.
i) Hard disk drive:
Inside the case of the hard disk drive are a set of rigid rotating disks, called platters,
stacked on a spindle. As the platters rotate at high speed, Read/Write heads move
back and forth recording or reading magnetic information on both sides of the
platters.
The speed with which the heads can find data is called
“average access time”.
Hard disk drives are normally installed inside the
computer case although external hard disk drives, which

connect to the computer by a cable, are also available.
Hard disk drive is selected based on its storage capacity (measured in “Gigabytes”
(GB)) and its access time (measured in milliseconds (ms)). The larger the capacity
and the smaller the access time, the better. Today, it is not uncommon to have hard
disks with capacity in excess of 200GB. Operating system and application software
normally reside in hard disk drives. Documents created using application software
may also be placed on hard disk drives.
Write-protect
ii) Floppy disk drive: Window
3 ½”, 1.44MB Diskette

Floppy disk drives store information onto a removable media known as diskettes or
floppy disks. Floppy disk drives operate slower and have much less capacity
(1.44MB) than hard disk drives.
Diskettes store information on the magnetic surfaces of a thin, flexible disk inside a
protective plastic cover.
Although some years back, we had two standards as far as physical size is concerned,
namely 3½” and 5¼”, the standard size these days is invariably 3½”. With respect to
the amount of information that a 3½” diskette can store, a few years back diskettes
were coming with sizes of 720KB and 1.44MB; now they come only with 1.44MB.
It is possible for someone to format a diskette, or write information on a diskette

unintentionally and important information could be lost in certain situations. To
avoid such unintentional loss of information, diskettes are write–protected. To write–
protect a 3½” diskette, open the write–protect window by sliding the plastic tab
covering the window. We can read information that is stored in write–protected
diskettes, but we cannot write onto them.
Software used to come in floppies some years ago. Now, floppies are rarely used to
carry software unless the software happens to be very small. Floppies are mainly
used to carry personal files, to transfer information from one PC to another or as
backup media for small files.
Previously, a good number of removable (floppy–like) drives have made their way
into the computer business, but nowadays it is out of the market (becoming obsolete).
Their capacities range from 100MB (Iomega Zip) to 1.5GB (SyQuest SyJet). Indeed,
the larger capacity drives are considered “portable equivalent of the hard drive”.
They may be used to supplement the hard disk drive, to carry private files, to
transport personal files and core applications between home and office and to backup
important files.
iii) Magnetic Tape:

Information stored in a hard disk or floppy disk may be damaged for various reasons.
To protect against losing any of your files, you should make a backup copy of all
your data. Small files (≤1MB) can be backed up to a floppy disk. For larger files or
groups of files, it is more convenient to use CD–R/W or magnetic tape unit.
Magnetic tape systems offer very slow data access, but provide large capacities and
low cost. Thus, they are particularly convenient if we want to backup the entire hard
disk.
Tape backup units are available as either internal or external models. Tapes must be
formatted before you can use them. Backed up information could be compressed,
where compression ratios vary for different types of data.
2.6.2.2 Optical Storage Devices – offer high-capacity storage medium. Optical drives
use reflected light to read data. The disk’s metal surface is covered with dents (pits) and
flat spots (lands), which cause light t be reflected differently. Light cannot be reflected
back from pits (data = 0) and lands reflect light back to its source (data = 1).
o CD–ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) discs can hold large amounts of
information (text, graphics and hi–fi stereo sound), which cannot be altered.
They are designed to last indefinitely, but finger marks or scratches can damage
the disk’s surface. CD–ROM drives read programs and data stored on removable
CD–ROM disks.
The first CD–ROM drives transferred data at 150KB per second.The speed then
doubled to 300KB (2X), then quad speed at 600KB (4X). Today, we have as
much as 52X (78000 KBps).
A single CD–ROM can hold up to 650MB information. Time to retrieve

information off the CD–ROM is much slower than from a hard disc (5-15 MBps).
Most of today's newer CD─ROM’s can be used in multimedia applications.
CD–ROM drives are often installed inside the computer case although external
units, which connect to the computer by a cable, are also available.
o CD–R is a standard and technology allowing you to write to and read from a
Compact Disc, but not erase or change what you record. This technology is
compatible with existing CDs, i.e. you are able to read these discs in existing CD–
players.
o CD–RW is rewritable CD–ROM technology. CD–R/W drives can also be used

to write CD–R discs, and they can read CD–ROMs. But, CD–R/W disks have a
lower reflectivity than CD–ROMs, and CD–ROM drives must be of the newer
multiread variety in order to read them. CD–R/W was initially known as CD–E
(or CD–Erasable).
o Digital Video Disc (DVD), also called Digital Versatile Disc, is similar to CD–
ROMs but able to store far more music, video or data. DVDs are of the same
physical size as today's CDs but are able to store as much as 17GB, compared to
the 650MB on today's CD–ROMs.
2.7 The Bus System:
In computer architecture, a bus is a subsystem that transfers data or power between
computer components inside a computer or between computers. Unlike a point-to-
point connection, a bus can logically connect several peripherals over the same set of
wires. Each bus defines its set of connectors to physically plug devices, cards or
cables together. It includes:
Data bus- transfer data from CPU to other components and vise versa
Address bus - transfer the address of the ongoing executable data or
instruction.
Control bus - sends the control over each executable code and data
2.8 Factors that affect the processing speed of a computer include:
• Registers – these are the memory areas in the CPU that store data and instructions
while the CPU processes them. The size of the registers, also called word size,
determines the amount of data with which the computer can work at one time.
Most PCs have 32-bit registers.
• RAM – has direct effect on system’s speed. The more the RAM size, the faster.
These days, PCs come with RAM sizes of 128MB – 512MB.
• System clock – sets the pace for the CPU by using a vibrating quartz crystal. A
single “tick” of the clock is the time required to turn a transistor off and back on.
This is a clock cycle measured in hertz (Hz). The faster the PC’s clock runs, the
more instructions the PC can execute each second. Today, PC clock speeds exceed
3GHz (3 X 109 Hz).
• Bus width – determines how many bits can be transmitted between the CPU and
other devices. The bus refers to the path between components of a computer. The
larger the bus width, the faster the computer.
• Cache memory – cache is a high speed memory that holds the most recent data
and instructions that have been loaded by the CPU. It is located directly on the
CPU (L1 cache) or between the CPU and RAM (L2 cache). Amount of cache
memory has tremendous impact on the computer speed. The larger the cache size,
the faster the computer.
2.9 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Dear learner! As we know, a computer cannot think or perform on its own. It performs
various operations only when the user instructs it to do so. The user issues instructions
and the CPU acts in accordance with the instructions. Such a sequence of instructions
written in a language that can be understood by a computer is called a program. It is the
program that controls the processing activity of computers, and computer performs
precisely what the programs want it to do. The term software refers to the set of computer
programs, procedures and associated documents. The sets of instructions which control
the sequence of operations are known as programs and collectively programs are called
software.
2.9.1 Relationship between Software and Hardware:

Software refers to the computer programs that are loaded into a computer system and
hardware refers to all the visible devices, which are assembled together to build a
computer system. It is the blending of software and hardware that gives life to a computer
system. Both are complementary to each other.
Application Software
System Software
Hardware
2.9.2 Software Categories:

Dear learner! Computer software can be classified into two major categories: System
software and Application software. System software is the software is the software that is
essential for computer to function. Application software is the additional software that a
user chose accomplish a specific task. System software helps the computer manage its
own tasks and devices. System software can further be classified as operating system,
programming language and utilities:
Computer software
System software Application Software
System
System development
management
program
Operating Utilities High level Low level

system Device programming programming
driver language language
2.9.2.1 System Software:
Dear learner! System software is a set of one or more programs designed to control the
operations and processing capabilities of a computer system. In general, a computer’s
system software performs one or more of the following functions:
• Provides user interface
• Monitors the effective use of various hardware resources such as CPU,
memory, peripherals etc.
• Support the development and execution of other application software.
System software contributes to the control and performance of the computer system and
permits the user to use the system more conveniently.
Types of system software:
i) Operating System: The most important type of system software is the

operating system. An operating system is an integrated set of programs that
controls the resources of a computer system and provides its users with an
interface. The basic functions of an operating systems are:
a. Process Management: It handles the creation, deletion, suspension,
resumption, scheduling and synchronization of processes.
b. Memory Management: It handles allocation and deallocation of memory
space as required by various programs.
c. File Management: It is responsible for creation and deletion of files and
directories. It also organizes, stores, retrieves, names and protects all the
files.
d. Device Management: It manages all the devices of the computer system
such as monitor, printer, disk etc.
e. Security Management: It protects system resources and information
against destruction and unauthorized use.
f. User Interface: It provides the interface between the user and the
hardware.
ii) Device Drivers: Device drivers are system programs, which are responsible
for proper functioning of devices. Every device or hardware, whether it is
printer, monitor, mouse or keyboard, has a driver program for support.
Whenever a new device is added to the computer system, a new device driver
must be installed before the device can be used. In modern operating systems,
most hardware drivers such as keyboard driver, comes with the operating
system. For other devices like printer, a user must load the device driver of
that particular printer. A driver acts like a translator between the device and
programs that use the device.
iii) System Utilities: Utility programs or utilitiesare a set of programs that help
users in system maintenance tasks and in performing tasks of routine nature.
Some of the tasks commonly performed by utility programs include the
following:
• Formatting hard disks or floppy disks.
• Reorganizing files on hard disk to conserve storage space.
• Taking back up of files stored on hard disk
• Checking the amount of available memory

• Checking the amount of available storage space on hard disk.
• Scanning the system for computer viruses.
iv) System Development Programs: System development programs consist of
system software, which are associated with the development of computer
programs. These program development tools allow programmers to write and
construct programs that the operating system can execute. Examples are
computer languages, language translators, linkers and loaders.
a. Programming Language: A programming language is a primary
interface of a programmer with a computer. A program is an ordered list
of instructions that, when executed, causes the computer to behave in a
predetermined manner. A programming language includes a series of
commands, which are used in development of software. Programming
language are further divided into three categories namely, Machine
language, assembly language and high level language.
b. Language Translator: Computers only understand a language consisting
of only 0s and 1s called machine language. To ease the burden of
programming entirely in 0s and 1s, a special programming language called
high level programming languages were developed that resembled natural
languages like English. Therefore a tool was required which could
translate a program written in a programming language to machine
language. This program is referred to as language translator. It helps in
converting programming language to machine language. There are three
types of translators.
Assemblers: - translate programs written in assembly language into

machine code which can be executed on the target computer.
Compilers: - translate programs written in a high level language into
machine code, which can be executed on the target computer. A compiler
reads the source program statement by statement, translates it into an
equivalent machine code, and produces the object program file, which is
then executed without the presence of the compiler.
Interpreters: - these are another form of programs that translate programs

written in a high level language into machine code. Unlike a compiler, an
interpreter reads one statement of the source program, translates it and
executes it immediately. It then goes to the next statement until the source
program is exhausted. As a result, it doesn’t produce an executable object
program file.
c. Linker: A linker is a system program that links together several object
modules and libraries to form a single, coherent program (executable)
d. Loader: Loader is a kind of system software, which is responsible for
loading and relocation of the executable program in the main memory.
The functions of loader include assigning load time space for storage, that
is storage allocation and to assist a program, to execute properly
2.9.2.2 Application Software:
Dear learner! The most often used software by a general user is the application software.
It is used to accomplish specific tasks rather than just managing a computer system.
Application software may consist of a single program such as Microsoft’s Notepad for
writing and editing simple text. It may also consists of a collection of programs called a
software package, which work together to accomplish a task such as a spreadsheet
package. Application software may also include a larger collection of programs ( a
software suite), related but independent programs, which have a common user interface,
such as Microsoft Office Suite.
Application software are in turn controlled by system software, which manages hardware
devices and perform, background tasks for them. Fig. given below illustrates that
application layer executes on the system software layer, which lies on the hardware layer.
Application Software
System Software
Hardware
Fig. Relationship of Application and System Software, and Hardware part of the
computer
a. Word Processor: A word processor is a computerized typewriter, which

permits the electronic creation, editing formatting, filing and printing of
text. Word processing is probably the most Common application of
microcomputers. The ease with which you can draft and revise memos,
letters, reports, and other documents with a word processing program
increases both the speed and quality of your writing. You can enter, edit,
reorganize, format, and print text without retyping all of it and then correct
them. These features encourage you to revise and reorganize your
material more frequently, so you can express your ideas more clearly.
Examples are MS Word, WordPerfect etc.
b. Spreadsheet: A spreadsheet is an electronic worksheet displayed on the

VDU. Until recently, accounting, financial analysis, and other
mathematical calculations were done by entering numbers on pages of an
accountant’s ruled ledger pad. Gathering data and calculating subtotals
from analysis took time. In addition, exploring what-ifs (called
“performing a sensitivity analysis”) to see how changes affect the numbers

was laborious. Compounding the problem was the likelihood of forgetting
how you did the analysis so that subsequent analyses took as much time as
the original.
Today, the microcomputer and the electronic spreadsheet have taken all of
the drudgery out of analysis. It may take as much time to gather the data
needed to analyze a situation, but that is where the similarity between the
old and the new methods ends. You can quickly create a model of a
situation on a spreadsheet by entering labels, numbers, and formulas.
Details are entered into the computer and recorded in predesigned rows
and columns to form a grid of cells The relationship of each cell in the
grid can be defined for performing specific computations. Using the
program’s built-in functions, you can perform complicated calculations
such as net present value, internal rates of return, and monthly payments
on a loan. You can then use the completed model to explore ‘what if’
questions. If you change any variable – for instance the price, discount, or
sales pattern the model will recalculate a new result automatically and
instantly.
You can save a spreadsheet model and use it again whenever you need it.
Never again will you forget how a specific analysis was done and how to
reconstruct it from scratch the next time you need to use it. You will find
ways to modify your models so that they can grow in power and
simplicity. You can save each revision to provide the base for the next
step forward in your understanding and analysis. There are many
spreadsheet programs available and more are sure to come. Each
spreadsheet is slightly different from the others.
Examples are Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3 etc.
c. Database Management System: A database software is a set of one or
more programs that enable users to create a database, maintain it( add,
delete and update its records), organize its data in desired fashion and to
selectively retrieve useful information from it. Database software is widely
used today by both large and small organizations to maintain employee
data, customer data, asset data, accounting data etc. Examples are dBase
III Plus, FoxPro, MS Access, Oracle etc.
d. Graphic Software: Computer graphics is the technique of creating,
editing, displaying, and printing graphs, diagrams, charts, and images in a
computer system. The old saying that a picture is worth a thousand words
applies to computer graphics. At a glance, graphics can convey
information that could be difficult or even impossible to put into words.
UNIT 3: INTRODUCTION TO WINDOWS XP
Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Elements of Desktop and Taskbar
3.3 Launching Applications
3.4 Shortcut Keys
3.5 Configure Desktop and Hardware
3.6 Common Command Prompt Commands
3.7 Installation of Windows Applications
3.8 Installation of Windows Hardware
3.9 File Management
3.10 File Compression
Identify elements of desktop and Taskbar
Understand how Launching Applications
Differentiate Shortcut Keys
Configure Desktop and Hardware
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Dear learner! We have seen the computer system in the second

unit. There are discussions on computer system and its
components. This chapter will introduce the application of window
xp by having very understandable representation as follows.
3.2 ELEMENTS OF DESKTOP AND TASKBAR
The desktop is composed of Icons and the Taskbar. The Taskbar includes the Start
button, Window tabs and the System tray.
i) Icons: Small graphical images that can represent computer programs, files, folders,
printers, etc. To activate the feature that the icon represents, point the mouse arrow to the
icon and double click the left-hand mouse button in quick succession. This action will,
for example, open a word processing document in Word, open an options menu for a
printer or execute a windows program.
A list of options for an icon can be brought up by moving the mouse pointer to the icon
and then clicking the right-hand mouse button.
Rename allows you to change the name associated with an icon, along with its file
extension. The Open With optionenables you to select which program to use to open a
file. A shortlist of possible programs will often be listed, along with the option Choose
Program, which brings up a more comprehensive listing. Checking the Always use this
program to open this type of file box means that the program you have selected will
implicitly be used to open your file type.
One of the main icons found on your desktop is the Recycle Bin icon. Whenever your
delete a file, Windows XP will place that file into the Recycle Bin so that it may be
retrieved at a later date. Files may be retrieved from the Recycle bin by either dragging
the icon onto the desktop or by right clicking on the icon or selecting Restore from the
menu.
ii) Taskbar: Windows tasks may be monitored by using the Task Manager Window.
This may be accessed by right clicking on the Taskbar and selecting Task Manager from
the resulting menu. The total number of processes running, as well as the total CPU
usage, is displayed at the bottom of this menu. The window has the following tabs:
a) Applications – Shows all currently running applications. Provides options to end the
application, switch to an application or create a new application.
b) Processes – Lists all currently running processes along with the user they are being
run under, the CPU usage and memory usage. Selecting a process and clicking the End
Process button will terminate that process.
c) Performance - Displays CPU and memory usage graphs. This window also displays
some additional counters, such as the amount of memory allocated to the system cache
and the total amount of memory used by the kernel.
d) Networking - Displays the network utilization graph for your network adapters. You
can view the quality and availability of your network connection and whether you are
connected to more than one network.
e) Users – Lists all users currently logged into Windows, locally or remotely. Provides
the option of sending messages to other users and, with the proper permissions, the ability
to logoff or disconnect users.
1) Start Button: Clicking on the Start Button brings up the start menu, which allows
access to a number of Windows features. For instance, you can view and execute
Windows programs by clicking on All Programs, obtain Help and Support, access My
Computer (discussed below), Search your computer for files and applications, and log
off or turn off your computer. Clicking on the Turn Off Computer button enables you
to a) put your computer on standby or sleep mode (ideal if you use your to computer a lot
and do not want to reboot every time) b) turn off your computer or c) Restart your
computer.
2) Window Tabs: One of the main uses of the Task Bar is to switch between programs
that are currently running on Windows. Clicking on a particular Window Tab will bring
up the window of interest.
When too many Window Tabs are present, Windows XP will consolidate them based on
their type. For instance, if there are three different Word files open, they will be
accessible by a single tab. Left clicking on the tab will bring up a menu listing all Word
documents that are currently open.
3) System Tray: Contains icons for some of the programs that are currently running,
along with the clock. Examples of icons residing in the System Tray are printer status
monitors and antivirus monitors. You can attempt to stop programs in the System tray by
right clicking on their icon.
Double clicking on the time at the bottom right of the taskbar brings up a window with
the following features.
A) View the monthly calendar
B) Select a desired month
C) Select a desired year
D) View the current time
E) Alter the current time
F) View and adjust the time zone
G) Synchronize your clock with an Internet server
3.3 Launching Applications

Once a new piece of software has been installed on Windows there are four main ways in
which to launch it:
a) Start Menu: Click on the Start Button. If you have used the program recently, it
will appear on the left hand side of the window and you simply have to click your mouse
on it. If not, select All Programs and click on your application from the resulting list.
b) My Computer: Another important icon on your desktop is the My Computer icon.
Clicking on this icon brings up a window that allows you to view files and applications
on any drive on your computer.
For instance, you can double click on the C-drive icon, navigate through the directory
tree until you find your application file and double click the icon the start the executable.
c) Desktop Shortcut Icon: Simply double click on the short cut icon, usually created on
your desktop (see discussion below), to start your application.
d) Run Command: Click on the Start Button and select Run from the menu to bring
up the dialog box. Enter the path and name of the application you want to run and click
OK. Alternatively, use the browse feature to find your desired application.
3.4 Shortcut Keys

Shortcuts keys help provide an easier and faster method of navigating through the
Windows XP operating system. The shortcuts are commonly accessible by using Alt,
Ctrl and/or Shift in conjunction with a single letter.
a) The following list of shortcuts are useful in word processing programs like Word,
Notepad or Wordpad: (Del = Delete; Ins = Insert)
Alt + F Brings up file menu options
Alt + E Brings up edit menu options
F1 Brings up help window (also works on the desktop)
Ctrl + A Select all text
Ctrl + X Cut selected text
Shift + Del Cut selected text
Ctrl + C Copy selected text
Ctrl + Ins Copy selected text
Ctrl + V Paste
Shift + Ins Paste
Home Goes to beginning of current line
Ctrl + Home Goes to beginning of document
End Goes to end of current line
Ctrl + End Goes to end of document
Shift + Home Highlights the current position to beginning of line
Shift + End Highlights the current position to end of line
Ctrl + left arrow Moves one word to left
Ctrl + right arrow Moves one word to right
b) The following list of shortcuts are used on the desktop:

Alt + Tab Switch between open applications
Alt + Shift + Tab Switch backwards between open applications
Print Screen Create a screen shot of entire desktop
Alt + Print Screen Create a screen shot only for current program
Ctrl + Esc Bring up Start Menu
Alt + Esc Switch between open applications on task bar
F2 Renames selected icon
F3 Brings up Search window from desktop
Alt + F4 Closes current open program
Ctrl + F4 Closes window in a program
Alt + Enter Opens properties window for selected icon or program
Shift + F10 Simulates right click on selected item

Shift + Del Deletes programs/files without putting them in recycle bin
The Tab key is a very useful shortcut key. On the desktop, pressing tab will allow you
cycle between:
i) The Start Button – press enter to bring up the start menu
ii) Windows tabs - use arrow keys to traverse open tabs and enter key to launch
iii) System tray – use arrow keys to traverse icons and enter key to launch
iv) Desktop icons – use arrow keys to traverse and enter key to launch
As well, you can use Tab on web pages to cycle through text fields, check boxes
and buttons. Tab is used to go from top to bottom and Shift + Tab is used to go from
bottom to top.
Creating shortcut icons: Shortcut icons provide a fast means of executing a program or
opening a file. There are two methods to create shortcut icons for a program or file:
i) Right click on the icon of interest and select Create Shortcut from the menu. This
will create a shortcut icon in the current directory, which can then be moved to the
desired location.
ii) Right click on the icon of interest and select Send To from the menu. This will bring
up a second menu that contains the option Desktop (create shortcut). Selecting this
option will automatically create a shortcut icon on the desktop.
3.5 Configure Desktop and Hardware
a) The Desktop: Right clicking on the desktop brings up a menu with options to alter the
appearance of the desktop.
One option is Arrange Icons By, which brings up a second menu listing options for how
to display your desktop icons. You can sort icons by name, size, type or have Windows
auto arrange them. In addition, icons may be aligned to a grid to form straight lines.
Finally, selecting Run Desktop Cleanup Wizard will move unused shortcuts to a
desktop folder called Unused Desktop Shortcuts.
Another desktop menu option is Properties, which brings up the Display Properties
window.
The Themes tab allows you set desktop themes, which consist of a background plus a set
of sounds, icons, etc. Windows XP comes preloaded with a number of themes but they
can also be downloaded or created.
The Desktop tab allows you to select the background picture for your desktop.
The Screen Saver tab enables you to set a screen saver for Windows and also lets you
adjust your monitor power settings.
The Appearance tab allows you to adjust the look of windows, buttons, fonts and colors.
The Settings tab allows you to configure your monitor’s resolution, color and graphics.
You can also configure the appearance of the Start Menu and Taskbar. Simply right
click on the Start Button and select Properties from the menu.
The Taskbar tab allows you to alter the appearance of the Taskbar. For instance,
selecting Auto-hide the taskbar hides the bar from view until you drag your mouse over
the bottom of the screen. The Group similar taskbar buttons option, when selected,
will group together window tabs of the same type, as described above in Section I.
The Start Menu tab allows you to configure the appearance of the Start Menu as
either the Windows XP format or the classic Windows 95/98/ME format. Clicking on the
Customize button enables you to set the icon size in the menu and to display shortcuts to
your favorite Internet browser and Email program
Right clicking on the Taskbar and selecting Toolbars brings up a listing of toolbars that
can be displayed. For example, selecting the Links toolbar places a list of websites on
the taskbar. You can add links to this list simply by dragging a web site link or icon onto
the Links menu. The Toolbars menu also gives you the option of creating your own
toolbar for the Taskbar.
b) System and Hardware: The Control Panel folder contains many icons dealing with
system and hardware configuration. The Control Panel may be accessed from the Start
Menu.
Double clicking the Automatic Updates icon allows you to set up the updating process
for Windows XP. It is very important to keep your operating system up to date. You
have the option of having:
i) Automatic download and installation
ii) Automatic downloads with user option on when to install
iii) User option on downloading and installing
iv) No updating
The Keyboard and Mouse icons allow you configure basic operating features.
The System icon provides a number of window tabs dealing with system and hardware
information:
General: Provides basic information about your computer, such as the type of operating
system running, type of processor and the total amount of system RAM.
Hardware: Provides access to the Device Manager window, which gives a listing of all
the hardware currently installed on your system. Clicking on the ‘+’ symbol beside the
headings will bring up a listing of specific components (ex. Keyboards). Right clicking
on a hardware component brings up an options menu that allows you to uninstall the
hardware component, update the hardware driver or view hardware properties.
The latter option provides general information on the hardware component (ex. make and
model) as well as the status of the component (ie. working properly or malfunctioning).
If a problem is indicated, clicking on the troubleshoot button will bring up a help
window that will assist in fixing the problem. The properties window also displays
information on the current hardware driver along with a means to update the driver.
Lastly, the properties window for some of the hardware components, such as the mouse,
allows you to alter advanced settings.
System Restore: Can track and reverse harmful changes to your computer. Provides a
status window that indicates what part of the system can be restored (ex. C-drive). The
user must allocate a set amount of system memory in order to provide restore points. The
more memory allocated, the more restore points can be saved. This window also enables
the user to turn the System Restore feature on or off.
Advanced: Can view and alter settings for overall system performance, such as
memory usage and processor scheduling.
Clicking on the Environment Variables button allows you to view, edit, create
and delete user and system variables. A common variable to alter is PATH, which
provides a listing of directories that your operating system will look in order to run an
application. For instance, to run Perl and Java programs you will need to add the path to
the desired compiler.
3.6 Common Command Prompt Commands

The Windows Command Prompt may be accessed from the Start Menu by selecting
Run and typing cmd. Through the Command Prompt, you can utilize all the Windows
features (ex. creating new directories and files, opening files, launching applications, etc),
by issuing short commands. Using the Command Prompt in Windows mirrors working
with Linux and is generally faster and more efficient than using icons with the mouse.
Note that, unlike Linux, the Windows directory slash is ‘\’. Also note that Windows
commands are case-insensitive.
As with Linux, typing ‘..’, refers to the directory located one level up from the current
directory. Also, ‘*’ serves as a wild-card character. For example, if you wanted to delete
all files with extension .exe, you would use *.exe.
1) chdir (cd): With no arguments, displays the name of the current directory. If
provided with the name of a directory, chdir will switch to that directory. Example
usage ->chdir c:\Perl
2) cls--: Clears the command prompt window
3) Comp: Compares the contents of two files or sets of files byte by byte. Can compare
files in the same directory or in different directories. Example usage -> comp
c:\compfile1.txt c:\Test\compfile2.txt. A sampling of options for comp is as
follows:
/d : Displays differences in decimal format. (The default format is hexadecimal.)
/a : Displays differences as characters.

/l : Displays the number of the line on which a difference occurs, instead of
displaying the byte offset.
/n=number : Compares the first number of lines of both files, even if the files are
different sizes.
/c : Performs a comparison that is not case-sensitive.
4) Copy: Copies one or more files from one location to another. The general form of
the command is copy dir:\File1 dir:\File2. File1 is the file to be copied and File2 is
the name of the new file to be created. If a directory is not specified, the current
directory is used. Example usage -> copy c:\Perl\test.pl c:\Java\test.java.
5) Date: Displays the current date and provides a prompt to enter a new date.
6) del: Deletes specified files. You can delete one file (ex. del test.doc) or a group of
files. Example usage -> del c:\Perl\*.pl. A sampling of options for del is as follows:
/p : Prompts you for confirmation before deleting the specified file.
/f : Forces deletion of read-only files.
/s : Deletes specified files from the current directory and all subdirectories.
Displays the names of the files as they are being deleted.
/q : Specifies quiet mode. You are not prompted for delete confirmation.
/a [[:] attributes]: Deletes files based on specified attributes. A sampling of
attributes is as follows:
r = read only
a = archive
s = system
h = hidden
A ‘-‘ character in front of an attribute indicates ‘not’
Example usage -> del *.pl /a:r
7) dir: Displays a list of files and subdirectories within a particular directory. When no
options are specified, dir uses the current directory. When provided with a drive and
a path, dir will list contents of specified directory. By default, dir does not display
hidden or system files. Example usage ->dir c:\Java. A sampling of options for dir
is as follows:
/q : displays ownership information of files and directories
/p : displays one screen of the listing at a time. To see the next screen,
press any key on the keyboard.
/a [[:] attributes] : When no attributes are listed, ‘dir /a’ list all files including
hidden and system files. Attributes are listed after the colon (ex dir /a:h).
Combinations of attributes may also be used (ex. dir /a:hs). Some example
attributes are as follows:
h = show only hidden files
s = show only system files
d = show only directories
r = show only read-only files
A ‘-‘ character in front of an attribute indicates ‘not’
8) exit: exits out of the Command Prompt window
9) find: Searches for a specified string of text within a specified file or files. Will
display any lines of text that display the specified string. Example usage ->find
“command” c:\Java\*.java. A sampling of options for find is as follows:
/v : Displays all lines that do not contain the specified string.
/c : Counts the lines that contain the specified string and displays the total.
/n : Precedes each line with the file's line number.
/i : Specifies that the search is not case-sensitive.
10) help: Provides online information about system commands. When entered with no
other parameters, lists info for all commands. When entered with the name of a
specific command, provides info for that command only. Example usage -> help
exit.
11) mkdir (md): Creates a directory or subdirectory. If no path is specified, mkdir
creates a new directory within the current directory. Example usage ->mkdir
c:\test.
12) more: Displays one screen of output at a time. Useful for displaying contents of
large files. Example usage -> more bigfile.txt. You can also provide multiple file
names (or use the ‘*’ character) for more to output. The following commands are
accepted at the more prompt:
Spacebar = show next page
Enter = show next line
f = show next file
q = quit
pn = display next ‘n’ lines
sn = skip next ‘n’ lines
13) move: Move one or more files from a directory to a specified directory. The general
form of the command is move dir:\File1 dir:\File2. Example usage -> move
c:\C++\test.cpp c:\C\test.c.
14) print: Sends a text file to a printer. The name of the printer to use is set by
/d:printer name. Example usage -> print /d:LPT1 c:\printme.txt. In this
example, the printer is connected to parallel port LPT1.
15) rename (ren): Changes the name of a file or set of files. Example usage -> rename
file_badname.txt file_goodname.txt.
16) rmdir (rd): Deletes a directory. Example usage ->rmdirBaddir. A sample of
rmdir options is as follows:
/s : Removes the specified directory and all subdirectories including any files. Use
/s to remove a tree.
/q : Runs rmdir in quiet mode. Deletes directories without confirmation.
17) Time: Displays the current time and provides a prompt to enter a new time.
18) Tree: Graphically displays the directory structure of a path or of the disk in a drive.
Example usage: tree c:\C++. In this example, tree will graphically display the
directory structure for the C++ directory.
19) Type: Displays the contents of a text file. Example usage -> type test.cpp.
20) Xcopy: Copies files and directories, including subdirectories. Example usage -
>xcopy c:\Perl c:\Perl2. This command will copy all files within the c:\Perl
directory, along with all subdirectories and their associated files. A sampling of
options for xcopy is as follows:
/p : Prompts you to confirm whether you want to create each destination file.
/c : Ignores errors.
q : Suppresses the display of xcopymessages.
/s : Copies directories and subdirectories, unless they are empty. If you omit /s,
xcopyworks within a single directory.
/e : Copies all subdirectories, even if they are empty. Use /e with the /s and /t
command-line options.
/t : Copies the subdirectory structure (that is, the tree) only, not files. To copy
empty directories, you must include the /e command-line option.
/h : Copies files with hidden and system file attributes. By default, xcopy does not
copy hidden or system files.
/o : Copies file ownership and discretionary access control list (DACL)
information.
3.7Installation of Windows Applications
a) Software with an installation disk (CD or floppy disk)
For commercial software, you simply need to insert the program CD into the drive and
wait for the installation window to appear. This window will guide you through the
installation process, enabling you to select which components to install and the directory
in which to install them.
Another method for installing Windows applications, which can be used if the install
window does not automatically appear, is to use the Add or Remove Programs icon
found in the Control Panel window. Clicking on the icon brings up a listing of
applications currently installed on Windows XP. By selecting a particular application,
the user may either change or remove the program. Clicking on the Add New Programs
button on the left brings up a window that will prompt you to insert your startup CD or
floppy disk. Clicking the next button will cause Windows to automatically find and run
the install program for your application.
A final method for installing a Windows application is to go to My Computer, double
click the drive in which the installation disk is housed and double click on the installation
icon.
b) Downloaded software
After downloading is complete, go to the location in which you downloaded your

application. In most instances, you will have downloaded the installation program for
your application. Simple double click this icon and follow the instructions.
In some cases, you will have downloaded a compressed file (.gz extension). For this type
of download, you must first decompress the file (see details below), in order to access
and run the install script.
3.8Installation of Windows Hardware
For most pieces of hardware, Windows will automatically detect the new device and
prompt you to insert the start up disk. The disk will contain the necessary drivers for
your hardware and will enable you to configure your hardware component.If auto-
detection fails, you can double click the Add Hardware icon in the Control Panel
window. This will cause Windows to search for your new piece of hardware. If new
hardware is found, you will be prompted to insert the installation disk.
3.9File Management
a) My Computer
The main file management tool on Windows XP is My Computer, which
wasmentionedpreviously under section II. My Computer can be accessed through a
desktop icon or through the start menu. The My Computer window allows you to
traverse through the file structure on a particular drive. The tool bar at the top of the
window provides options for traversing file structures, such as the Back, Forward and
Up (move up to the parent directory) buttons. There is also a Search button to find a
specific file or folder.
Files and folders can be sorted according to parameters such as Name, Size and Type by
selecting Arrange Icons By from theViews menu in the toolbar.
Clicking on the Folders button in the Toolbar brings up a file tree-like structure in the
left-hand side of the My Computer window. This view is essentially Windows Explorer
found on previous Windows versions. This view allows you to see the entire file
structure in one window pane and the contents of a particular directory in another.
b) Master Folders
Windows XP tries to group related types of user files into master folders. The
following is a summary of master folders along with their file types:
My Documents -> Word documents, Excel documents, etc
My Pictures -> Image files (ex. jpeg)
My Music -> Music files (ex. mp3)
My Videos -> Video files (ex. avi)
My Webs -> user created web pages
These folders behave like My Computer and are thus easy to search.
c) File Operations
As was described in the Command Prompt section, files and folders may be created,
deleted, copied and renamed. The following describes how these operations can be
carried out on the Windows desktop.
Create – Right click on the desktop or in a folder directory and select New from the
menu. This list gives the option of creating a new folder or a file from a common format
(ex. Text document, Word document, etc). The same menu may also be accessed from
file management windows such as My Computer by selecting File from the top toolbar,
followed by New.
Files can also be created from within an application such as Word. In most cases, the
Save and Save As options can by found under the File menu.
Delete – Can be achieved by right clicking on a folder or file and selecting Delete from
the menu. This action will move the folder or file to the Recycle Bin. The Delete option
can also be found under the File menu in My Computer. Alternatively, you can simply
drag a file or folder into the recycle bin.
Copy – Can be achieved by right clicking on a folder or file and selecting Copy from the
menu. Next, traverse into the destination folder, right click the mouse and select Paste
from the menu. Alternatively, you can select your file or folder under My Computer and
then select Copy To Folder... from the Edit menu. From the resulting menu you can
select the destination folder.
Move - Can be achieved by right clicking on a folder or file and selecting Cut from the
menu. Next, traverse into the destination folder, right click the mouse and select Paste
from the menu. Alternatively, you can select your file or folder under My Computer and
then select Move To Folder... from the Edit menu. From the resulting menu you can
select the destination folder. Lastly, you can simply drag a file or folder from one
location to another.
Rename – Can be achieved by right clicking on a folder or file and selecting Rename
from the menu. The Rename option can also be found under the File menu in My
Computer.
d) Folder Options
The Folder Options menu is accessible from the Control Panel.
The View tab allows you to perform such tasks as i) Displaying hidden files ii)
Hiding the extension of known files or iii) Displaying protected operating system files.
The File Types tab allows you to view or alter the application used by default to
open or execute a particular file type (ex. .doc or .txt).
3.10File Compression
File compression is used to maximize the number of files that can stored in a particular
location and to speed up downloading over the Internet. One method of compressing text
files is to use Active Pattern Substitution. Here, common patterns in text such as
recurring words or “strings” are replaced or substituted with a shorter word.
Compression programs such as WinZip (www.winzip.com) use a dictionary to associate
common patterns with shorter strings. Since compressed files contain shorter versions of
strings, they cannot be executed or viewed without first decompressing them. A program
such as Winzip can also be used for this purpose. The following describes how to
compress and decompress files using the Wizard mode in WinZip.
a) WinZip Compress
At the Wizard menu, select Create a new Zip file and click the Next button. Now type
in the name and select the destination folder of your new zip file and click Next. Finally,
add file(s) or complete folders into the zip archive file and click Zip Now.
b) WinZip Decompress
At the Wizard menu, select Unzip or install from an existing zip file and click the Next
button. Select the zip file to be decompressed from the provided listing and click Next.
Select the folder in which to store the decompressed files and click Unzip Now.
UNIT 4: INTRODUCTION TO WORD
Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 How to Start Microsoft Word
4.2.1Entering Text
4.2.2 Deleting Text
4.2.3 Saving a Document
4.2.4Close a File (Without Closing Word)
4.2.5 Open a File
4.2.6 Print a File
4.2.7 Highlighting Text
4.2.8 Formatting Text
4.2.9 Formatting Paragraphs
4.2.10 Formatting a Page
4.2.11Copy and Paste
4.2.12 Cut and Paste
4.2.13 Create a Bulleted / Numbered List
4.2.14 Undo Feature
4.2.15 Spell Check
After successfully completing this unit, learner should able to:

Entering text in the word program
deleting text
Saving documents
close a file
open a file
print a file
copy and paste
Create a Bulleted
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Dear learner! In the third unit, you have discussed on the computer system and its
application our daily life. This unit will try to address one of the computer program
Microsoft word and its application.
4.2 HOW TO START MICROSOFT WORD
Dear learner! The following procedure helps you how to use Microsoft words on your
computer.
1. Find on your desktop

2. Double click the icon to open Microsoft Word
Note: If you do not have Microsoft Word icon on your desktop, try this:
1. Click on the bottom left side of your screen

2. Select ALL PROGRAMS
3. Select MICROSOFT OFFICE
4. Click on MICROSOFT OFFICE WORD
Activity
Dear learner! How do we enter text?
4.2.1Entering Text
• To enter text, simply start typing!
Exercise 1
TYPE: this is a computer class that I am taking to enhance my abilities to use
the program Microsoft word. This text will be used to demonstrate the
different functions and capabilities that I can utilize with this program.
4.2.2 Deleting Text

• To delete text to the left, tap the BACKSPACE button
• To delete text to the right, tap the DELETE key (located below the
INSERT key)
Exercise 2
Delete a letter or word from your sentence using BACKSPACE
and DELETE
Carriage Return
Microsoft Word incorporates an auto-wrap feature so that you can continue to type
until you reach the page margin and Word will automatically bring you to the next
line. However, to move to the next line, hit the ENTER key
4.2.3 Saving a Document

1. Click FILE
2. Click SAVE AS
Note: Notice there are two save options (SAVE, SAVE AS). The first is
useful is you are updating a document you have already saves and you would
like to save over the previous version. It’s a shortcut. When saving for the first
time, use SAVE AS
3. Select the folder, or area of your computer you would like to save the file
to using the drop down arrow to navigate between areas on your PC
Use this drop down arrow to

navigate to the location you
would like to save your file
Enter the name

you would like to
give your file here
4. Highlight the text located in the FILE NAME field and hit the DELETE
key
5. Enter the name you would like to give the file
6. Click SAVE
4.2.4Close a File (Without Closing Word)

1. Click the second ‘x’ that appears in the top right hand corner of the
Microsoft word window (see below)
Click this
‘x’ icon to
close the
file, but
leave Word
4.2.5 Open a File open
1. Click FILE
2. Select OPEN
3. Using the drop down arrow, navigate to the location of your desired file
4. Click on the file name
5. Click OPEN
4.2.6 Print a File

1. Click FILE
2. Select PRINT
Note: If you would like to see what the document will look like before its
committed to paper, select the PRINT PREVIEW option instead. If you like
what you see, Click to print the document as is
3. Review the print settings to make any changes necessary (changes could
include printing only certain pages, number of copies, as well as scaling
features)
4. Click OK
Note: If you simply want to print a whole document quickly, you can also use
the print shortcut located in the upper left hand toolbar.
4.2.7 Highlighting Text

1. Position your mouse icon to the right of the text your would like to select
2. Hold down the left mouse button and slide your mouse across the text
3. Release the mouse button when all the text you would like to select has
been selected
Note: A shortcut to select all the text in your document is as follows

1. Click EDIT
2. Select ‘Select All’ from the menu (or CTRL + A)
Hint: You can also perform certain

functions using keyboard shortcuts – I
have placed them in parenthesis next
to actions when they are available
Exercise 3
1. Practice highlighting text using both options
2. Try to highlight just one word, or just one line of text
Important: You must get comfortable highlighting/selecting text

4.2.8 Formatting Text

1. Click FORMAT
2. Select FONT
3. Select the changes you would like to make, then click OK
Note: Text formatting can be done before text is entered, as well as after. To format text
that has already been entered, highlight the selected text you want to change and follow
the steps above.
Note: You can also use the shortcut buttons located in the menu bar at the top of the
page to make quick font type, style, and size changes
Exercise 4
1. Highlight part or all of your text, and make the following changes:
2. Change the font VERDANA, select the font style as BOLD, change the
color of text, and then click OK
4.2.9 Formatting Paragraphs

1. Click FORMAT
2. Select PARAGRAPH
Note: Paragraph justification can also be done using the justification shortcut buttons
located in the menu bar at the top of the page.
Left Justify Centered Right Justify

Exercise 5
1. Change the line spacing to DOUBLE, change the alignment
to CENTER and then click OK
2. Change the paragraph justification using the menu shortcut
4.2.10 Formatting a Page

1. Click FILE
2. Select PAGE SETUP
Exercise 6
Change the left margin to 1.25”, add line numbering, and add a border to the
document and click OK
4.2.11Copy and Paste

1. Select the text you would like to copy
2. Click EDIT
3. Select COPY (or CTRL + C)
4. Place your cursor specifically where you would like to copy the selected
text to (make the cursor is blinking in the place by clicking once with the
left button)
5. Click EDIT
6. Click PASTE (or CTRL + V)
Exercise 7
Select the last word in the paragraph, copy the word and paste it BEFORE the first
word in the paragraph so that it then becomes the first word
4.2.12 Cut and Paste

1. Select the text you would like to cut
2. Click EDIT
3. Select CUT (or CTRL + X)

4. Place your cursor specifically where you would like to place the selected
text to (make the cursor is blinking in the place by clicking once with the
left button)
5. Click EDIT
6. Click PASTE (or CTRL + V)
Exercise 8
Select the last word in the paragraph, cut the word and paste it BEFORE the first word
in the paragraph so that it then becomes the first word
4.2.13 Create a Bulleted / Numbered List

1. Click FORMAT
2. Select BULLETS and NUMBERING
3. Choose the type of list and parameters you would like to set for the list
4. Click OK
5. Begin entering your text, and click ENTER to create the next item in the
list
6. To end the list, click the BULLET LIST or NUMBER LIST icon located
in the formatting menu at the top of the page (You can tell which to click
because it will be the one that is shaded and has a blue trim around it
Note: You can also create numbered and bulleted lists as well as remove them using the
menu shortcuts located at the top of the page. Click on the type of list you would like
to create to make a list. Highlight a list and click on the shaded corresponding shortcut
icon to remove the list
Exercise 9
Select the entire paragraph using the SELECT ALL option, and then turn the paragraph into
a numbered list (use whichever method you would like)
4.2.14 Undo Feature

1. Click EDIT
2. Select UNDO (or CTRL + Z)
Note: Each time you use this feature it will undo the last change that was done. You
can undo several sequential items in a row.
Exercise 10
Undo the last edit that we performed, which should be creating the
numbered/bulleted list
4.2.15 Spell Check

1. Click TOOLS
2. Select SPELLING AND GRAMMAR
UNIT 5: INTRODUCTION TO MICROSOFT EXCEL
Contents
5.1 Introduction to Ms – Excel 2000
5.2 Starting Ms – Excel 2000
5.3 Working with Ms – Excel 2000
5.4 Screen Elements of Ms – Excel
5.4.1 Menus
5.4.2 Tool bars
5.4.2.1 The Standard Tool bar and Formatting Toolbar
5.4.2.2 Formula bar
5.5 Editing Worksheet
5.5.1 Selecting Cells
5.5.1.1 Selecting Cells using mouse
5.6 Navigating
5.6.1 Moving around a spreadsheet
5.6.2 Moving around a workbook
5.7 Entering and Editing Text
5.7.1 Entering Numbers
5.8 Modifying Worksheet
5.8.1 Adding Worksheets, columns and Rows
5.8.2 Resizing Rows and Columns
5.8.3 Renaming a Worksheet

5.9 Formatting a Cell
5.9.1 Formatting Toolbar
5.9.2 Format Cell Dialog Box
5.10 Formulas and Function
5.10.1 Entering Formula
5.10.2 Basic Functions
5.10.3 Function Wizard fx
5.10.4 Auto sum Σ
5.11 Charts
5.11.1 Creating a Chart

Screen Elements of Ms – Excel
Editing Worksheet
Identify the Standard Tool bar and Formatting Toolbar
Navigating
Entering and Editing Text
Modifying Worksheet
Formatting a Cell
Formulas and Function
Create Charts
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO MS – EXCEL 2000
Dear learner! Microsoft Excel is a powerful spreadsheet program that allows you to
organize data, complete calculations, make decisions, graph data, develop professional
looking reports, convert Excel files for use on the Web, and access the Web. Entering
data on to a spreadsheet (or worksheet as they are called in Excel) is a quick and easy.
Once data has been entered in a worksheet, excel can instantly perform any type of
calculation on it. Excel can also make your information look sharp and professional.
Dear learner! The three major parts of Excel are:

1. Worksheets: allow you to enter, calculate, manipulate, and analyze data such as
numbers and text. The term worksheet means the same as Spreadsheet.
2. Charts: Pictorially represent data Excel can draw a variety of two dimensional
and three-dimensional charts.
3. Databases: Once you enter data on to a worksheet, Excel can sort the data, search
for specific data, and select data that meet criteria.
5.2 Starting Ms – Excel 2000

Dear learner! To start Ms – Excel:
1. Click on the Start button from the taskbar
2. Point to Program
3. Click on Microsoft Excel
5.3 Working with Ms – Excel 2000
Dear learner! Microsoft Excel 2000 is an application program commonly used for
budgets, forecasting, and other finance –related tasks. In a spreadsheet program, data and
formulas to calculate those data are entered into o ledger like forms (spreadsheets or
worksheets) for analysis, tracking, Planning, or “what-if” evaluations of the impacts of
real or proposed changes on an economic strategy.
Each Excel file is a workbook that can hold many worksheets (spreadsheets). The
worksheet essentially comprises of a grid of rows and columns. Intersection of a row and
a column is called a Cell. Typically, rows are numbered numerically, i.e.1, 2, 3…and so
on, and columns are labeled alphabetically, i.e. A, B, C…and so on. Of course columns
do not end at Z, after Z they start AA, AB, AC … and then BA, BB, BC… and so on.
Each spreadsheet contains 16384 rows and 256 columns. That makes 4,194,304 cells
(16384 * 256), each holding either text or numbers or formulas. And this is not all, each
workbook can contain 16 or more worksheets (limited only by your computer’s memory
and storage capacity)! Sounds huge, isn’t it! Well actually it is.
5.4 Screen Elements of Ms – Excel

Dear learner! The Excel window consists of a variety of features to help you work more
efficiently. Each part of Ms Excel window features and their components are described in
this section. When you start working in Excel, you begin using a workbook that contains
screens called Worksheets. They are identified as Sheet1, Sheet2, and so on.
Document Window control

control icon icons
Title bar Program icon Formula bar
Menu bar
Standard
Tool bar
Formatting
Tool bar Up
scroll
Current cell arrows
Name box
Cell A1 Column headings Scroll

Select all
buttons
bar
Row headings
Scroll
bar
Sheet tabs Down

scrolling button scroll
arrow
Drawing bar
Status bar Worksheet tabs
Figure: Elements of Ms Excel window Horizontal scroll bars
5.4.1 Menus
Here, the table holds the menu which appears in the menu bar.
Menu name Description

File File-related commands to Open ,Save, Close, Print and Create new
files
Edit Commands to copy ,Cut, Paste, Find and Replace
View Commands to change how the workbook is displayed on the screen
Insert Lists items that you can insert in to a workbook, such as graphic and
charts
Format Commands to format fonts ,cell alignment, and borders
Tools Lists tools such the spell checker and macros. You can also change
excel
Data Commands to analyze and work with data information
Window Commands to display and arrange multiple windows (if you have
more than one file open)
Help Get help on using the program
The menu bar can change to include other menu names depending on the type of work
you are doing in Excel. For example, if you are working with a chart sheet rather than a
worksheet, the chart menu bar will display with menu names that reflect changing
command options.
Unlike previous versions of Excel, the menus in Excel 2000 initially list only the
commands you have recently used. To view all options in each menu, click the double
arrows at the button of the menu. If you would like to revert to the way older versions
of Excel displayed menu options, follow these steps:
1. Click on View menu

2. Point to Toolbars option
3. Click on Customize(mostly, it is on the last option in the toolbar menu)
4. Click on the Option tab
5. Uncheck on the Menus show recently used commands firstcheck box.
5.4.2 Tool bars

This tool bar is located just below the menu bar at the top of the screen and allows you to
quickly across basic Excel commands. Many toolbars displaying shortcut buttons are
available. To do this:
1. Click on View menu
2. Point to Toolbars option & click on the required toolbar.
5.4.2.1The Standard Tool bar and Formatting Toolbar

Dear learner! The Standard Tool bar and Formatting Toolbar contains buttons & list
boxes that allow you to perform frequent tasks more quickly than when using the menu
bar. For example, to print a worksheet, you click the Print button. Each button has a
picture on the button face that helps you remember that button’s function. Also, when
you move the mouse pointer over a button or box, the name of the button or appear below
it. This is called a
Screen Tip.
Print
Save E-mail Print Preview Spelling Cut Copy Paste
Open
Format
New Painter
Undo Help
Redo Sort Descending Zoom

Insert Auto Function
Hyperlink Sum Chart
Wizard Drawing
Sort Ascending
Figure: The Standard Toolbar
Here, the table describes the function of the tools:
Tools Alternative Key Function

New 1. File – New, Creates a new document based on normal template
2. <Ctrl>+<N>
Open 1. File – Open Opens an existing document or template
2. <Ctrl>+<O>
Save 1. File – Save Saves the active document template
2. <Ctrl>+<S>
E-mail 1. File – Send to – Mail It sends the contents of the documents as the body of
the e-mail message
Print 1. File – Print Prints the active document using current defaults
2. <Ctrl>+
Print 1. File – Print Preview Displays full page as they are printed
Preview 2. <Ctrl>+<F2>
Spelling 1. Tools – Spelling & Grammar Checks the spelling in the active documents
2. <F7>
Cut 1. Edit – Cut Cuts the selection and puts it on the clipboard
2. <Ctrl>+<X>
Copy 1. Edit – Copy Copies the selection and puts it on the clipboard
2. <Ctrl>+<C>
Paste 1. Edit – Paste Insert the clipboard contents at the intersection point
2. <Ctrl>+<V>
Format <Ctrl>+<Shift>+<C> Copies the formatting of the selection to a specified
pointer location
Undo 1. Edit – Undo Reverses certain command
2. <Ctrl>+<Z>
Redo 1. Edit – Redo Reverse the action of Undo command
2. <Ctrl>+<Y>
Insert 1. File – Save Display the destination object document or page
Hyperlink 2. <Ctrl>+<s>
Zoom View - Zoom Scales the editing View (Zoom)
Control
5.4.2.2 Formula bar
Dear learner! Below the Formatting toolbar is the formula bar. As you type, the data
appears in the formula bar. Excel also displays the active cell reference on the left side of
the formula bar in the Name box.
Name box Formula box
Figure: Formula bar
5.5 Editing Worksheet

5.5.1 Selecting Cells
Dear learner! Before entering, editing or formulating cells, they need to be selected. You
can select a single cell, or a group of continuous cells or even a discontinuous group of
cells. This selection is called a range.
5.5.1.1 Selecting Cells using mouse

1. To select a single cell, simply point and click on it to make it active.
2. Click on a row number to select the entire row.
3. Click on a column alphabet to select the entire column.
4. Click and drag to select a range of cells.
5. Click on the empty button at the intersection of the column and row numbers
to select the entire worksheet.
5.6 Navigating
5.6.1 Moving around a spreadsheet
Dear learner! To move around the spreadsheet either use the keyboard keys ”↑” for going
up,”↓” for going down, “←” for going left,”→” for going right,” Page Up” for going on
screen up,” Page Down” for going on screen down, and other related keys; or use mouse
to traverse the different parts of the worksheets through scroll bars. You can also type the
desired cell address directly in the Address name box to randomly go anywhere in the
worksheet.
5.6.2 Moving around a workbook

Dear learner! To move around a workbook from a worksheet to worksheet, click on the
worksheet tabs in the left-bottom area on the worksheet.
5.7 Entering and Editing Text
Dear learner! To enter any text, simply activate any cell by clicking on it and start typing.
Press Enterto conclude entry. As you start typing, the text would appear in the active cell
and in the formula bar. If you make a mistake while typing before pressing Enter key,
simply press Backspace key to erase the present contents and type the correct text. If you
notice an error after finishing the entry, activate the relevant cell and press F2 function
key. The current contents of the cell would be displayed in the formula bar, now you can
correct the entry and press Enter to conclude.
If you wish to replace the entire text, activate the relevant cell and simply type the new
text. The new text would automatically replace the old text.
5.7.1 Entering Numbers

Dear learner! Numbers are basic raw material for spreadsheets. You can type numbers
either by using the Number keys on the top of letter keys or by using extended numeric
pad on the keyboard. Pressing the Num Lock key toggles the Numeric key pad between
numbers 0 to 9,you can also enter various mathematical symbols like: “/” Division,”*”
Multiplication,”+” Addition,”-” Subtraction,”%” Percentage,”.” Decimals,”^”
Exponents,” ( )” Parentheses and various comparisons operators like: “=” Equal to,”>”
Greater than,”<” Less than,” > =” Greater than or equal to,” < =” Less than or equal
to,”<>” Not equal to.
5.8 Modifying Worksheet

5.8.1 Adding Worksheets, columns and Rows
Dear learner!
To insert a worksheet to a workbook:

1. Click on Insert menu
2. Choose Worksheet
To insert a column to a worksheet:
2. Select Columns, or highlight the row by clicking on the column label, right –click
with the mouse, and choose Insert. (The columns will be in inserted before the
selected rows)
To insert a row to a worksheet:
2. Select Rows or highlight the row by clicking on the row label, right –click with the
mouse, and choose Insert. (The rows will be in inserted before the selected rows.)
5.8.2 Resizing Rows and Columns

Dear learner! There are two ways to resize rows and columns:
1. Resize a row by dragging the line below the label of the row you would like to
resize. You can also resize a column in a similar manner by dragging the line to the
right of the label corresponding to the column you want to resize.
2. Click the row or column label and select: Format – Row – Height or Format –
Column – Width from the menu bar to enter a numerical value for the height of
the row width of column.
Tip: You can call the Row height or/and the Column width dialog box and resize the
rows and columns by Right – clicking on row/column
label and set the height/width.
5.8.3 Renaming a Worksheet

The worksheets in a workbook are accessible by clicking the worksheet tabs just above
the status bar. By default, three worksheets are included in each workbook. To rename
the worksheet tab:
1. Right-click on the tab with the mouse

2. Click on Rename from the shortcut menu
3. Type the new name and press the Enter key
Figure: Renaming a worksheet
5.9 Formatting a Cell

5.9.1 Formatting Toolbar
Dear learner! The contents of a highlighted cell can be formatted in many ways. Font and
cell attributes can be added from shortcut buttons on the formatting bar. If this toolbar is
not already visible on the screen, select View – Toolbars – Formatting from the menu
bar.
Style menu Font menu
Merge and Center Comma style Font size Bold Italics
Underline
Format cells
Font color
Currency Increase/ Increase/

Decreases Decreases Borders Fill color
decimal indent
Left, Center, Right
Justification
Percent style
Figure: Formatting toolbar

Here, the table describes the function of the tools:
Tools Alternative Key Function

Style 1. Format – Style Applies a style or records a style by example
2. <Ctrl>+<Shift>+<S>
Font 1. Format – Font Changes the font of the selection
2. <Ctrl>+<Shift>+<F>
Font size 1. Format – Font Changes the font size of the selection
2. <Ctrl>+<Shift>+<F>
Bold 1. Format – Font – Font style Makes the selection Bold

2. <Ctrl>+
Italic 1. Format – Font – Font style Makes the selection Italics
2. <Ctrl>+
Underline 1. Format – Font – Effects Formats the selection with continuous
2. <Ctrl>+ Underline
Align Left 1. Format – Paragraph – Aligns the paragraph at left indent
Alignment
2. <Ctrl>+
Center 1. Format – Paragraph – Centers the Paragraphs between the indents
Alignment
2. <Ctrl>+<E>
Align Right 1. Format – Paragraph – Aligns the paragraph at right indent
Alignment
2. <Ctrl>+<E>
Decrease 1. Format – Paragraph - Decreases or promotes the selection one level
indent Indentation
Increase 1. Format – Paragraph - Increases indent or demote the selection one
indent Indentation level
Borders 1. Format – Borders and Shows or hides the border toolbar
Shading
Font Color 1. Format – Font - Color Selects and applies font color
Merge and Combines two or more selected adjacent cells to create a simple cell. The
Center resulting merged cell contains only the upper left most data in the selection,
which ids centered with in the cell. The cell reference for a merged cell is upper
left cell in the original selected range.
Currency Applies on International currency style to the selected cells. Depending on the
country selected in the windows Regional settings dialog box, the International
currency style button might appear instead of the currency style button.
Percent Style Applies the Percent style to the selected cells. To change the percent style, use
the style command on the Format menu.
Comma style Applies the comma style to the selected cells. To change the comma style, use
the style command on the Format menu.
Increase Increases the number of digits displayed after the decimal point in the selected
decimal cells.
Decrease Decreases the number of digits displayed after the decimal point in the selected
decimal cells.
Fill color Adds, modifies, or removes the fill color or fill effect from the selected object.
Fill effects include gradient, texture, pattern or picture fills.
5.9.2 Format Cell Dialog Box

Dear learner! For a complete list of formatting options, right-click on the highlighted
cells and choose Format Cells from the shortcut menu or select Format – Cells from the
menu bar.
Alternative: Click the Format cell button on the formatting toolbar.
Number tab: The data type can be

selected from the options on this tab.
Select General if the cell contains text
and number, or another numerical
category if the cell is a number that will
be included in functions or formulas.
Alignment tab: These options allow

you to change the position and alignment
of the data with the cell.
Font tab: All of the font attributes are displayed in this tab including font face, size,
style, and effects.
Borders and pattern tabs: These tabs allow you to add borders, shading, and
background colors to a cell. Figure: Cell
formatting dialog box
5.10 Formulas and Function

5.10.1 Entering Formula
Dear learner! The real power of Excel lies in it being able to store complex formulas.
You can either build formulas using absolute numbers (like =3+2)or use relative cell
address (like A+B).As a general rule of thumb, You must always use relative cell
referencing because in case the values change in future, the formulas based up on these
values would automatically show the update results. You place the formula in the cell in
which you want wish to place the formula, begin by typing either an equal sign “=” or
plus sign “+” to tell Excel that you are about to start a formula. You can then either type
the formula, one character at the time in the formula bar, or assembleit using mouse or
keyboard. For instance, you could either type =A1-B1 in the cell C1 and press Enter, or
place the mouse pointer in cell C1 and type = sign, point and click at cell A1, type “-” or
“:”, point and click at cell B1 and press Enter. During this process when you point and
click at cell A1, this cell would be surrounded by a dashed outline (some call it marching
ants!) and simultaneously this address would appear in the formula bar. The same
happens while pointing to cell B1.This process not only makes it unnecessary for you to
type the cell addresses in the formula bar but also ensures that no mistakes are committed
in specifying cell addresses. See the examples below to view the formula for calculating
the sub total for a number of sold Items Title. The formula multiplies the quantity and
price of Items Title and adds the sub total for each item.
Figure: Using formula
5.10.2 Basic Functions

Dear learner! Functions can be a more efficient way of performing mathematical
operations than formulas. For example, if you wanted to add the values of cells B1 to
B10, you would type the formula “= B1+B2+B3+B4+B5+B6+B7+B8+B9+B10”.A
shorter way would be to use the SUM function and simply type =SUM (B1:B10).Several
other functions and examples are given in the table below:
Function Example Description

SUM =SUM(A1:A25) Finds the sum of cells A1 through A25
AVERAGE =AVERAGE(B1:B10) Finds the average of cells B1 through B10
MAX =MAX(C1:C25) Returns the highest number from cells C1
through C25
MIN =MIN(D1:D25) Returns the lowest number from cells D1
through D25
SQRT =SQRT(D10) Finds the square root of the value in cells D10
TODAY =TODAY() Returns the current date (leave the parentheses
empty)
5.10.3 Function Wizardfx
View all functions available in Excel by using the

Function Wizard. Activate the cell where the
function will be placed and click the Function
Wizard fxbutton on the standard toolbar.
From the Paste Function dialog box, browse

through the functions by clicking in the Function
Category menu on the left and select the function
from the Function name choice on the right .As each function name is highlighted a
description and example of use provided below the two boxes.
Click on OK to select a function.
Figure: Function Category
The next window allows you to choose the cells that will be included in the function. In
the example below, Excel automatically selected cells A and E for the sum function.
Figure: Function editor
Click on OK when all the cells for the function have been selected.
5.10.4 Auto sumΣ

Use the Auto sum function to add the contents of a cluster of adjacent cells. Select the
cell that the sum will appear in that is outside the cluster of cells whose values will be
added.
5.11 Charts
Dear learner! Charts are visually appealing and make it easy for users to see comparisons,
patterns, and trends in data. For instance, rather than having to analyze several columns
of worksheet numbers, you can see at a glance whether sales are falling or rising over
quarterly periods, or how the actual sales compare to the projected sales.
5.11.1 Creating a Chart
Dear learner! You can create a chart on its own sheet or as an embedded object on a
worksheet. You can also publish a chart on a Web page. To create a chart, you must first
enter the data for the chart on the worksheet. Then select that data and use the Chart
Wizard* to step through the process of choosing the chart type and the various chart
options, or use the Chart toolbar to create a basic chart that you can format later.
There are four most widely applicable chart types

5.9 Pie chart
5.10 Column chart
5.11 Bar chart
5.12 Line chart
* Chart wizard shows each step along the path from entering raw data to completing a
graph. You can transform numbers in to graphs, illustrating the power of visually
oriented information to strengthen presentations.
UNIT 6: INTRODUCTION TO MICROSOFT POWER POINT
Contents
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Familiarizing Yourself with the Workspace
6.3 Naming and Saving Your PowerPoint
6.4 Identifying the Number of Slides You Need
6.5 Adding, Rearranging, and Deleting Slides
6.6 Applying a New Layout to a Slide
6.7 Adding Speaker’s Notes
6.8 Transitioning Between Slides
6.9 Using Themes
6.10 Adding Clip Art
6.11 Converting Text to SmartArt Graphics
6.12 Adding A Chart
6.13 Adding Sound
6.14 Adding Excel Worksheet Data
6.16 Adding Hyperlinks
6.16 Previewing Your Presentation
6.17 Printing Hand-outs And Speaker’s Notes

Naming and Saving Your PowerPoint
Identifying the Number of Slides You Need

Adding, Rearranging, and Deleting Slides
Applying a New Layout to a Slide
Adding Speaker’s Notes
Transitioning Between Slides
Converting Text to SmartArt Graphics
Adding Sound
Adding Excel Worksheet Data
Printing Hand-outs And Speaker’s Notes
Previewing Your Presentation
3.1 INTRODUCTION
• Microsoft Office PowerPoint 2007 is a program that enables you to create slide-show
presentations. The 2007 version offers expanded graphics and formatting capabilities,
making it easier to create professional presentations. The information in this handout
is adapted from Microsoft Office Online; for more detailed information, visit
http://office.microsoft.com/enus/powerpoint.
• In this handout, you’ll find information on how to:

o Familiarize yourself with the workspace
o Name and save your presentation
o Identify how many slides you need
o Add, rearrange, and delete slides
o Apply a new layout to a slide
o Add speaker’s notes
o Transition between slides
o Use themes
o Add clip art
o Convert text to SmartArt graphics
o Add a chart
o Add sound
o Add Excel worksheet data
o Add hyperlinks
o Preview your presentation
o Print handouts and speaker’s notes
3.2 FAMILIARIZING YOURSELF WITH THE WORKSPACE
Dear learner! When you start PowerPoint, it opens in Normal view, where you create and
work on slides.
1. In the Slide pane, you can work directly on individual slides.
2. Dotted borders identify placeholders, where you can type text or insert pictures,
charts, and other objects.
3. The Slides tab shows a thumbnail version of each full size slide shown in the
Slide pane. After you add other slides, you can click a thumbnail on the Slides tab
to make the slide appear in the Slide pane, or you can drag thumbnails to
rearrange the slides in your presentation. You can also add or delete slides on the
Slides tab.
4. In the Notes pane at the bottom, you can type notes about the current slide. You
can hand out your notes to your audience or refer to your notes in Presenter view
when you give your present
presentation.
• By default, PowerPoint 2007 applies the Blank Presentation template, which appears
in the preceding illustration, to new presentations. Blank Presentation is the simplest
and most generic of the templates in PowerPoint 2007. Blank Presentation is a good
template to use when you first start working with PowerPoint because it is
straightforward and can be adapted to many presentation types.
3.3 NAMING AND SAVING YO

YOUR POWERPOINT
Dear learner! As with any software program, it is a good idea to name and save your
presentation right away and then to save your changes frequently while you work:
work
• Click the Microsoft Office Button , point to Save As,, and then do one of the
following:
o For a presentation that can be opened only in PowerPoint 2007, click
PowerPoint Presentation
Presentation.
o For a presentation that can be opened in either PowerPoint 2007 or earlier
versions of PowerPoint, click PowerPoint 97-2003
2003 Presentation.
Presentation
• In the Save As dialog box,x, in the Save in drop down menu, select the folder or other
location where you want to save your presentation.
• In the File name box, accept the default name or type a new name for your
presentation; in the Save as type box, select the file type (the default
lt is .pptx); then
click Save.
• From now on, you can press CTRL+S or click Save near the top of the screen to
save your presentation quickly at any time.
3.4 IDENTIFYING THE NUMB

NUMBER OF SLIDES YOU NEED
Dear learner! To calculate the number of slides that you ne

need,
ed, make an outline of the
material that you plan to cover, and then divide the material into individual slides. You
probably want at least:
o A main title slide
o An introductory slide that lists the major points or areas in your
presentation
o One slide for ea
each
ch point or area that is listed on the introductory slide
o A summary slide that repeats the list of major points or areas in your
presentation
• By using this basic structure, if you have three major points or areas to present, you
can plan to have a minimum of six slides: a title slide, an introductory slide, one slide
for each of the three major points or areas, and a summary slide.
• If there is a large amount of material to present in any of your main points or areas,
you may want to create a subgrouping of slides for that material by using the same
basic outline structure.
3.5 ADDING, REARRANGING, AND DELETING SLIDES
Dear learner! The default New Presentation provides a single slide with two placeholders:
the top for a title; the bottom for subtitles. The arrangement of placeholders on a slide is
called a layout. PowerPoint 2007 also provides other types of layouts, such as those for
including pictures and SmartArt graphics.
• When adding a slide to your presentation, you can do the following to choose a layout
for the new slide at the same time:
o On the Slides tab, click just below the single slide that already appears
there.
o On the Home tab, in the Slides group, click the arrow next to New Slide.
o A gallery appears, showing thumbnails of the various slide layouts that are
available.
1. The name identifies the content that each layout is designed for.
2. Placeholders that display icons can contain text, but you can also click the icons to
insert objects automatically, including SmartArt graphics and clip art.
• Click the layout that you want for your new slide. The new slide now appears both on
the Slides tab, where it is highlighted as the current slide, and in the Slide pane.
Repeat this procedure for each new slide that you want to add.
• If you want to create two slides that are similar in content and layout, you can save
work by creating one slide that has all of the formatting and content that both slides
will share and then copying that slide. This can be done before or after adding
content.
o On the Slides tab, right-click the slide that you want to copy, and then
click Copy on the shortcut menu.
o Still on the Slides tab, right-click where you want to add the new copy of
the slide, and then click Paste on the shortcut menu.
o You can also insert a copy of a slide from one presentation into another
presentation.
• To rearrange the order of slides, on the Slides tab, click the slide that you want to
move, and then drag it to the location that you want. To select multiple slides, click a
slide that you want to move, and then press and hold CTRL while you click each of
the other slides that you want to move.
• To delete a slide, on the Slides tab, right-click the slide that you want to delete, and
then click Delete Slide on the shortcut menu.
3.6 APPLYING A NEW LAYOUT TO A SLIDE
Dear learner! To change the layout of an existing slide, do the following:

o On the Slides tab, click the slide that you want to apply a new layout to.
o On the Home tab, in the Slides group, click Layout, and then click the
new layout that you want.
o If you apply a layout that doesn't have enough of the right kind of
placeholders for the content that already exists on the slide, additional
placeholders are automatically created to contain that content.
3.7 ADDING SPEAKER’S NOTES
Dear learner! Speaker's notes, which you can type in the Notes pane for each slide, help
you keep your onscreen presentation free of excess content while you still keep track of
all of the information that you need during the presentation. You can cut excessively
detailed text from the Slide pane at any time and then paste that text directly into the
Notes pane so that you still have it for reference.
Note: Using the Speaker’s notes feature will help prevents you from giving your
audience an “information overload.”
• You can print your speaker's notes and then refer to them while you give your
presentation. Alternatively, if you run your PowerPoint 2007 presentation from one
monitor (at a podium, for example) while your audience views it on a second monitor,
you can use Presenter's view to display the notes only on your monitor while you are
presenting.
3.8 TRANSITIONING BETWEEN SLIDES
Dear learner! Slide transitions are animation-like effects that occur when you move from
one slide to the next. PowerPoint 2007 provides many types of slide transitions, including
standard fades, dissolves, cuts, and wipes, as well as more unusual transitions such as
wheels and checkerboards.
Note: Be careful not to overdo it with transitions; too many or overly animated
transitions make presentations look tacky.
• On the Animations tab, in the Transition to This Slide group, click the transition
that you want.
• To preview how the current slide looks with a particular transition applied, rest your
pointer on the thumbnail of that transition.
• To see thumbnails of additional transitions, click the arrows next to the row of
thumbnails.
• You can choose other options in the Transition to This Slide group to control the
transition speed, to add a sound, and to apply the same transition to all of the slides in
the presentation.
3.9 USING THEMES
Dear learner! PowerPoint 2007 provides a wide variety of design themes that make it
easy to change the overall look of your presentation. A theme is a set of design elements
that provides a specific, unified appearance for all of your Office documents by using
particular combinations of colors, fonts and effects. PowerPoint 2007 automatically
applies the Office theme to presentations that are created by using the Blank Presentation
template, but you can change the look of your presentation at any time by applying a
different theme.
• On the Design tab, in the Themes group, click the document theme that you want to
apply.
• To preview how the current slide looks with a particular theme applied, rest your
pointer on the thumbnail of that theme.
• To see thumbnails of additional themes, click the arrows next to the row of
thumbnails.
• Unless you specify otherwise, PowerPoint 2007 applies themes to the entire
presentation. To change the appearance of only selected slides, on the Slides tab,
press and hold CTRL while you click each slide that you want to change. When all of
the slides are selected, right
right-click
click the theme that you want to apply to them, and then
click Apply to Selected Slides on the shortcut menu.
Note: Alternating slides with different themes may help maintain your
audience’s attention.
3.10 ADDING CLIP ART
Dear learner! Note: You want to create the most effective visual presentation
possible — often, a series of slides that contains only bulleted lists is not the most
dynamic choice. Lack of visual variety can cause your audience's attention to drift. And
many kinds of information aren't most clearly expressed in a paragraph or a bulleted list.
As such, Clip Art, SmartArt graphics, charts, and sound are available options for curing
“slide burnout.”
• To add clip art, click the placeholder that you want to add clip art to. If you
don'tselect a placeholder, or if you select a placeholder that cannot contain an image,
the clip art is inserted at the cente
center of the slide.
o On the Insert tab, in the Illustrations group, click Clip Art.
o In the Clip Art task pane, locate the clip art you want, and then click it.
o You can move the clip art, resize it, rotate it, add text to it, and make other
changes.
o You can search for additional clip art on the Microsoft Office Online site;
click the Clip art on Office Online link at the bottom of the Clip Art task
pane.
3.11 CONVERTING TEXT TO SMARTART GRAPHICS
Dear learner! A SmartArt graphic is a fully customizable visual representation of your

information. Converting your text to a SmartArt graphic is a quick way to convert
existing slides to professionally designed illustrations. For example, with one click, you
can convert an Agenda slide to a SmartArt graphic.
• To convert existing text to a SmartArt graphic:

o Click the placeholder that contains the text that you want to convert.
o On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click Convert to SmartArt
Graphic .
o To see how a SmartArt graphic looks with your text, in the gallery hover
your pointer over the thumbnail for that SmartArt graphic. The gallery
contains layouts for SmartArt graphics that work best with bulleted lists.
To view the entire set of layouts, click More SmartArt Graphics.
o When you find a SmartArt graphic that you like, click it; this will apply it
to your text.
o You can now move the SmartArt graphic, resize it, rotate it, add text to it,
apply a different Quick Style (Quick Styles: Collections of formatting
options that make formatting your documents and objects easier.) to it, and
make other changes.
• Although it is especially easy to create a SmartArt graphic for existing text, you can
also work the other way around, by first inserting the SmartArt graphic that you want
and then adding text to it:
o Click the placeholder that you want to add a SmartArt graphic to. If you
don't select a placeholder, or if you select a placeholder that cannot
contain an image, the SmartArt graphic is inserted at the center of the
slide.
o On the Insert tab, in the Illustrations group, click SmartArt.
SmartArt
o In the Choose a SmartArt Graphic dialog box, in the leftmost pane, click
the type of SmartArt graphic that you want.
o In the center pane, locate and click the layout that you want, and then click
OK.
o To see a preview of any layout, cclick
lick that layout. The preview appears in
the rightmost pane.
3.12 ADDING A CHART
Dear learner!
• In Excel, select the chart that you want to copy to a PowerPoint presentation.
• On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click Copy .
• Click in the PowerPoint presentation where you want to paste the copied chart.
• On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click Paste.
• Click Paste Options next to the chart, and then do one of the following:
o To paste the chart with a link to its source data, click Chart (linked to
Excel data).
o To paste the chart and to include access to the entire workbook in the
presentation, click Excel Chart (entire workbook).
o To paste the chart as a static picture, click Paste as Picture.

o To paste the chart in its original format, click Keep Source Formatting.
o To paste the chart and format it by using the document theme that is
applied to the presentation, click Use Destination Theme.
3.13 ADDING SOUND
Dear learner!
Note: To prevent possible problems with links, it is a good idea to copy the
sounds into the same folder as your presentation before you add the sounds to
your presentation.
• In the pane that contains the Outline and Slides tabs, click the Slides tab.
• Click the slide to which you want to add a sound.
• On the Insert tab, in the Media Clips group, click the arrow under Sound.
o Either:
o click Sound from File, locate the folder that contains the file, and
then double-click the file that you want to add or…
o click Sound from Clip Organizer, scroll to find the clip that you
want in the Clip Art task pane, and then click it to add it to the
slide.
o You can preview a clip before adding it to your presentation. In the Clip
Art task pane, in the Results box that displays the available clips, move
your mouse pointer over the clip's thumbnail. Click the arrow that appears,
and then click Preview/Properties.
• When you insert a sound, you are prompted with a message asking how you want the
sound to start: automatically (Automatically) or when you click the sound icon
(When Clicked).
o To automatically start the sound when you show the slide, click
Automatically. The sound plays automatically when you show the slide
unless there are other media effects on the slide. If there are other effects,
such as an animation, the sound plays after that effect.
o To manually start the sound when you click it on the slide, click When
Clicked.
• Multiple sounds are added on top of each other and play in the order in which they
were added. If you want each sound to start when you click it, drag the sound icons
off of each other after you insert them.
• You can play a sound continuously during just one slide or across many slides.
o To play a sound continuously for one slide
o Click the sound icon.

o Under Sound Tools, on the Options tab, in the Sound Options group,
select the Loop Until Stopped check box.
o When you loop a sound, it plays continuously until you advance to the
next slide.
o To play a sound across multiple slides, on the Animations tab, in

the Animations group, click Custom Animation.
o In the Custom Animation task pane, click the arrow to the right of the
selected sound in the Custom Animation list, and then click Effect
Options.
o On the Effect tab, under Stop playing, click After,, and then select the
total number of slides on which the file should play.
o The sound file should be as long as the specified display times of the
slides. You can see the length of the sound file on the Sound Settings
tab, under Information.
3.14 ADDING EXCEL WORKSHEET DATA
Dear learner! In Excel, select the worksheet data that you want to copy to a PowerPoint
presentation.
• On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click Copy .
• Click in the PowerPoint presentation where you want to paste the copied worksheet
data.
• On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click Paste.

• Click Paste Options next to the data, and then do one of the following:
o To use the original format of the copied data, click Keep Source
Formatting.
o To use the document theme that is app
applied
lied to the PowerPoint presentation,
click Use Destination Theme
Theme.
o To paste table data that you copied as text, click Keep Text Only.
Only
Note: If you don't see the Paste Options button, you may have to turn it on.
Click the Microsoft Office Button , and then click PowerPoint Options.
Options In
the Advanced category, under Cut, Copy, and Paste,, select the Show Paste
Options buttons check box. If you paste the data into a PowerPoint table, the
Paste Options button is not displayed.
• To paste the data as a hyperlink tha

thatt directs you to the source data in Excel, click the
arrow on the Paste button, and then click Paste As Hyperlink.. If the workbook that
contains the source data has not been saved yet, this option is unavailable.
• If you want the range of data that you past

paste as a Microsoft Excel Worksheet Object
into a PowerPoint presentation to expand when the corresponding data expands on the
Excel worksheet, you can define a name for the range of data in Excel before you
copy the data. You can then paste a link to the nam
named
ed range by using the Paste
Special command. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click the arrow on the
Paste button, click Paste Special
Special, and then click Paste link.. This works only when
you copy data that is not in table format in Excel.
3.16 ADDING HYPERLINKS
RLINKS
Dear learner! You can use hyperlinks to move from one slide to another, to a network or
Internet location, or even to another file or program altogether.
o Select the text that you want to click to activate the hyperlink.
Alternatively, you can select an object (a piece of clip art, for example, or
a SmartArt graphic).
o On the Insert tab, in the Links group, click Hyperlink.
o In the Insert Hyperlink dialog box, click the appropriate button in the My
Places box for the target of your link (that is, the place where the link
takes you).
o To go to another slide in your presentation, for example, click
Place in This Document
Document.
o Find and click the target location, make any changes that you want in the
Text to displa
display and Address boxes, and then click OK.
3.16 PREVIEWING YOUR PRESENTATION
Dear learner! To view your presentation on your computer screen exactly the way that it
will look to your audience when you are presenting, do the following:
o On the Slide Show tab, in the Start Slide Show group, do one of the
following: 1) To start with the first slide in the presentation, click From
Beginning, or 2) To start with the slide that currently appears in the Slide
pane, click From Current Slide.
o Click to advance to the next slide.
o To return to Normal view at any time, press ESC.
3.17 PRINTING HANDOUTS AND SPEAKER’S NOTES
Dear learner!
• Print handouts and speaker's notes You can print your presentation either as
speaker's notes or as handouts:
o Speaker's notes show one slide at the top of each printed page,
along with the content of the Notes pane for that slide at the
bottom of the page. Such handouts can be used by the speaker as a
script or outline during the presentation. They can also be
distributed to the audience, so that each member has more
complete information from the presentation.
o Handouts show one, two, three, four, six, or nine slides per printed
page and are intended for cases in which it isn't desirable to
include the Notes pane contents in the distribution to the audience.
Note: The three-slides-per-page handout includes ruled space where the audience
can write notes.
UNIT 7: INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS AND THE INTERNET
Contents
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Categories of Computer Networks
7.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN):
7.2.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
7.2.3 Wide Area Network (WAN):
7.3 Peer-to-peer & Client/server networks
7.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Installing a Network
7.4.1 Advantages
7.4.2 Disadvantages
7.5 Network Topologies:
7.6 Considerations When Choosing a Topology:
8.7 Summary Chart:
7.8 Media Access
7.9 The Internet
7.9.1 Getting connected to Internet:
7.9.2 Protocols
.9.3 Social network service
7.9.4 Important Internet Applications or Services
Understand Categories of Computer Networks
Identify Advantages and Disadvantages of Installing a Network
Describe Network Topologies:
Describe about The Internet
Understand Important Internet Applications
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Dear learner! A computer network is a collection of two or more computers, which are
connected together to share information and resources like printer. Computers in a
network are interconnected by telephone lines, coaxial cables, satellite links, radio and/or
some other communication technique. A network can be as few as several personal
computers on a small network or as large as the internet, a worldwide network of
computers.
7.2 CATEGORIES O COMPUTER NETWORKS
Dear learner! Generally there are three primary categories of computer networks: Local
Area Network (LAN). Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) and Wide Area Network
(WAN). These categories are defined based on various factors like the size of the
network, the distance it covers, and the type of link used in interconnection.
7.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN):
Dear learner! A local area network or LAN is a computer network that spans only a small
geographical area, such as an office, building or campus. It cconnects computers & other
devices within a limited physical area s.a. an office, classroom, building etc. It uses a
variety of telecommunication media s.a. ordinary telephone wiring, coaxial cable etc. to
interconnect workstation & other devices. To communicate each PC has a circuit board
called a network interface card (NIC). Most LANs uses a more powerful microcomputer
having a larger hard disk capacity, called a file server or network server that contains a
Network Operating System Program that controls communication and the use and sharing
of network resources.
7.2.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
Dear learner! Metropolitan Area Networks or MANs are large computer networks usually
spanning a campus or a city. They typically use wireless infrastructure or optical fiber
connections to link their sites. For instance a university or college may have a MAN that
joins together many of their local area networks (LANs) situated around site of a fraction
of a square kilometer. It may cover a group of nearby corporate offices or a city and
could either be private or public
public. It can
an support both data & voice, and might even be
related to the local cable television network.
7.2.3 Wide Area Network (WAN):
Dear learner! A computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area.
Typically, a WAN consists of ttwo
wo or more LANs. Computers connected to a wide-area
wide
network are often connected through public networks, such as the telephone system. They
can also be connected through leased lines or satellites. The largest WAN in existence is
the internet.
Dear learner! WANS differ from LANS in the following ways:

WANs cover greater distance.
WAN speeds are slower.

WANs can be connected on demand or be permanently connected. LANs
have permanent connections between stations.
WANs can use public or private network transports. LANs typically use
private transports.
WANs can use either full- or half-duplex communications. LANs typically
use half-duplex communications.
7.3 Peer-to-peer & Client/server networks
• Based on security and access, we may classify networks into peer-to-peer and
client/server networks technologies:
i. Peer-to-peer networks – all computers are equal - they are peers.
Each computer can be a client that requests resources and a server that
provides resources upon request. They s are characterized by the
following:
Security is not centralized; each computer is responsible to check access

rights for its resources.
Network is not scalable; it is good only for a few number of computers
(≤10).
Each user is responsible for local backup.
No specialized operating system is required; the operating systems used in
standalone computers like Windows NT 4.0 Workstation, Windows
95/98, Windows 2000 Pro, etc. are sufficient.
ii. Client/server networks – there exist dedicated servers which only

provide resources/services when requested. They characterized by the
following:
Security is centralized and tighter. All user accounts are stored in the
same database on the server.
The network is highly scalable; you can have tens of thousands of
workstations in the network.
Backup is centralized and is done by a person responsible for the job

(backup operator).
Specialized networking operating systems are required, such as Windows
NT 4.0 server, Windows 2000 server, Novell NetWare, etc.
7.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Installing a Network
7.4.1 Advantages: installing a network has its own great advantages from those:-
• Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files.
Without a network, files are shared by copying them to floppy disks, then
carrying or sending the disks from one computer to another. This method of
transferring files (referred to as sneaker-net) is very time-consuming.
• Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available at
considerable savings when compared to buying individually licensed copies.
Besides monetary savings, sharing a program on a network allows for easier
upgrading of the program. The changes have to be done only once, on the file
server, instead of on all the individual workstations.
• Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," so
that you do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords
can be established for specific directories to restrict access to authorized users.
• Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of installing a
network at a school is the fact that all of the software can be loaded on one
computer (the file server). This eliminates that need to spend time and energy
installing updates and tracking files on independent computers throughout the
building.
• Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in which a network exceeds
stand-alone computers. Most organizations cannot afford enough laser printers,
fax machines, modems, scanners, and CD-ROM players for each computer.
However, if these or similar peripherals are added to a network, they can be
shared by many users.
• Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the hardware necessary to
install an e-mail system. E-mail aids in personal and professional communication
for all school personnel, and it facilitates the dissemination of general information
to the entire school staff. Electronic mail on a LAN can enable students to
communicate with teachers and peers at their own school. If the LAN is
connected to the Internet, students can communicate with others throughout the
world.
• Flexible Access. If you take School networks as example, allow students to
access their files from computers throughout the school. Students can begin an
assignment in their classroom, save part of it on a public access area of the
network, then go to the media center after school to finish their work. Students
can also work cooperatively through the network.
• Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice)
allows many users to work on a document or project concurrently. For example,
educators located at various schools within a county could simultaneously
contribute their ideas about new curriculum standards to the same document and
spreadsheets.
7.4.2 Disadvantages: there are some disadvantages while installing a network

from those:
• Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time,
the initial costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and
software are expensive, and the installation may require the services of a
technician.
• Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires
considerable time and expertise
• File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure
than any other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network
may come to a halt. When this happens, the entire may lose access to necessary
programs and files.
• Cables May Break. The Topology chapter presents information about the various
configurations of cables. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the
inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can
stop the entire network.
7.5 Network Topologies:

The physical configuration of a network that determines how the network's

computers are connected is called network topology. Common configurations
include the bus, star and ring topologies. It refers to the layout of connected
devices on a network.
i.The Bus Topology

In a bus topology, all computers are connected to a single cable.
The cable is terminated at its ends to avoid signal bouncing.
When a computer wants to send data to another computer, it places the data and
address of the recipient computer on the cable. Only the computer whose
address is included with the data accepts the data.
Advantages of a Bus Topology
• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

• Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Bus Topology
• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

• Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
• Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
• Network can slow down in heavy traffic.
ii. The Star Topology
Each computer in a star topology is connected to a central device

(hub) by a separate cable.
When a computer wants to send data to another computer, it
sends the data and address of the recipient computer to the hub, which in turn,
sends it to every computer connected to it. Only the computer whose address is
included with the data accepts the data.
Advantages of a Star Topology
• Easy to install and wire.

• No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.

• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
• Failure of one computer does not affect the rest of the network
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
• Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

• If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
• More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the
concentrators.
iii. The Ring Topology

Each computer is connected directly to two other computers in the
network.
Data moves down a one-way path from one computer and if the
next computer is the recipient it accepts the data; otherwise it amplifies it and
sends it to the next computer down in the path.
Any break disrupts the entire network and hence the physical ring topology is
seldom used.
Advantages of a Ring Topology
• System provides equal access for all computers.

• Performance is even despite many users.
Disadvantages of a Ring Topology
• Failure of one computer can impact the rest of the network.

• Problems are hard to isolate.
• Network reconfiguration disrupts operation.
iv. The Mesh Topology

Each computer is directly connected to every other computer.
A mesh topology can become quite complex as wiring and

connections increase rapidly with the increase of computers to
connect. For n computers, n(n-1)/2 cables are required.
Today, the mesh topology is rarely used, and then only in a WAN environment
and only because the mesh topology is fault tolerant. Computers or network
devices can switch between these multiple, redundant connections if the need
arises. On the con side, the mesh topology is expensive and quickly becomes
too complex.
Advantages of a Mesh Topology
• System provides increased redundancy and reliability as well as ease of

troubleshooting.
Disadvantages of a Mesh Topology
• System is expensive to install because it uses a lot of cabling.
7.6 Considerations When Choosing a Topology:
• Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network;
you do not have to purchase concentrators.
• Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
• Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by
adding another concentrator.
• Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which
is most often used with star topologies.
8.7 Summary Chart:
Physical Topology Common Cable Common Protocol
Twisted Pair
Ethernet
Linear Bus Coaxial
LocalTalk
Fiber
Twisted Pair Ethernet

Star
Fiber LocalTalk
Star-Wired Ring Twisted Pair Token Ring

Twisted Pair
Tree Coaxial Ethernet
Fiber
7.8 Media Access

With many stations on the same piece of network media, there has to be a way of vying
for time on the cable. This process is called media access, and two of the most popular
methods are discussed below.
i. Carrier Sense/Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) - this media

access technology, used in Ethernet networks, is probably the most common. When
a protocol that uses CSMA/CD has data to transmit, it first senses if a signal is
already on the wire (a carrier), indicating that someone is transmitting currently. If
no one else is transmitting, it attempts a transmission and then listens to hear if
someone else tried to transmit at the same time. If someone else transmits at the
exact same time, a condition known as a collision occurs. Both senders "back off"
and don't transmit until some random period of time has passed. They then both
retry.
ii. Token Passing – this media access method uses a special packet called a token. The
first computer turned on creates the token. It then passes the token on to the next
computer. The token passes around the network until a computer that has data to
send takes the token off the network, modifies it, and puts it back on the network
along with the data it has to send. Each station between the sender and the receiver
along the network reads the destination address in the token. If the destination
address doesn't match its own, the station simply sends the package on its way.
When the destination station recognizes its address in the destination address of the
token, the NIC copies the data into the station's memory and modifies the token,
indicating it has received the data. The token continues around the network until the
original sender receives the token back again. If the original sender has more data to
send, the process repeats itself. If not, the sender modifies the token to indicate that
the token is "free" for anyone else to use. With this method, there are no collisions
(as in CSMA/CD networks) because everyone has to have "permission" to transmit

(via the token).
7.9THE INTERNET
Dear learner! The Internet is a huge collection of computer networks that can
communicate with each other – a network of networks. It is an umbrella under which
many different networks, small or big, freely exchange information. When you connect to
the Internet from office or home, your computer becomes a small part of this giant
network.
To ensure the delivery of the data to the right computer, each computer on the Internet is
given an address. This address scheme is known as the Domain Name System.
How does the Internet work?
In order to make the Internet work, it requires:
1. a physical connection between the computers

2. a common language (called TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) for the computers to communicate over the Internet. By using TCP/IP
Protocol, all kinds of computers with different operating systems run on the Internet.
7.9.1 Getting connected to Internet:
Dear learner!You can connect to the Internet in one of two basic ways, dialing into an
Internet service provider's (ISP) computer called dial-up internet connection, or with a
direct connection to an Internet service provider called broad band or leased line internet
connection.
To establish a conventional dial-up connection to the Internet, you will need the
following:
An account with an ISP (a company that provides the Internet access, in
Ethiopia Telecommunication is an account provider)
A telephone connection:
Modem (external/internal): used to connect the telephone line to the computer
Communication software: example internet browsers such as internet explorer
Advantages of dial-up connection:

• Is not coasty: it is possible to by an account with money not more than 500
birr.
• It flexible: if you have an account you can use it what ever you go if you do
have telephone line and computer (not fixed in some areas only).
• Less monthly payment: it charges you based on the amount of time that you
are going to use internet as any telephone does.
Disadvantages of dial-up connection:

• Not faster: it is very slow because it uses the public service that the other
people use.
Broad band internet connection you can also get a direct connection to your ISP,
where you have a fixed cable or a dedicated phone line to the ISP.
Advantages of broad band connection:

• Faster: because it uses a free telephone line which is dedicated for this internet
service only it is faster than dial-up connections.
• Fixed monthly payment: the monthly payment is not varies base on the amount
of time the you use. Whether you use it or not you have to pay the fixed
amount of money in a month
Disadvantages of broad band connection:
• Coasty: it needs thousands of birr to have this service (which is fixed and must
be paid monthly)
• Not flexible: you have to have a fixed telephone line and use it on that area
only
7.9.2 Protocols
Dear learner!Since most computers were not similar, they had to share the same
language to understand each other. This is what gave birth to the various protocols.
Protocols are the formal rules governing the exchange of information between computers
so as to provide reliable and efficient transfer of information. Without protocols to guide
the orderly exchange of data between points in a network, there would be chaos, not
communication. Detailed protocols are required to precisely define the format in which
data and system messages are to be sent. These also describe how a message is addressed
and govern network traffic flow by controlling priority, routing and sequencing of
messages.
Dear learner!When you send a message across the Internet to another user, TCP divides
the data into manageable units called packets and attaches to each packet the information
necessary to reassemble the data and check for errors. IP then labels all the packets with
a header containing the address of the destination and sends them on their way.
Once the packets reach their destination, the computer at the receiving end removes the
IP header and uses the data that TCP attached to each packet to make sure none of the
packets have been lost or damaged. The packets are then reassembled into the original
message. If the computer discovers a damaged packet, it sends a message to the sending
computer asking it to resend the packet.
Dear learner!You access pages on web servers by using a program called a browser. As
soon as you tell your browser what web page you want to view, it goes to the web server
that holds the page and retrieves it for you.
The links contained in web pages can point to areas within the same page, to other pages
residing on the same web server, or to pages sitting on a computer on the other side of the
world.
The term web site refers to a collection of one or more web pages on the web.
The relationship between Browsers and the web servers is a client/server relationship.
The client (your browser) requests information from the server (the web server containing
the requested information) and the server delivers it.
7.9.3 Social network service

Dear learner!A social network service focuses on building online communities of

people who share interests and/or activities, or who are interested in exploring the
interests and activities of others. Most social network services are web based and provide
a variety of ways for users to interact, such as e-mail and instant messaging services.
Social networking has encouraged new ways to communicate and share information.
Social networking websites are being used regularly by millions of people.
While it could be said that email and websites have most of the essential elements of
social network services, the idea of proprietary encapsulated services has gained popular
uptake recently.
The main types of social networking services are those which contain category divisions
(such as former school-year or classmates), means to connect with friends (usually with
self-description pages) and a recommendation system linked to trust. Popular methods
now combine many of these, with Facebook widely used worldwide; MySpace, Twitter
and LinkedIn being the most widely used in North America; Nexopia (mostly in Canada);
Bebo, Hi5, MySpace, dol2day (mostly in Germany), Tagged, XING;and Skyrock in parts
of Europe;Orkut and Hi5 in SouthAmerica and CentralAmerica; and Friendster, Multiply,
Orkut, Xiaonei and Cyworld in Asia and the Pacific Islands.
7.9.4 Important Internet Applications or Services that commonly used:

Dear learner! Internet gives different types of services from those the main services are
World wide web, Electronic mail,File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Telenet, Internet Relay
Chat (IRC), Internet Telephony, Video conferencing and they are described in detail as
follows:
i. World Wide Web (WWW)

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a vast collection of documents stored on Internet
computers. The web documents contain links that lead to other web pages and they
contain graphics, sound and so on which open up new possibilities for presenting
information.
WWW uses Hypertext Mark-up language (HTML) to design a web document. WWW
has revolutionized the way the world is accessing the information on the Internet as:
The web is not linear - a user can click on any of the links and jump to the related
document.
The web is rich in media elements – it includes text, voice, video, pictures, etc.
The web is interactive - A web user can fill in forms on-line, run programs, select
options
a. Basic Internet Terms:
Dear learner!Web Server - a program and a computer clubbed into one entity which
responds to the requests from web browsers for Internet resources.
Home Page - the first hypertext document to be shown when a user follows a link to the
web server.
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)- the protocol used by the Web to transfer
hypertext documents & other Internet resources.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL) - a special scheme that tells the user exactly where a
resource is located on the Internet. URL typically refers to the complete address of a
resource located on a computer on the Internet. For example:
http://www.hu.edu.et
Protocol Host Domain
Web Browser - a program that allows a user to display & interact with a hypertext
document.
b. How to surf the web with a Browser

Dear learner!Netscape Navigator is a very popular browser in use today. The other
almost equally popular browser is Microsoft Internet Explorer. Both browsers have a
simple toolbar for navigating the web including buttons to move backward and forward
through pages you have visited, as well as buttons to reload the current page. Several
other options, including printing and searching, are also available from the toolbar.
You can jump immediately to any site on the web by typing its URL in the Address Box
and pressing Enter.
Hyperlinks allow you to jump to another page on the web. Normally, hyperlink text is
underlined and appears in a different color on the web page. Browsers give you an
additional visual clue as well as when the mouse cursor passes over a hyperlink, it
changes to a hand with pointing finger.
Both Netscape and Internet Explorer remember your favorite web pages by using
bookmarks. You can instantly jump to any of your marked pages by selecting it from the
Bookmarks menu.
ii. E-Mail:
Dear learner!E-mail is the most widely used feature of the Internet. Using e-mail, a user
can send and receive mail through computers to and from any Internet user.
E-mail can be used transmit text, messages, audio and video clips.
E-Mail allows users to send a message to just one user or a group of users. Large
documents can be attached.
Users can read, print, forward, answer or delete a message.
E-mail is much cheaper and faster in comparison to other communication services.
Each E-mail user is assigned a unique address, which is used by the e-mail network to
deliver the message.
iii. FTP and Telnet:

Dear learner!Internet offers FTP (File Transfer Protocol). FTP allows a user to transfer
data between computers on the Internet. FTP can send and receive data to/from any
distant computer on the Internet from/to the user's computer.
FTP provides commands that allow users to manage files. The FTP applications allow the
users to download files from computers connected to the Internet.
Telnet is another popular feature available on the Internet. It is a program that allows one
computer to connect to another computer, anywhere in the world.
iv . Telnet
Dear learner!Telnet is a program that allows you to log into computers on the Internet
and then enter commands which will be executed as if you were entering them directly on
the server. There are no graphics in Telnet sessions, just text. To Telnet to a computer,
you must know its address. This can consist of domain name (locis.loc.gov) or IP address
(140.147.254.3).
On the Web, HTTP and FTP protocols allow you to request specific files from remote
computers, but not to actually be logged on as a user of that computer. With Telnet, you
log on as a regular user with whatever privileges you may have been granted to the
specific application and data on that computer.
v . Usenet News
Dear learner!Usenet News is a global electronic bulletin board system in which millions
of computer users exchange information on a vast range of topics. The major difference
between Usenet News and e-mail discussion groups is the fact that Usenet messages are
stored on central computers, and users must connect to these computers to read or
download the messages posted to these groups. This is distinct from e-mail distribution,
in which messages arrive in the electronic mailboxes of each list member.
There are thousands of Usenet newsgroups. These range from academic to recreational
topics. Serious computer-related work takes place in Usenet discussions.
Usenet is not as popular nowadays as it once was. Blogs and RSS (Rich Site Summary)
feeds are newer modes of communication that have caught the interest of Internet users.
Vi . Chat & Instant Messaging
Dear learner!Chat programs allow users on the Internet to communicate with each other
by typing in real time. They are sometimes included as a feature of a Web site, where
users can log into the "chat room" to exchange comments and information about the
topics addressed on the site.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a service through which participants can communicate to
each other on hundreds of channels. These channels are usually based on specific topics.
While many topics are frivolous, substantive conversations are also taking place. To
access IRC, you must use an IRC software program.
A variation of chat is the phenomenon of instant messaging. With instant messaging, a

user on the Web can contact another user currently logged in and type a conversation.
Vii . Search Engine:

Dear learner!It is computer software that compiles lists of documents, most commonly
those on the World Wide Web (WWW), and the contents of those documents. Search
engines respond to a user entry, or query, by searching the lists and displaying a list of
documents (called Web sites when on the WWW) that match the search query. Some
search engines include the opening portion of the text of Web pages in their lists, but
others include only the titles or addresses (known as Universal Resource Locators, or
URLs) of Web pages. It allows a user to enter a keyword related a particular topic and
retrieve information about internet sites containing those keywords. Examples: Google,
Mama, Yahoo etc.
UNIT 8: THE COMPUTER SECURITY

Contents
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Need for Security
8.3 Security Threats
8.4 Motives, Goals, and Objectives of Malicious Attackers
8.5 Methods, Tools, and Techniques for Attacks
8.6 Security Vulnerabilities
8.7 Security Policies and plans.
Understand what a computer security mean
Describe The Need for Security:
Describe Security Threats
Understand Motives, Goals, and Objectives of Malicious Attackers
Explore Security Vulnerabilities
Describe Security Policies and plans.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Dear learner! Computer security is about protecting information. Lately it includes

privacy, confidentiality, and integrity.
Some Examples:
Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman Zhu Bangzao rejected allegations that China
stole U.S. nuclear secrets, saying such claims are meant to undermine China-U.S.
relations. Meanwhile, a CIA-led task force was assessing how much damage may have
been done to U.S. national security after a Chinese scientist at the Los Alamos
National Laboratory in New Mexico allegedly shared nuclear secrets.
March 9, 1999. “CIA measures damage following leaked nuclear secrets.”

http://cnn.com/US/9903/09/china.spy.02/
Dear learner! Two parties agree and seal their transaction using digital signatures.
The signature cannot be ruled invalid by state legislature or other law-making bodies
because it uniquely identifies the individuals involved.
October 18, 1999. WASHINGTON (IDG)—The U.S. House Judiciary Committee

has approved a bill designed to encourage electronic commerce by recognizing
digital signatures as having the same legally binding status as a handwritten
signature.
Dear learner! You visit a Web site and the site collects more personal information
than you are willing to divulge or the site distributes data to outside parties. By doing
this, it compromises your privacy and opens your world to other parties.
The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is developing the Platform for Privacy
Preferences Project (P3P)
Dear learner! We need to know the value of the information as defined above in order
to develop protective measures that will protect the information from the outside
world, while allowing known individuals with unique identities the access required.
Here are some protective measures to consider:
Prevention:
Take measures that prevent your information from being damaged, altered, or stolen.
Preventive measures can range from locking the server room door to setting up high-
level security policies.
Detection:
Take measures that allow you to detect when information has been damaged, altered,
or stolen, how it has been damaged, altered, or stolen, and who has caused the damage.
Various tools are available to help detect intrusions, damage or alterations, and viruses.
Reaction:
Take measures that allow recovery of information, even if information is lost or
damaged.
The above measures are all very well, but if we do not understand how information
may be compromised, we cannot take measures to protect it. Here are some
components that we can examine on how information can be compromised:
Confidentiality:
The prevention of unauthorized disclosure of information. This can be the result of
poor security measures or information leaks by personnel. An example of poor security
measures would be to allow anonymous access to sensitive information.
Integrity:
The prevention of erroneous modification of information. Authorized users are
probably the biggest cause of errors and omissions and the alteration of data. Storing
incorrect data within the system can be as bad as losing data. Malicious attackers also
can modify, delete, or corrupt information that is vital to the correct operation of
business functions.
Availability:
The prevention of unauthorized withholding of information or resources. This does not

apply just to personnel withholding information. Information should be as freely
available as possible to authorized users.
Authentication:
The process of verifying that users are who they claim to be when logging onto a
system. Generally, the use of user names and passwords accomplishes this. More
sophisticated is the use of smart cards and retina scanning. The process of
authentication does not grant the user access rights to resources—this is achieved
through the authorization process.
Authorization:
The process of allowing only authorized users access to sensitive information. An
authorization process uses the appropriate security authority to determine whether a
user should have access to resources.
8.2 The Need for Security

Dear learner! Administrators normally find that putting together a security policy that
restricts both users and attacks is time consuming and costly. Users also become
disgruntled at the heavy security policies making their work difficult for no discernable
reason, causing bad politics within the company. Planning an audit policy on huge
networks takes up both server resources and time, and often administrators take no
note of the audited events. A common attitude among users is that if no secret work is
being performed, why bother implementing security.
Dear learner! There is a price to pay when a half-hearted security plan is put into
action. It can result in unexpected disaster. A password policy that allows users to use
blank or weak passwords is a hacker’s paradise. No firewall or proxy protection
between the organization’s private local area network (LAN) and the public Internet
makes the company a target for cyber crime.
Organizations will need to determine the price they are willing to pay in order to
protect data and other assets. This cost must be weighed against the costs of losing
information and hardware and disrupting services. The idea is to find the correct
balance. If the data needs minimal protection and the loss of that data is not going to
cost the company, then the cost of protecting that data will be less. If the data is
sensitive and needs maximum protection, then the opposite is normally true.
Security Threats
The first part of this section outlines security threats and briefly describes the methods,
tools, and techniques that intruders use to exploit vulnerabilities in systems to achieve
their goals.
Security Threats, Attacks, and Vulnerabilities
Dear learner! Information is the key asset in most organizations. Companies gain a
competitive advantage by knowing how to use that information. The threat comes from
others who would like to acquire the information or limit business opportunities by
interfering with normal business processes.
The object of security is to protect valuable or sensitive organizational information

while making it readily available. Attackers trying to harm a system or disrupt normal
business operations exploit vulnerabilities by using various techniques, methods, and
tools.
Attackers generally have motives or goals—for example, to disrupt normal business

operations or steal information. To achieve these motives or goals, they use various
methods, tools, and techniques to exploit vulnerabilities in a computer system or
security policy and controls.
Goal + Method + Vulnerabilities = Attack
8.3 Security Threats

Dear learner! Threats can originate from two primary sources: humans and nature.
Human threats subsequently can be broken into two categories: malicious and non-
non
malicious. The non-malicious
malicious “attacks” usually come from users and employees who
are not trained on computers or are not aware of various computer security threats.
Malicious attacks usually come from non
non-employees
employees or disgruntled employees who
have a specific goal or objective to achieve.
Figure 1 introduces a layout that can be used to break up security threats into
different areas.
Figure 1
Natural Disasters
Dear learner! Nobody can stop nature from taking its course. Earthquakes, hurricanes,
floods, lightning, and fire can cause severe damage to computer systems. Information
can be lost, system downtime or loss of productivity can occur, and damage to
hardware can disrupt
srupt other essential services.
Few safeguards can be implemented against natural disasters. The best approach is to
have disaster recovery plans and contingency plans in place. Other threats such as
riots, wars, and terrorist attacks could be included here.
re. Although they are human-
human
caused threats, they are classified as disastrous.
Dear learner! Human Threats

Malicious threats consist of inside attacks by disgruntled or malicious employees and
outside attacks by non-employees
employees just looking to harm and dis
disrupt
rupt an organization.
The most dangerous attackers are usually insiders (or former insiders), because they
know many of the codes and security measures that are already in place. Insiders are
likely to have specific goals and objectives, and have legitimate access to the system.
Employees are the people most familiar with the organization’s computers and
applications, and they are most likely to know what actions might cause the most
damage.
The insider attack can affect all components of computer security. By browsing
through a system, confidential information could be revealed. Insider attacks can affect
availability by overloading the system’s processing or storage capacity, or by causing
the system to crash.
Dear learner! People often refer to these individuals as “crackers” or “hackers.” The
definition of “hacker” has changed over the years. A hacker was once thought of as
any individual who enjoyed getting the most out of the system he or she was using. A
hacker would use a system extensively and study it until he or she became proficient in
all its nuances. This individual was respected as a source of information for local
computer users, someone referred to as a “guru” or “wizard.”
Now, however, the term hacker refers to people who either break in to systems for
which they have no authorization or intentionally overstep their bounds on systems for
which they do not have legitimate access.
Dear learner! The correct term to use for someone who breaks in to systems is a
“cracker.” Common methods for gaining access to a system include password
cracking, exploiting known security weaknesses, network spoofing, and social
engineering.
Malicious attackers normally will have a specific goal, objective, or motive for an
attack on a system. These goals could be to disrupt services and the continuity of
business operations by using denial-of-service (DoS) attack tools. They might also
want to steal information or even steal hardware such as laptop computers. Hackers
can sell information that can be useful to competitors.
Dear learner! In 1996, a laptop computer was stolen from an employee of Visa
International that contained 314,000 credit card accounts. The total cost to Visa for
just canceling the numbers and replacing the cards was $6 million.
SecurTek Corporation, http://www.securtekcorporation.com/Protect1.ht
Attackers are not the only ones who can harm an organization. The primary threat to
data integrity comes from authorized users who are not aware of the actions they are
performing. Errors and omissions can cause valuable data to be lost, damaged, or
altered.
Non-malicious threats usually come from employees who are untrained in computers
and are unaware of security threats and vulnerabilities.
Figure 2
The following table gives some examples of the various aspects discussed above.
Threats Motives/Goals Methods Security

Policies
• Employees • Deny services • Social engineering • Vulnerabilities
• Malicious • Steal information • Viruses, Trojan horses, worms • Assets
• Ignorant • Alter information • Packet replay • Information and
• Non-employees • Damage information • Packet modification data
• Outside attackers • Delete information • IP spoofing • Productivity
• Natural disasters • Make a joke • Mail bombing • Hardware
• Floods • Show off • Various hacking tools • Personnel
• Earthquakes • Password cracking

• Hurricanes
• Riots and wars
Note that ignorant employees usually have no motives and goals for causing damage.
The damage is accidental. Also, malicious attackers can deceive ignorant employees
by using “social engineering” to gain entry. The attacker could masquerade as an
administrator and ask for passwords and user names. Employees who are not well
trained and are not security aware can fall for this.
Common examples of computer-related employee sabotage include:

Changing data
Deleting data
Destroying data or programs with logic bombs
Crashing systems
Holding data hostage
Destroying hardware or facilities
Entering data incorrectly
8.4 Motives, Goals, and Objectives of Malicious Attackers

There is a strong overlap between physical security and data privacy and integrity.
Indeed, the goal of some attacks is not the physical destruction of the computer system
but the penetration and removal or copying of sensitive information. Attackers want to
achieve these goals either for personal satisfaction or for a reward.
Here are some methods that attackers use:
Deleting and altering information. Malicious attackers who delete or alter

information normally do this to prove a point or take revenge for something that
has happened to them. Inside attackers normally do this to spite the organization
because they are disgruntled about something. Outside attackers might want to do
this to prove that they can get in to the system or for the fun of it.
April 27, 2000: Cheng Tsz-chung, 22, was put behind bars last night after changing
the password on
another user’s account and then demanding $500 (Hong Kong currency) to change it
back. The victim paid
the money and then contacted police. Cheng has pleaded guilty to one charge of
unauthorized access of a
computer and two counts of theft. The magistrate remanded Cheng in custody and
said his sentence, which
will be handed down on May 10 pending reports, must have a deterrent effect.
Cheng’s lawyer told
Magistrate Ian Candy that his client committed the offenses “just for fun.”
Committing information theft and fraud. Information technology is increasingly

used to commit fraud and theft. Computer systems are exploited in numerous
ways, both by automating traditional methods of fraud and by using new
methods. Financial systems are not the only ones subject to fraud. Other targets
are systems that control access to any resources, such as time and attendance
systems, inventory systems, school grading systems, or long-distance telephone

systems.
Disrupting normal business operations. Attackers may want to disrupt normal

business operations. In any circumstance like this, the attacker has a specific goal
to achieve. Attackers use various methods for denial-of-service attacks; the
section on methods, tools, and techniques will discuss these.
8.5 Methods, Tools, and Techniques for Attacks
Attacks = motive + method + vulnerability. The method in this formula exploits

the organization’s vulnerability in order to launch an attack as shown in Figure 2.
Malicious attackers can gain access or deny services in numerous ways. Here are
some of them:
Viruses. Attackers can develop harmful code known as viruses. Using hacking
techniques, they can break into systems and plant viruses. Viruses in general are
a threat to any environment. They come in different forms and although not
always malicious, they always take up time. Viruses can also be spread via e-mail
and disks.
Trojan horses. These are malicious programs or software code hidden inside
what looks like a normal program. When a user runs the normal program, the
hidden code runs as well. It can then start deleting files and causing other damage
to the computer. Trojan horses are normally spread by e-mail attachments. The
Melissa virus that caused denial-of-service attacks throughout the world in 1999
was a type of Trojan horse.
Worms. These are programs that run independently and travel from computer to
computer across network connections. Worms may have portions of themselves
running on many different computers. Worms do not change other programs,
although they may carry other code that does.
Password cracking. This is a technique attackers use to surreptitiously gain
system access through another user’s account. This is possible because users
often select weak passwords. The two major problems with passwords is when
they are easy to guess based on knowledge of the user (for example, wife’s
maiden name) and when they are susceptible to dictionary attacks (that is, using a
dictionary as the source of guesses).
Denial-of-service attacks. This attack exploits the need to have a service
available. It is a growing trend on the Internet because Web sites in general are
open doors ready for abuse. People can easily flood the Web server with
communication in order to keep it busy. Therefore, companies connected to the
Internet should prepare for (DoS) attacks. They also are difficult to trace and
allow other types of attacks to be subdued.
E-mail hacking. Electronic mail is one of the most popular features of the
Internet. With access to Internet e-mail, someone can potentially correspond with
any one of millions of people worldwide. Some of the threats associated with e-
mail are:
Impersonation. The sender address on Internet e-mail cannot be trusted because the
sender can create a false return address. Someone could have modified the header in
transit, or the sender could have connected directly to the Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP – the protocol used for sending e-mail) port on the target computer to
enter the e-mail.
Eavesdropping. E-mail headers and contents are transmitted in the clear text if no
encryption is used. As a result, the contents of a message can be read or altered in
transit. The header can be modified to hide or change the sender, or to redirect the
message.
Eavesdropping.This allows a cracker (hacker) to make a complete copy of

network activity. As a result, a cracker can obtain sensitive information such as
passwords, data, and procedures for performing functions. It is possible for a
cracker to eavesdrop by wiretapping, using radio, or using auxiliary ports on
terminals. It is also possible to eavesdrop using software that monitors packets
sent over the network. In most cases, it is difficult to detect eavesdropping.
Social engineering. This is a common form of cracking. It can be used by
outsiders and by people within an organization. Social engineering is a hacker
term for tricking people into revealing their password or some form of security
information.
Intrusion attacks.In these attacks, a hacker uses various hacking tools to gain
access to systems. These can range from password-cracking tools to protocol
hacking and manipulation tools. Intrusion detection tools often can help to detect
changes and variants that take place within systems and networks.
Note: Additional handout on viruses.
8.6 Security Vulnerabilities
As explained previously, a malicious attacker uses a methodto exploit vulnerabilities in

order to achieve a goal. Vulnerabilities are weak points or loopholes in security that an
attacker exploits in order to gain access to the network or to resources on the network
(see Figure 2). Remember that the vulnerability is not the attack, but rather the weak
point that is exploited. Here are some of the weak points:
• Passwords. Password selection will be a contentious point as long as users have to

select one. The problem usually is remembering the correct password from among
the multitude of passwords a user needs to remember. Users end up selecting
commonly used passwords because they are easy to remember. Anything from
birthdays to the names of loved ones. This is vulnerability because it gives others a
good chance to guess the correct password.
• Protocol design. Communication protocols sometimes have weak points.

Attackers use these to gain information and eventually gain access to systems.
• Modems. Modems have become standard features on many desktop computers.

Any unauthorized modem is a serious security concern. People use them not just to
connect to the Internet, but also to connect to their office so they can work from
home. The problem is that a modem is a means of bypassing the “firewall” that
protects a network from outside intruders. A hacker using a “war dialer” tool to
identify the modem telephone number and a “password cracker” tool to break a
weak password can gain access to the system. Due to the nature of computer
networking, once a hacker connects to that one computer, the hacker can often
connect to any other computer in the network.
Some Examples:
Example 1: non-malicious
malicious threat (ignorant employees).
An employee known here as John Doe copies games and other executables from a 1.44
MB disk onto his
local hard drive and then runs the executables. Unfortunately, the games contained
various viruses and
Trojan horses. The organization had not yet deployed any anti-virus
virus software. After a
short time, John Doe
and other employees began to notice strange and unforeseen events occurring on their
computers, causing
disruption of services and possible corruption of data. The following figure explains
the various
vulnerabilities
erabilities that existed and the loss in assets that are involved.
Figure 3
Example 2: malicious threat (malicious attackers)
An employee known here as Sally was turned down for promotion three times. Sally
believes that she has
put in a considerable amount of work and overtime and is being turned down for
promotion because she is
too young. Sally has a degree in computer science and decides to resign from the
company and take
revenge on it by causing the company’s Web server to stop servi
servicing
cing requests. Sally
uses a denial-of
service attack tool called Trin00 to start an attack on the company’s Web server.
Most of the company’s business is conducted via ee-commerce
commerce and clients are
complaining that they cannot
connect to the Web server. The ffollowing
ollowing diagram outlines the various tools and
vulnerabilities Sally used to
achieve her goal.
Figure 4
Example 3: natural disasters
An organization has various modems and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
router installations and does not hhave
ave surge protection. During a thunderstorm,
lightning strikes the telephone and ISDN lines. All modems and ISDN routers are
destroyed, taking with them a couple of motherboards. The following diagram shows
the vulnerability and the loss of assets.
Figure 5
8.7 Security Policies and plans.

Security Policies are the foundation, the bottom line of information security of an
organization. Each organization would present a different policy plan that is
appropriate, clear and effective for the organizati
organization.
Design and implement a security plan.

Designing a security plan includes setting security goals and strategies and deciding on
the level of security that is appropriate. Deciding on the level of security means
weighing the pros and cons of higher versus lower security. Higher security requires
more administration but ensures only the right people will have access to your
resources. Lower security creates a more flexible and open environment, but might not
be as secure as other configurations.
Understand
rstand and implement security policy.
Security policy enforces uniform security standards for groups of users. Security policy
is used to establish a basis of security for the environment. Different from user rights
and permissions, security policy applies to all users or objects in the deployment.
Planning for Security.

Although security technologies are highly advanced, effective security must combine
technology with good planning for business and social practices. No matter how
advanced and well implemented
nted the technology is, it is only as good as the methods
used in employing and managing it.
Implementing the appropriate security standards is a key issue for most organizations.
To implement security standards, devise a security plan that applies a set of security
technologies consistently to protect the organization’s resources.
A typical security plan might include the following sections:
Security goals: Describe what the organization needs protecting.

Security risks: Enumerate the types of security hazards that affect the enterprise,
including what poses the threats and how significant the threats are.
Security strategies: A description of the general security strategies necessary to
meet the threats and mitigate the risks.
Security group descriptions: Describe security groups and their relationship to
one another. This section maps security policies to security groups.
Security Policy: Describe Group Policy security settings, such as network
password policies.
Network logon and authentication strategies: In a networked environment,
consider authentication strategies for logging on to the network and for using
remote access or smart card to log on.
Information security strategies: How to implement information security
solutions, such as an encrypted file system (EFS), Internet Protocol security, and
access authorization using permissions.
Administrative policies: Include policies for delegation of administrative tasks
and monitoring of audit logs to detect suspicious activity.
For starters, the easiest way to deal with security policies is to use some pre-written “off
the shelf”. This is certainly a reasonable approach, but it is important to ensure that the
policies are of the requisite standard, and perhaps are compliant with standards.
An example: http://www.securitypolicy.co.uk/secpolicy/
Conclusion
Malicious attackers will use various methods, tools, and techniques to exploit
vulnerabilities in security policies and controls to achieve a goal or objective. Non-
malicious attacks occur due to poor security policies and controls that allow
vulnerabilities and errors to take place. Natural disasters can occur at any time, so
organizations should implement measures to try to prevent the damage they can cause.

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Introduction To Computer

Seven Star Health Science and Business

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

DATA vs. INFORMATION

1.3 SOURCE OF INFORMATION

Documentary sources are documented or recorded sources of

Tertiary documented source of information contain refined,or distilled and

Non Documentary sources non documentary sources are those sources

1.3.2 Characteristics of valuable information

1.4 WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY?

Information technology is dividing into three primary components: computers,

1.5.2 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

A network is a system composed of interconnected computers, peripherals,

1.5.3 KNOW HOW

The skills needed to use this tools

1.6 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

1.6.4 Calculating machines and Pascal’s calculator:

1.6.5 Babbage difference and analytical engines

1.7 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

1.7.1 First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes

Characteristics of first generations computers:

1.7.2 Second Generation Computers (1956-1963): Transistors

Characteristics of second generation computers:

1.7.3 Third Generation Computers (1964 - early 1970s): Integrated circuits

Characteristics of third generation’s computers:

Characteristics of Fourth generation computers:

1.7.5Fifth Generation Computers (Present and beyond): Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence (AI):

1.8.2 MINI COMPUTERS

Computer plays an important role in business environment as every organisation adopts it

1.12 ON-LINE APPLICATIONS

UNIT 2: COMPUTER SYSTEM

2.5.2 Video Adapter Cards:

2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Dear learner! A Computer system is a group of hardware components and associated

2.2 COMPUTER HARDWARE

2.2.1 The Computer Physical Setup:

2.2.3 Expansion Slots and Cards

2.2.4 Power Supplies

2.3 Operational Setup of Computer:

Program Input Output Information

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Basic Organization of a Computer System

2.4 Input Devices:

a. Alphanumeric keys – used for typing, similar to that of a typewriter.

d. Modifier keys – include keys like Alt, Ctrl and Shift.

iii) Track pad (or touchpad) – is a touch-sensitive pad that is used

to move the pointer by gliding your finger across its surface.

Hard Copy Soft Copy

Printers Plotters Microfilm Monitors Audio Projectors

Output Devices of Computer

By the colors they produce, monitors are classified as follows:

• Monochrome - one color text/image on single color background, i.e. white on

• Grayscale – shades of gray on a white background.

• Color – can display different colors, from 16 to 16 million colors.

By the technology they use, monitors are classified as follows:

When comparing monitors, consider the following

• Size – the diagonal measurement of its face I inches. 17” is common.

• Resolution – number of pixels on the screen. This is important especially for

XGA (extended Graphics Array), which is ideal for more graphic–intensive

• Laser (Light Amplification by Simulated Emission of Radiation) printers are the

Factors to be considered while selecting printers include: speed (measured in PPM or