Chem Lec - The Nature of Analytical Process

SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN CAMPUS
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY FOR MLS (LEC)
LECTURER: RONALD FLORALDE
WHAT IS BASIC ANALYTICAL PROCESS?

OUTLINE
● Analytical process
WEEK 2: THE NATURE OF ANALYTICAL PROCESS ○ Is the structures steps in chemical
I. ANALYTICAL PROCESS analysis
II. STEPS OF THE ANALYTICAL PROCESS
A. PROBLEM DEFINITION ○ It involves sample preparation,
B. METHOD SELECTION separation, and measurement
C. SAMPLING (SAMPLE
PREPARATION)
D. ANALYSIS (SEPARATION)
E. CALCULATION AND REPORTING
(MEASUREMENT)
III. AN INTEGRAL FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS:
FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS
IV. DEER KILL ANALYTICAL PROCESS
A. THE PROBLEM
B. THE METHOD
C. SAMPLE
D. SAMPLE PREPARATION
E. ANALYSIS
F. CALCULATION AND REPORTING
V. ERRORS IN THE LABORATORY
VI. ERRORS IN ANALYSIS - TYPES OF ERROR
A. DETERMINATE OR SYSTEMATIC ● The analytical process in the broader
ERROR
1. TYPES OF SYSTEMATIC sense is represented by the whole
ERRORS figure
B. INDETERMINATE
● The analytical process in the strictest
VII. EFFECTS OF SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
VIII. QUANTIFYING EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS sense is only the lower part shown in
IX. ASSESSMENT OF RELIABILITY OF RESULTS gray boxes
X. ANALYTICAL MEASUREMENTS
XI. ACCURACY AND PRECISION
A. ACCURACY
B. PRECISION
C. COMPUTING ACCURACY STEPS OF ANALYTICAL PROCESS (6 BASIC
D. COMPUTING PRECISION
MAIN STEPS)
XII. MEASURES OF CENTRAL VALUE OF
TENDENCY - BASIC STATISTICAL
TREATMENTS 1. Problem definition - identify the
XIII. SIGNIFICANT NUMBERS
A. RULES IN DETERMINING problem and formulate questions
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 2. Method selection - select method of
XIV. SIGNIFICANT NUMBERS IN NUMERICAL
COMPUTATIONS analysis
A. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 3. Sampling - obtain bulk sample and
B. MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION extract smaller laboratory sample
XV. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES LOGARITHMS AND
ANTILOGARITHMS from bulk
XVI. RULES FOR ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS 4. Sample preparation - prepare
sample for analysis
5. Analysis - analytical measurement of Factors

the analyte in question ○ Sample type
6. Calculation and reporting - ○ Size of sample
calculate results, interpret/present ○ Sample preparation needed
data and draw conclusions. Give ○ Concentration an range
recommendation (sensitivity needed)
○ Selectivity needed
(inferences)
○ accuracy/precision needed
A. PROBLEM DEFINITION ○ tools /instruments available
○ expertise /experience
● Factors ○ Cost
○ What is the problem - what needs ○ Speed
to be found? Quantitative and/or ○ Does it need to be
qualitative? automated?
○ What will the information be used ○ Are methods available in the
for? Who will use it? chemical literature?
○ When will it be needed? ○ Are standard methods
○ How accurate and precise does it available?
have to be?
■ Accuracy and
precision of the C. SAMPLING (SAMPLE PREPARATION)
equipment used must
be guaranteed ● Sampling
○ Is the process of collecting a
○ What is the budget?
small mass of a material
○ The analyst (the problem solver)
whose composition
should consult with the client to
plan a useful and efficient accurately represents the
analysis, including how to obtain a bulk of the material being
sampled
useful sample.
● Obtaining a Representative
Samples
B. METHOD SELECTION Factors
○ Sample type/homogeneity/
● Methods size
○ Qualitative method ■ size : macro, semi-
○ Quantitative Methods micro, micro, ultra
■ Type: major, minor,
● Select a method trace, ultra
○ Sampling statistics/errors ● Perform the Measurement

○ Factors:
● Prepare the sample for analysis ■ Calibration
Factors ■ Validation/Controls/
○ Solid, liquid or gas? Blanks
○ dissolve ? ■ Replicates
○ Ash or digest?
○ Chemical separation or
masking of interferences
needed?
○ Need to change (derivatize)
the analytes for detection?
○ Need to adjust solution
conditions (pH, acid, and
reagents)?
0
E. CALCULATION AND REPORTING
(MEASUREMENT)
● Calculate the results and report

○ Statistical analysis
■ reliability
○ Report results with
limitations/accuracy
D. ANALYSIS (SEPARATION) information
● Perform Any Necessary Chemical

Separations
○ Distillation
○ Precipitation
○ Solvent Extraction
○ Solid phase extraction
○ Chromatography
■ May be done as part of
the measurement step
○ Electrophoresis
■ May be done as part of
the measurement step
ranger enlisted the help of a medtech from

AN INTEGRAL FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS:
the state veterinary diagnostic laboratory to
FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS
find the cause of death so that further deer
kills might be prevented
● Skoog designed the flow chart
● Can help in determining the condition
The ranger and the medtech carefully
of the patient’s illness
inspected the site where the badly
decomposed carcass of the deer had been
found. Because of the advanced state of
decomposition no fresh organ tissue
samples coils are gathered. A few days after
the original inquiry, the ranger found two
more dead deer near the same location. The
medtech was summoned to the site of the
kill, where he and the ranger loaded the deer
onto a truck for transport to the veterinary
diagnostic laboratory. The investigators then
conducted a careful examination of the
surrounding are in an attempt to find clues to
establish the cause of death
The search covered about 2 acres

surrounding the pond. The investigators
DEER KILL ANALYTICAL PROCESS noticed that grass surrounding nearby power
line poles was wilted and discolored. They
speculated that a herbicide might have been
used on the grass.
1. THE PROBLEM (POSSIBLE ARSENIC

POISONING)
Facts:
● Dead whitetail deer near pond in the
Land Between the Lakes State Park
Hypothetical Case Study: in south central Kentucky
The incident began when a park ● Observation: grass around nearby
ranger found a dead white tailed deer near a power-poles was wilted and
pond in the Land between the Lakes National discolored
Recreation Area in western Kentucky. The
● Speculation: herbicide used on the ● Three 10-g samples of the

grass homogenized tissue were placed in
● Ingredient: Arsenic in a variety of porcelain crucibles and dry-ashed.
forms CH3AsO(OH)2 Dry-ashing serves to free the analyte
Impact: from organic material and convert the
● People need to be aware that the arsenic present As2O5, samples of
area (grass, water sources, or some the discolored grass were treated in a
wild animals) could be possibly similar manner
contaminated by toxic Arsenic
B. Dissolving the Samples
● The dry solid in each of the sample
2. THE METHOD (CLASSICAL AND
crucibles was dissolved in dilute HCl,
INSTRUMENTAL)
which converted teh As2O5 to
soluble H3AsO4
● The method was obtained from
standard manual from PAMT C. Eliminating Interferences
○ Classical Method - ● Reactions to Eliminate Interferences:
distillation of arsenic as arsine
○ Instrumental Method -
mount oarsine is determined
by colorimetric measurement ● Bubble gas into collectors with silver
using spectrophotometer diethyldithiocarbamate to form a
colored complex compound shown
0 below
3. SAMPLE (REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE)
● Dissect both deer. Remove kidneys

for analysis
● Laboratory Sample Preparation:
○ Cut kidney into pieces and
blend in a high speed blender
to homogenize the sample
0
4. SAMPLE PREPARATION
A. Defining Replicate Samples

5. ANALYSIS
A. Measuring the Amount of Analyte
● Arsenic in the kidney tissue of
● Spectrophotometer:
animals is toxic at levels above about
○ Highly colored
10 ppm.
complex of arsenic
● Grass samples showed about 600
was found to absorb
ppm arsenic
light at a wavelength
of 535 nm.
B. Reliability of the Data
● The data from these experiments
were analyzed using statistical
methods found in the manual.
● For each of the standard arsenic

solutions and the deer samples, the
average of the three absorbance
measurements was calculated.
● The average absorbance for the

replicates is a more reliable measure
of the concentration of arsenic than a
single measurement.
● Least squares analysis (linear

regression) of the standard data was
used to find the best straight line
among the points and to calculate
the concentrations of the unknown
samples along with their statistical
uncertainties and confidence limits.
Assessment of Reliability of Results

● Evaluate the error - where did it come
0 from? How?
● Perform same procedure from known
6 . CALCULATION AND REPORTING
values
● Compare from standard values
A. Calculating the Concentration ● Calibration of equipments
● Statistical treatments
i. Bias - the deviation from the target

C. Reporting of the Results value
● Results are forwarded to the ● Measures the systematic
authorities considered error associated with an
● Recommend cease and desist analysis.
order for any firm doing illegal ● Becoming one-sided in
activity in the area and probably, file determining results
charges against them for dumping ● It has a negative sign if
toxic herbicides it causes the results to
● Conduct environmental be low and a positive
awareness in the in the area sign otherwise
● More ranger visibility to stop any
illegal activity
TYPES OF SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
A. Method errors (serious errors)
● Arise from non-ideal chemical or
ERRORS IN THE LABORATORY
physical behavior of analytical
● Analytical results are often used in the systems
diagnosis of disease, in the assessment of ○ The nonideal chemical or
hazardous wastes and pollution, in the physical behavior of the reagents
solving of major crimes, and in the quality and reactions on which an
control of industrial products. analysis is based often introduce
● Errors in these results can have serious systematic method errors
personal and societal effects ○ As an example, coprecipitation of
impurities, slight solubility of a
precipitate, side reactions,
incomplete reactions and
ERRORS IN ANALYSIS - TYPES OF ERROR
impurities in reagents.
○ Ex. In gravimetric method, if
precipitate is not sufficiently
DETERMINATE OR SYSTEMATIC ERROR insoluble, a weight is less than
the correct one.
A. Determinate or Systematic error
● Errors that can be determined or eliminated.B. Instrumental errors
It affects the accuracy of results ● caused by non ideal instrument
a. Systematic Errors - have definite value, behavior, by faulty calibrations or by
an assignable cause, and are of the use under inappropriate conditions
same magnitude for replicate ○ A volumetric flask or pipette
measurements made in the same way. may hold or deliver volumes
They lead to bias in measurement results
slightly different from those ○ Color blindness is a good

indicated by their graduations example of a limitation that
○ Errors may emerge as the could cause a personal error
voltage of a battery- operated in a volumetric analysis
power supply decreases with
use
○ Errors can also occur if
instruments are not calibrated
frequently or if they are
calibrated incorrectly
○ A volumetric flask or pipette
was graduated at 20°C and
used at 25°C
○ Measuring the sample’s
weight without properly INDETERMINATE (ACCIDENTAL OR
calibrating the weighing scale RANDOM ERROR)
leads to faulty results ● errors can never be totally eliminated
and are often the major source of
uncertainty in a determination
● Errors that can not be determined or
C. Personal errors controlled. It affects precision
● Many measurements require ● Random errors are the cumulative
personal judgments and this is often effect of many small, uncontrollable
subject to systematic, unidirectional variables and personal judgments
errors. This can be reduced by that lead to uncertainty in a measured
experience and care of the analyst. value
● Result from the carelessness, ● it is often impossible to measure
inattention or personal limitations of them because most are so small that
the experimenter they cannot be detected individually
○ Examples: ○ Ex. Presence of bubbles in
○ Someone read a pointer one of the trials, presence of
consistently high and another bubbles in the reading in
may be slightly slow instruments, microclots in a
inactivating a timer plasma due to particulate
○ An analyst may be less matter
sensitive to color changes ○ Vibrations - effects precision
tending to use excess reagent of instruments and results
in a volumetric analysis ○ Gustiness of wind while
○ Mathematical errors in measuring resulting to a
calculations and estimates change in results
○ Ex. Presence of contaminants

SOURCES OF ERRORS OF THIS TYPE: does not depend on the size of
Ex. sources of random uncertainties in the the sample
calibration of a pipet include:
1. Visual judgments
QUANTIFYING EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS
○ such as the level of the water
with respect to the marking on ● It is impossible to have a perfect
the pipet and the mercury chemical analysis, one that is free
level in the thermometer; from errors and uncertainties
2. Variations in the drainage time and in
the angle of the pipet as it drains; ASSESSMENT OF RELIABILITY OF RESULTS
3. Temperature fluctuations
○ which affect the volume of the ● Evaluate the error - where did it come
pipet, the viscosity of the from? How?
liquid, and the performance of ● Perform same procedure from known
the balance; and values
4. Vibrations and drafts that cause small ● Compare from standard values
variations in the balance readings. ● Calibration of equipments
(Reference: Analytical Chemistry by ● Statistical treatments
Skoog, et. al.)
ANALYTICAL MEASUREMENTS
Introduction
EFFECTS OF SYSTEMATIC ERRORS ● In order to improve the reliability and
A. Constant Errors to obtain information about the
● Errors that are independent of the size of the variability of results, two to five
sample being analyzed portions (replicates) of a sample are
● Here are the value of absolute error is usually carried through an entire
constant with sample size, but the relative analytical procedure.
error varies when the sample size is changed ○ Replicates - are samples of
○ Ex. Loss on the amount of precipitate due about the same size that are
to large amount of liquid carried through an analysis in
B. Proportional Errors exactly the same way
● Errors that decrease or increase in ■ Prepare several
proportion to the size of the sample samples of the same
● Here, the value of absolute error varies size and processed in
with sample size, but the relative error the exact same
stays constant when the sample size is manner
changed ● Individual results from a set of
measurements are seldom the same,
so we usually consider “best”

estimate to be the central value for
the set
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
Accuracy and precision are important in

analytical measurements
ACCURACY
● Describes the nearness of an experimental
value or a mean to the true value.
○ Although true value can never
known exactly, accepted
value, is often used
● Statistically measured through: COMPUTING ACCURACY
absolute or relative error
A. Absolute Error
0
● The absolute error of a system is
PRECISION (CONSISTENCY) equal to the difference between
the actual reading, xi , and the
true (or accepted) value xt ; bears
● Refers to the agreement between
a sign.
values in a set of data (closeness of
data)
● Describes the reproducibility and
repeatability of measurements
● Statistically measured through

standard deviation, variance,
coefficient of variation, or other
measures of precision
B. Relative Error
● The relative error describes
the error in relation to the
magnitude of the true value,
and may, therefore, be more
useful than considering the
absolute error in isolation.
○ Xi = actual reading
○ Xt = acceptable/true ● Assign the true value y, and r; then

value calculate the percentage error in the
result:
Step 1: x, = 110 ppm (acceptable value) Fe,

x; = 115 ppm Fe. (experimental value)
● Relative error (Percentage
Step 2: The relative error E, in percentage
error)
terms will be equal to
= 4.5% → relative error

● To get the accuracy, subtract it by
100
● % Accuracy ○ 100% - 4.5% = 95.5%
ACCURACY
(Note: Common threshold for error is usually

set not greater than 5%)
● Note that E, may be negative if the

measured value is smaller than the
true value. The negative sign serves
to indicate that the reading is low. A
positive value for E, indicates a
reading that is larger than the true
value.
Example 2.6
COMPUTING PRECISION
● Calculate the relative error in ● Precision can be computed
percentage terms for an iron analysis using Range, Average deviation
that gives a value of 115 ppm Fe or Standard Deviation.
content when the true value is, in fact,
110 ppm. ● Standard Deviation - The
standard deviation is perhaps the
Method: most recognized measure of
precision. Standard deviation
may be used to calculate the
precision of measurements for an ● Standard deviation:

entire population (σ) or a sample
(s) of the population. Used for
normal distribution curve (bell-
shaped).
- Derived formula of the sample
○ Parameter refers to standard deviation
population
○ If using statistic → refers to
sample from the population
- Use this formula to solve this

problem:
● Degrees of Freedom
○ For sample = N - 1
- Substitute the values to the derived

- N = number of samples formula of sample standard
deviation:
Symbols
- X̄ = arithmetic mean (for samples)
- µ = average (for population)
- Ppt = parts per thousand (x1000 ppt);
ppm = parts per million
- Multiply RSD by 100 to get
percentage for CV formula
Sample Standard Deviation

Method:
● Calculate the relative standard

deviation for the lead content in water
samples. Express your answer in
percentage (CV) and parts per
thousand (ppt) terms:
Other Measures of Precision
● Variance - is the square of the

standard deviation. The sample
variance (s2) is an estimate of the
population variance (σ2).
● Since it is expressed in percentage,

instead of RSD, 5.2% is CV
○ CV = 5.2%
● Spread or Range - is the difference
between the largest value in the set
and the smallest. NOTE:
1. Use Range if:
● For small data sets with about
ten or fewer measurements,
the range of values is a good
measure of precision.
2. Use Average Deviation if:
● The average deviation is a

more accurate measure of
precision for a small set of
MEDIAN
data values.
3. Use Standard Deviation if: ● is the middle result when replicate
● The standard deviation is data are arranged in increasing or
perhaps the most recognized decreasing order.
measure of precision. ● The value in a set of data that has
Standard deviation may be been arranged in numerical
used to calculate the (increasing or decreasing) order
precision of measurements ○ The median is used
for an entire population or a advantageously when a set of
sample of the population. data contains an outlier, a
result that differs significantly
PRECISION can be computed by the from others in the set.
following: ○ An outlier can have a
● For < 10 data significant effect on the mean
○ Precision = Mean ± Range of the set has no effect on the
● For more accurate < 10 data median
○ Precision = Mean ± Average
Deviation
● For > 10 data
○ Precision = Mean ± Standard
Deviation
MEASURES OF CENTRAL VALUE OR

TENDENCY
BASIC STATISTICAL TREATMENTS
MEAN/AVERAGE
● Sum of numbers divided by numbers
of measurements RANGE
● Highest value – Lowest Value =
x(max) – x(min)
EXAMPLE 2
AVERAGE DEVIATION
● The temperature of a laboratory is
● Ʃ|x-x̅| n | x - x̅ | = absolute deviation = known to be a constant 25.23°C. A
|value – mean| student uses an alcohol thermometer
to measure the temperature of the
laboratory three times and records
the temperatures in the table below:
STANDARD DEVIATION
● Assume the true value is at 25.23 C and

acceptable tolerance level is at 5%.
● How would you describe the accuracy and
precision of the student's recorded
temperatures?
EXAMPLES FOR BASIC STAT Solution

TREATMENTS For Accuracy:
a) Determine the mean of the three trials.

EXAMPLE 1
● Compute the mean and the median
of the following measurements:
65.5, 66.7, 68.8, 69.1, 69.2, 70.0
b) Calculate the percentage relative error.
a.) Mean
= 65.5+66.7+68.8+69.1+69.2+70.0
6
= 68.21667 or 68.2
b.) Median
= 68.8 + 69.1
2
= 68.95 Interpretation:
● The student’s temperature readings

are not accurate and not acceptable
since it exceeds the 5% tolerance
level.
For Precision:
a) Determine the Range
● Find the range of the student's
thermometer readings:
○ Hv, Highest recorded
temperature is 23.91°C
○ Lv, Lowest recorded
temperature is 23.24°C
○ Range = Hv – Lv = 23.91 C –
23.24 C = 0.67
SUMMARY
b) Calculate Precision.
Precision = Mean ± Range = 23.68 ± 0.67 • Knowing the analytical process can make
one be able to do his work efficiently and
Interpretation: effectively
● The range of values is closer to 1 • Learning the “types of errors” can make us
than it is to 0 so we can decide that more aware of its impact and be able to
the student's measurements are minimize them
NOT precise. They are imprecise. • Understanding the concept of accuracy and
precision is as important as knowing how bad
Conclusion: equipment, poor data processing or human
● The student's temperature error can lead to a disaster of inaccurate
readings are both inaccurate and results
imprecise.
SIGNIFICANT NUMBERS
EXAMPLE 3
● The following results were obtained
in the replicate determination of the ● Laboratory investigations usually
lead content of a blood sample: involve the taking of and
0.752, 0.756, 0.752, 0.751, and 0.760 interpretation of measurements.
ppm Pb. Find the mean and the ● All physical measurements obtained
standard deviation of this set of data. by means of instruments (meter
sticks, thermometers, electrical
meters, clocks, etc.) are to some Rule 3: Leading zeros (zeros at the
extent uncertain. beginning of a number) are NOt significant
● The amount of uncertainty depends
both upon the skill of the measurer ● 0.008 has 1 significant figure
and the quality of the measuring tool. ● 0.000416 has 3 significant figures
● The degree of uncertainty in physical
measurements can be indicated by Trailing zeros (zeros at the end of the
means of significant figures. number):
● Significant figures - consists of all ● Are significant if and only if there is a
certain digits in a measurement plus decimal point present in the number OR
the first uncertain digit. they carry overbars.
○ 1400. has 4 significant figures

○ 1400 has 4 significant figures
● are NOT significant otherwise.
○ 1000 has 1 significant figure
○ 190 has 2 significant figure
Scientific Notation can be used to express the

desired number of significant figures.
RULES IN DETERMINING SIGNIFICANT

FIGURES
Rule 1: All nonzero digits in a measurement

are significant.
● 237 has 3 significant figures

● 1.897 has 4 significant figures
Rule 2: Interior zeros (zeros between

nonzero numbers) are significant.
SIGNIFICANT NUMBERS IN NUMERICAL
● 39,004 has 5 significant figures COMPUTATIONS
● 5.02 has 3 significant figures
A. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
● When adding or subtracting

measurements with significant
figures, the result has the same
number of decimal places as the
measurement with the lowest number
of decimal places.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES LOGARITHMS AND
ANTILOGARITHMS
Logarithms and Antilogarithms
1. In a logarithm of a number, keep as many

digits to the right of the decimal point as there
are significant figures in the original number.
2. In an antilogarithm of a number, keep as

many digits as there are digits to the right of
the decimal point in the original number.
B. MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION
● When multiplying or dividing

measurements with significant
figures, the result has the same
number of significant figures as the
measurement with the lowest number
of significant figures.
Note:
● For (a), apply rule one (1): the

number of significant figures in the
original form must be equal with the
number of significant figures to the
right of the decimal point.
○ Log 4.000 x 10-5 has four
significant figures, which are
the numbers underlined.
Since there are 4 significant
figures in the original number digit is increased by one if it is odd, but left
which is 4.000 x 10-5 , retain as it is if even.
the 4 significant figures to the ● 12.5 is rounded to 12
right of the decimal point ● 11.5 is rounded to 12
resulting in -4.3979 (which
has 4 significant figures to the This rule means that if the digit to be dropped
right of the decimal point). is 5 followed only by zeroes, the result is
○ Since 4 is a non-zero number always rounded to the even digit. The
and the three zeroes are rationale is to avoid bias in rounding; half of
trailing zeroes. Hence, - the time we round up, half the time we round
4.3979 down.
● For (b), apply rule two (2): keep as
many digits as there are digits to the
right of the decimal point in the
original number.
○ Antilog 12.5 has only one digit
at the right of the decimal
point. The number of
significant numbers on the
right of the decimal point must
reflect on the answer. Hence,
3 x 1012 which has one
decimal digit.
RULES FOR ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS
1. If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5,

the last retained digit is increased by one.
● 12.6 is rounded to 13
2. If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, the
last remaining digit is left as it is.
3. If the digit to be dropped is 5, and if any
digit following it is not zero, the last
remaining digit is increased by one.
4. If the digit to be dropped is 5 and is
followed only by zeroes, the last remaining

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SAN PEDRO COLLEGE – MAIN CAMPUS

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE

WHAT IS BASIC ANALYTICAL PROCESS?

5. Analysis - analytical measurement of Factors

○ Sampling statistics/errors ● Perform the Measurement

● Calculate the results and report

● Perform Any Necessary Chemical

ranger enlisted the help of a medtech from

The search covered about 2 acres

1. THE PROBLEM (POSSIBLE ARSENIC

● Speculation: herbicide used on the ● Three 10-g samples of the

3. SAMPLE (REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE)

● Dissect both deer. Remove kidneys

A. Defining Replicate Samples

● For each of the standard arsenic

● The average absorbance for the

● Least squares analysis (linear

Assessment of Reliability of Results

i. Bias - the deviation from the target

slightly different from those ○ Color blindness is a good

○ Ex. Presence of contaminants

so we usually consider “best”

Accuracy and precision are important in

● Statistically measured through

○ Xt = acceptable/true ● Assign the true value y, and r; then

Step 1: x, = 110 ppm (acceptable value) Fe,

= 4.5% → relative error

(Note: Common threshold for error is usually

● Note that E, may be negative if the

precision of measurements for an ● Standard deviation:

○ If using statistic → refers to

sample from the population

- Use this formula to solve this

- Substitute the values to the derived

Sample Standard Deviation

● Calculate the relative standard

Other Measures of Precision

● Variance - is the square of the

● Since it is expressed in percentage,

● The average deviation is a

MEASURES OF CENTRAL VALUE OR

BASIC STATISTICAL TREATMENTS

● Assume the true value is at 25.23 C and

EXAMPLES FOR BASIC STAT Solution

a) Determine the mean of the three trials.

● The student’s temperature readings

○ 1400. has 4 significant figures

● are NOT significant otherwise.

○ 1000 has 1 significant figure

○ 190 has 2 significant figure

Scientific Notation can be used to express the

RULES IN DETERMINING SIGNIFICANT

Rule 1: All nonzero digits in a measurement

● 237 has 3 significant figures

Rule 2: Interior zeros (zeros between

A. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

● When adding or subtracting

Logarithms and Antilogarithms

1. In a logarithm of a number, keep as many

2. In an antilogarithm of a number, keep as

B. MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

● When multiplying or dividing

● For (a), apply rule one (1): the