2.

1 Population Distribution
Demography
The study of populations and their aspects.

Population Regions
Regions in which the majority of the Earth’s population resides.
- East Asia
China, Japan, & the Koreas.
- South Asia
States such as India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh inhabit this region.
- Europe
The entirety of the European continent.
- Southeast Asia
The Philippines, Vietnam, & Thailand.

Site & Situation Factors

Major population centers can be found bordering the coastline, following major and rich river
systems, or simply be natural resources.

Other reasons for major population centers can be their economic potential or political stability,
both of which are attractive factors for migration; cultural preferences or the presence of a favorable
nation are other factors.

Undesirable Places/Factors for Settlement

Places with major or multiple minor unfavorable factors might result in the lacking of population
centers.
- Too dry; difficulty with the production of agricultural goods discourages stable societies and
settlement.
- Too wet; similarly to dry places, places that are too wet will oversaturate soil, making it
difficult to produce agricultural crops. This coupled with humidity will make it difficult for
sedentary societies and settlements to form.
- Too cold; the complete inability of nearly all resources coupled with modern standards of
living leaves extreme cold climates undesirable.
Undesirable characteristics of a place however are increasingly minor issues as a result of modern
technologies, enabling us to create hospitable places of living in the wake of previously inhospitable
conditions (see Environmental Possibilism).

Population Density
Population Density is merely the observation of population in specific areas and its densities.
Population densities can be separated into three categories:
- Arithmetic Density; calculated by dividing the total population by the total amount of land
used. The resulting answer can then be divided by its size; the larger the number signifies
more people in a smaller space, whereas the opposite is also true. Distortion however
may occur with land that is uninhabitable being calculated as part of the total land area.
- Physiological Density; calculated by dividing the total population by the total amount of
arable land available. The resulting answer can then be divided by its size; the larger the
number signifies more stress being placed onto each unit of arable land, as more
people rely on it, whereas the opposite is also true.
- Agricultural Density; calculated by dividing the total amount of farmers by the total
amount of arable land. The resulting answer can then be divided by its size; the larger the
number signifies heavier reliance on human labor, whereas the smaller signifies a
lesser reliance on human labor and more so on technology.
All these forms of population density can be used to infer information about the other, with
agricultural density showing us how efficient a state’s agriculture is and subsequently how centered it
is on agriculture. Physiological density shows us how much food is required per every singular unit
of arable land is required to feed the population and signifies how scarce agriculture is and how
dependent they are on others for natural resources. Arithmetic density shows us how many people
are present per every singular unit of land, possibly telling us how large/small the state is, how
clustered it is, etc.

2.2 Consequences of Population Distribution

Political Consequences
The migration of peoples from rural to urban areas causes political divide in the form of a
rural-urban split in politics. Additionally, increased density diminishes the political power of
individuals whereas decreased densities of people increase it.

Economic Consequences
Places with higher densities tend to have a surplus of available jobs, resources, recreations, etc.,
whereas rural places have the exact opposite. Places with higher population densities also tend to see
higher costs of living (taxes, prices, etc.), whereas rural places see the opposite.

Cultural Consequences
Places with lower population densities tend to have larger family sizes and a focus on the
individual/family, whereas higher population densities tend to see the opposite as it becomes too
economically expensive to do so. Healthcare is also generally cheaper in rural areas at the expense of
quality/specialized treatment.
Environmental Consequences
Places with higher population densities have greater environmental impacts as plastic, air, noise,
light, water, and many other forms of pollution become commonplace; this also leads to urban
sprawl, replacing more of the environment with urban environments. All the opposite is true for
places with lower population densities which tend to be more green and environmentally supportive;
water pollution may still occur as a result of fertilizers and pesticides for agriculture.

Carrying Capacity
The concept by which how much life the environment can support before damage occurs to it.
Examples of damages include desertification, lack of resources, overpopulation, and more damages
to both the environment and society.

2.3 Population Composition

Population Pyramid
A pyramid-esque diagram that shows both the gender, sex, and age of a population at any given
time, and is used to infer information (in addition to known events) to regarding the past, present,
and future of populations.

Aspects
A Population Pyramid can be
broken down into three parts:

- The age itself, located

in the center, which features
multiple age ranges (also
known as a cohort).
These cohorts can then be
broken down further into the
pre-reproductive years, the
reproductive years, and the
post-reproductive years
respectively.

- The population itself, located at the bottom and usually represented in numbers.

- The sex of each population is located on either side.

Age Cohorts
The three age cohorts are separated into these ranges:
 - Pre-reproductive; 0-14
- Reproductive; 15-44
- Post-reproductive; 45-100+

Judging from the positioning of these age cohorts, assumptions can be made. Usually, pyramids with
an emphasis on the bottom can expect population booms/are participating in one, whereas the
opposite is also true, with the majority of the population at the top signifying an aging population
instead.

Dependency Ratio
A mathematical model that represents individuals actively participating in a society. The formula for
calculating a dependency ratio goes as follows:

𝑝+𝑃
𝑊
× 100

p = Pre-reproductive years; ages 0-14

P = Post-working years; ages 65+
W = Working years; ages 15-64

The higher the resulting ratio means the higher burdens are placed on societies by those that do not
participate in it (pre-reproductive/post-working); the working cohort has to support the
non-working cohort which can lead to negative effects. Whereas a resulting low ratio means there
are lesser burdens and more people are participating in society.

Sex Ratio
A mathematical model that represents the ratio of live male births compared to live female births.

𝑀
𝐹
× 100

M = Live male births

F = Live female births

If the resulting answer is over 100 it means that more men are born than women, whereas if the
number is below 100 it means the opposite. If the result is 100 then the ratio is even. The sex ratio
depends on several political, economic, and cultural aspects, however, gradually over time the ration
will trail to favor women over men as a result of men dying sooner.

Pyramid Inferences
 - If a population pyramid features the majority of its population on its base, it means that the
population is experiencing a boom.
-If a population pyramid features the majority of its population evenly distributed at its base, center,
and top (with top still being sparsely populated) then that means the population is stabilizing.
-If a population pyramid features the majority of its population at the top, then the population is
aging (aging population) and will eventually decrease into a decline instead of growth.

Scale & Population Pyramids

Population pyramids can significantly aid for the planning of several things at different scales. The
following are examples of them:

- Global;
- National; Depending on the population pyramid, decisions can be made regarding taxation
and the providing of services as well as future planning for possible urban expansion as a
result of an ongoing population boom.
- Regional; [Example for the USA] Depending on the population pyramid, states in the USA
might receive less federal funding as a result of an aging population or may have electoral
colleges retracted as a result of a declining population.
- Local; Cities can use population pyramids and other demographic data to determine who
lives within their cities as well as determine how to properly accommodate them; if a large
population exists then taxes can be raised, if there's a large aging population then
accommodations can be made for them, etc.

2.4 Population Dynamics

Crude Birth Rate
The mathematical model used to represent how many natural living births occur per year.

𝐵
1,000

B = Total live births

Crude Death Rate

The mathematical model used to represent how many deaths occur per year

𝐷
1,000

D = Total deaths
Natural Increase Rate/Rate of Natural Increase
The mathematical model used to represent how fast a society is growing per year.

𝐶𝐵𝑅 − 𝐶𝐷𝑅 = 𝑁𝐼𝑅

CDR = Total rate of deaths

CBR = Total rate of living births
NIR = Natural Increase Rate

If the resulting NIR is positive it means the population is growing, whereas if it is negative it means
it is decreasing.

Infant Mortality Rate

The mathematical model used to represent how many deaths of children under the age of one occur
per every 1,000 live births.

𝐼
1,000

I = Infant deaths under the age of 1

Total Fertility Rate

The mathematical model used to represent how many children are born per woman on average.

𝐶
𝑊

C = Total number of children

W = Total number of women

The higher the resulting number the higher the average family size is where as the opposite is true
where the lower the resulting number the lower the average family size is.

The TFR and IMR are related as larger families expect some of their children to die so end up
having larger families to compensate and have some reach adulthood.

In order for a population to remain stable, a TFR of 2.1 must be maintained; this is known as the
Replacement Rate (RR).

Social/Cultural Factors to NIR

As societies develop they accumulate wealth, subsequently unlocking better healthcare options and
treatments to lower CDR and IMR. Better education and overall development also decreases overall
TFR as people are too busy to have children.

Political Factors to NIR

Governments who want higher/lower TFR may institute reforms to either accelerate population
growth or to decelerate; tax incentives can be given for larger families or heavier taxes can be given
to larger families depending on what is wanted.

Economic Factors to NIR

Economic factors would be due to a rural-urban divide, whereas families in rural regions have
lacking manpower needs and subsequently have larger families to substitute as labor, whereas urban
families tend to have smaller families due to costs of living.

Doubling Time
The amount of time it would take for a society’s population to double in size. Term used to describe
how governments plan for future population growth to provide services to.

2.5 The Demographic Transition Model

Demographic Transition Model
A model created to represent the CDR and CBR of a state to determine its population based on
historical records and future predictions.
DTM Stage 1

Stage one of the DTM is characterized by having high CBR and high CDR,
leaving only a small actual population; stage 1 is also considered as the early
portion of any state’s population history, subsequently resulting in the majority
of deaths being purely a result of lacking medicine, systems of governance,
disease, etc.

DTM Stage 2

Stage two of the DTM is characterized after having only taken place once the
industrial or medical revolution impacts a state. In this stage, the CBR of a state
remains wildly high as a result of cheap living conditions/cultural norms, while
the CDR rapidly declines as a result of the oncoming of medicines and better
technologies, removing the unnecessary death. This stage is also characterized
as being the population boom as a result of the now massive gap between the
CBR and CDR.

DTM Stage 3

As a result of the advances of the medicinal and technological industrial and

medicine revolutions, concepts such as urbanization begin to occur as societies
advance. This causes living conditions in now increasingly more and more
urban states to skyrocket whereas technology replaces the need for pure
manpower and labor in the agricultural sector, decreasing the TFR there as well.
This ultimately leads to a fall in the CBR, with total population growth beginning to stabilize.

DTM Stage 4

Stage 4 is characterized by ZPG (zero population growth) as the CBR and

CDR once more become virtually the same, albeit, at a significantly reduced rate
from stage 1. This is a result of all the aforementioned reasons and
subsequently causes societies to receive low to no population growth as
everything begins to stabilize.

DTM Stage 5

Originally not in the model or combined with stage 4 of the DTM, stage 5 is
characterized by the now declining population as the CBR dips under the CDR
as the TFR replacement rate dips under 2.1. This occurs as a result of society
becoming so significantly advanced with opportunities given to everybody that
family sizes are radically smaller.

Epidemiological Transition Model

A model created to represent diseases and deaths.

ETM Stage 1
Connecting directly to stage one of the DTM, diseases and plagues are commonplace as a result of
lacking medical advances in medicines to prevent the spread and growth of disease. This stage of the
ETM is characterized by mass death as diseases, dirty water, animal attacks, starvation, and more
causes the death of millions.

ETM Stage 2
Connecting again to stage two of the DTM, stage two of the ETM is characterized by the industrial
and medical revolution, seeing the arrival of medicines causing plagues and diseases to recede.
However, thanks to concepts such as urbanization, infectious diseases still exist as a result of
humans living in extremely close proximity to each other.

ETM Stage 3
By stage 3 of the ETM most infectious diseases and plagues would have been virtually killed off,
with the remainder of diseases being degenerative as a result of amazingly good healthcare systems
and medicine drastically increasing life expectancy, leading to diseases such as cancer, age related
organ failure and more to take over as top killers.

ETM Stage 4
Once stage 4 has been reached the attention of medicine is turned to degenerative diseases as
doctors and scientists attempt to cure things like cancer.

ETM Stage 5
Stage 5 is characterized by the return of infectious diseases and plagues for various reasons. One of
them would be the result of diseases building immunity and resistance to medicines and antibiotics.
This might ultimately result in things such as superbugs, where typical medicines no longer work as a
result of a heavily evolved immunity for diseases. Further urbanization aids the formation of
widespread and reemergence of diseases.

2.6 Malthusian Theory

Malthusian Theory
Malthusian Theory was invented by Thomas Malthus, an English Economist who studied
population growth. Thomas Malthus believed that as a result of continued mass population growth
from the Industrial Revolution, that eventually the human population would exceed its carrying
capacity, leading to wars and famine over resources, also known as a Malthusian Catastrophe.

Neo-Malthusians
Neo-Malthusians believe that Thomas Malthus was still correct but limited the scope of examination
to just food production, and so, subsequently, Neo-Malthusians expand upon Thomas Malthus’
ideas to include simply resources in general, and believe that due to the finite supply of it, that
eventually a Malthusian Catastrophe will occur when they run out.
Exponential/Logistic Growth
The concept by which a population will grow until it reaches its carrying capacity and will instead
stabilize/decline.

2.7 Population Policies

Pro-natalist Policies
Policies used by governments to increase the average family size/birth rate. Pro-natalist policies can
be done in various ways, but the following are examples:
- Propaganda to convince the conception of children and their upbringing.
- Tax incentives to have more children by lessening tax or removing some completely.
- Additional welfare as a result of child bearing coming in the form of paid medical bills, baby
supplies, etc.

Anti-natalist Policies
Policies used by governments to decrease the average family size/birth rate. Anti-natalist policies can
be done in various ways, but the following are examples:
- The one child policy from China is an example of policies limiting the average family
size/birth rate.
- Propaganda to convince to abort/disregard the concept of child bearing.

2.8 Women and Demographic Change

Social Changes
Due to further development of women’s rights and their acceptance into the workforce & academic
environments, the likes of general TFR has decreased. This is a result of women being enabled to
achieve higher educations and top-tier employment and subsequently no longer requiring the
support of men, and subsequently no longer favoring child bearing.

Economic Changes
When children are born in developed countries women need to take maternity leave in order to care
for their children. This prevents competitive working and prevents women from gaining with
whomever they work with. On the other hand, agriculturally-based societies see children as
economic assets as a result of their additional labor.

Cultural Changes (Healthcare)

The availability of affordable healthcare additionally affects women and their decision to commit to
childbearing. Countries with no to poor healthcare might have higher IMR and Maternal Mortality
Ratios (MMR), ultimately leading to discouragement to childbearing in developed countries. The
availability of contraceptives also influences the decision making of women.

Political Changes
Natalist policies fall under general political changes.

Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration

Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration are a set of rules and concepts in regards to migration and related
subjects. The following are those concepts/laws:
- The majority of migration is committed by young adults due to economic reasons.
- Families usually do not migrate as a result of the risk of moving their entire family over to a
new country, whereas young adults have little to nothing to risk with moving.
- Step migration is often utilized by migrants, whereas during migration to another place,
people will stop at cities, towns, etc., between the place they originate from and the place
they are migrating to.
- Migration is often to occur from rural to urban areas as a result of the economic potential
from living in an urban area.
- Counter streams form as a result of rural-to-urban migration. A counter stream is by which
ideas and knowledge of a migrant’s home is brought to the new place. Here, people in the
new place learn of the original place, and migrate to retire, vacation, etc.
- Interactions will occur between two places as a result of counter streams, however, the
strength of migration to the old place over the new place is likely to be weak.
- Large urban areas grow via migration and not natural growth as a result of their low TFR.
This is due to urban area’s pull factors as they provide social, cultural, political, and
economic opportunities.
- Migration often equals additional economic development.
- Women are more likely to migrate internally, whereas men are more likely to migrate
internationally, however, women migration internationally is on the rise.

2.9 Aging Populations

Life Expectancy
As a result of development, the life expectancy of people increases drastically, subsequently leading
to opportunities being given across the board. The reduction of addictive behaviors tends to see
higher life expectancy alongside societal promotion of health.

Economic Consequences
As a result of growing retiring populations due to extremely high life expectancy, the further growth
of dependency ratios would occur as the working population has to further support an additional
and growing retired population.
Social Consequences
As a result of an aging population, families must decide who would take care of their elderly as a
result of busy work lives; do you utilize nursing homes or not? Who would pay for all this additional
care if it is utilized or not?

Political Consequences
Should governments not plan for aging populations (pro-natalist), the likes of a depleted workforce
would occur. Less taxation subsequently occurs, which snowballs to see the reduction of funding to
multiple aspects of government which negatively impacts everybody.

2.10 Causes of Migration

Push Factors of Migration
Push factors are negative aspects of a place that subsequently causes people to leave and migrate to
areas with a high pull factor.

Pull Factors of Migration

Pull factors are positive aspects of a place that causes people migrating from push factors to migrate
to the place.

Economic Push/Pull Factors

Economic push factors include high unemployment, high taxation, and bad economic condition.

Economic pull factors include high job availability, relatively low taxation, and a good economic
condition.

Political Push/Pull Factors

Political push factors include high corruption, discrimination, negative political views, and poor
political stability.

Political pull factors include low corruption, diversity, positive political views, and political stability.

Social Push/Pull Factors

Social push factors include discrimination (both government and social), high crime rates, poor
healthcare, or limited recreational capability.

Social pull factors include social/cultural diversity, low crime rate, good healthcare and additional
welfare, and significant recreational capability.
Environmental Push/Pull Factors
Environmental push factors include harsh climates, high risk of natural disasters, etc.

Environmental pull factors include appealing environments, safety from natural disasters, and
comfortability when living in an environment, resource availability.

Differing Push/Pull Factors

Each person has differing push and pull factors based on their economic, social, cultural, political,
and environmental opinions and needs.

2.11 Forced and Voluntary Migration

Immigrant
A permanent move into a place.

Emigrant
Leaving a place as part of a permanent move.

Forced Migration
Migration that occurs as a result of a fear for safety/their lives. This can be caused by favrious
means, such as human trafficking, conflict, etc.

Refugees/Asylum Seekers
People migrating to escape conflict (forced migration) are known as refugees and asylum seekers.

Refugees are people fleeing natural disaster, persecution, and other threats to their life and safety.

Asylum Seekers are people fleeing their home country as a result of intensive persecution.

Internally Displaced Person(s)

These are displaced people who are migrating away from dangerous areas but haven’t crossed
international borders and still remain in the same country.

Voluntary Migration
Migrating with the purpose to enhance one’s welfare, including and most prominently economical
purposes, though not necessarily for life-threatening reasons.

Transnational Migration
People who migrate to countries with similar cultural and social standings and keep their ties to their
previous country/nation.
Transhumance Migration
Migration that occurs as a result of the environment, as seasons change people based on livestock
will move their herds to better grazing fields; temporary migration based on environment.

Intraregional Migration
A permanent move within one region of a country.

Interregional Migration
A permanent move from one region of a country to another region of the country.

Chain Migration
Migration that occurs as a result of family reunification; a process in which legal immigrants sponsor
a family member for immigration as well.

Step Migration
Migration that occurs in stages; the process that by which migration occurs stops are made in steps
before the final arrival.

Intervening Obstacles/Opportunities
Intervening opportunities are opportunities that occur when migrating from A to B, and end up
changing the desired destination of the migration whereas intervening obstacles prevent the ability
of a migrant to migrate to point B.

Guest Workers
A migrant who is given temporary legal status to work within a state; a temporary migration which is
tied to their employment/education.

Remittance
The process by which one migrates temporarily for employment and then either stays permanently
as a result of said employment or returns at a later date.

Rural-to-Urban Migration
Movement of people from rural settlements to urban areas, most often as a result of economic
factors, as a result of rural communities being unable to have access to all amenities desired for.

Effects of Migration
Historical-Political Effects
Migration (more commonly forced than voluntary) that has occurred as a result of historial/political
events, such as the Holocaust or Trail of Tears, which saw the forced migration of peoples as a result
of threat to their lives.

Modern Political Effects

Modern political effects are centered around government decisions regarding the acceptance of
refugees & asylum seekers as well as deciding on which form of migration is most favorable if at all.

Social Effects
As a result of modern political effects, the likes of social effects follow suit, with debate regarding
migration occurring as well as alienation of migrants and possible xenophobia. Governments can
additionally place quotas on immigration, further increasing their control over the social makeup of
their state.

Economic Effects
Governments that prefer to prevent immigration might lose out on talented individuals as a result of
the migration of intelligent persons to a country. Furthermore, as a result of a stage 5 DTM,
migrants can significantly reverse the effects, and the prevention of their entry into a state can cause
further decline in population.

Brain Drain
In the event that a strong societal standard cannot be maintained or for other economic, social, and
political reasons, a brain drain may occur, whereas many if not all intelligent individuals of a state
migrate to another state for better opportunities.

Additional Notes
Extra notes