Original article
Rapid changes on the coast of Lake
Peipsi and their environmental
consequences
E. Tavast Æ A. Raukas
Abstract Lake Peipsi has a surface area of
3,555 km2 and is the fourth largest inland body of
water in Europe and one of the best-stocked for fish.
Its complex geological history was controlled by the
retreat of the Late Pleistocene ice, and more recently
by climatic fluctuations and neotectonic movements.
The northern part of the N–S elongated basin is now
rising, the central part is stable, and the southern
part is sinking, but in the past, the differences in
elevations were much greater. These processes are
still causing the water to spread from north to south,
where flooding of large areas poses many social
problems. Because of the considerable water-level
fluctuations, exceeding 3 m, both the surface area
and the volume of the lake vary greatly. High water
levels cause marked shoreline damage and pose a
serious threat to the buildings and roads in the
immediate vicinity. Extensive changes on the coast
are also due to the action of hummocky lake ice.
Keywords Ice-push action Æ Erosion Æ Neotectonic
tilting Æ Floods Æ Lake levels
Introduction
Lake Peipsi (3,555 km2) is situated to the south of the Gulf
of Finland and forms part of the boundary between Estonia
and Russia (Fig. 1). It ranks fourth in size among the Eu-
ropean lakes, and is one of the best stocked for fish in
Europe, with the total annual catch reaching 15,000 tonnes
(40–42 kg ha–1). The elongated catchment basin, extending
from 51
13¢ to 56
05¢N and from 25
36¢ to 36
16¢E, is about
Received: 6 August 2001 / Accepted: 11 September 2001
Published online: 22 March 2002
ª Springer-Verlag 2002
E. Tavast Æ A. Raukas (&)
Institute of Geology at Tallinn Technical University,
7 Estonia Avenue, Tallinn 10143, Estonia
E-mail: Raukas@gi.ee
Tel.: +372-645-4654
Fax: +372-631-2074
750 Environmental Geology (2002) 42:750–756
370 km long and 160 km wide. It is shared between
Estonia, Latvia and Russia and covers a total of 47,800 km2,
containing more than 4,500 lakes and some 240 rivers and
streams. The largest rivers are the Velikaya (catchment area
25,200 km2) and the Emajõgi (9,745 km2). The only outlet
is through the Narva River, which flows from the north-
eastern corner of the lake into the Gulf of Finland. The
northernmost, largest, and deepest part of this multiple
lake is Lake Peipsi sensu stricto (Chudskoe ozero in
Russian). It is connected to the southernmost part, Lake
Pihkva (Pskovskoe ozero), via the strait-like Lake Lämmi-
järv (Warm Lake in English, Teploe ozero in Russian).
The first inhabitants of the area were Stone Age hunters
and fishermen. At the end of the third millennium B.C.,
cattle breeding and agriculture started to develop. Per-
manent agricultural settlements were founded in the first
millennium A.D. at the end of which period, the Slavs
reached the eastern coast of the lake. From the fifteenth to
sixteenth centuries, fishing villages appeared on its coasts.
At present, the sparsely distributed population (8–9
inhabitants per km2) is mainly engaged in fishery and
agriculture. In 1970, 97,200 people lived on the coasts of
Lake Peipsi. Only 19% live in towns, and the number is
now rapidly decreasing. The settlements are situated on
higher elevations in the northern part of the lake, and have
escaped damage by floods.
Despite its large surface area, Lake Peipsi is a shallow body
of water with a relatively straight shoreline (Fig. 1). Its
mean depth is 7.1 m and the maximum depth is only
15.3 m. The lake has 35 islands and islets, and a very
complicated geological history (Raukas and Rähni 1969),
controlled by the deglaciation processes, tectonic move-
ments, and climate. Coastal and underwater erosion and
suspended load carried by rivers and brooks are the
principal sources of material for the bottom deposits.
Some of the material is also provided by wind and drift ice,
and distributed by waves and streams in accordance with
the bottom topography and the stand of water in the basin.
In the shallow coastal regions, sediments are relatively
coarse-grained and consist mostly of sand. In the bays, in
the lee of islets, and in the deep central part of the lake, the
sediments are mainly fine-grained organic-rich sapropels.
Water levels in Lake Peipsi have been measured since
1885, with six stations operating today (three in Estonia
and three in Russia). The most remarkable recent changes
are due to fluctuations of water levels (up to 3.04 m in the
past 80 years). These are associated with heavy storms
DOI 10.1007/s00254-002-0552-9

during the high stands of water and cause considerable
changes in both the surface area and volume of the lake
(Fig. 2). The average water level is 30 m above sea level
(a.s.l.). The lowest water level in the twentieth century was
registered on 7 November 1964 (28.72 m a.s.l.), when the
lake surface area was 3,480 km2 and its water volume was
20.98 km3, and the highest was on 12 May 1924 (31.76 m
a.s.l.), with a surface area of 4,330 km2, and volume of
32.13 km3. Thus, the surface area may vary by 850 km2,
and the water volume by 11.15 km3 (Jaani and Raukas
Fig. 2
Till exposed on the coastal slope at Kauksi during a low-water
period (17 May 1965). (Photo courtesy of A. Miidel)
Original article
Fig. 1
Location of Lake Peipsi and its catchment
area
1999). There is a distinct rhythmic pattern (Fig. 3) in lake-
level fluctuations (Jaani 1973), which allows approximate
prediction of future coastal damages. The duration of cy-
cles is 19–34 years. During the twentieth century, the water
level was very high in 1903, 1905, 1924, 1928, 1987–1991,
and unexpectedly, in 1998. It is predicted that the first
fifteen years of the twenty-first century will see an increase
in precipitation (Jaani and Kullus 1999).
Fig. 3
Long-term water level (lake level) fluctuations: 1 mean annual water
levels, 2 sliding 7-year means; 3 23-year running-mean. (Redrawn
from A. Jaani 1973)
Environmental Geology (2002) 42:750–756 751
 Original article

The geological setting level dropped, and the southern part of the basin dried up
in the Younger Dryas or at the beginning of the Holocene.
The thickness of the crust in the Lake Peipsi area increases The so-called Small Peipsi then occupied the northern part
gradually from about 45 to 50 km towards the south of the basin (Fig. 4e).
(Ankudinov et al. 1994). The sedimentary cover is rather In post-glacial time, lacustrine development was mainly
thin, ranging from 300 m in the north to 600 m in the controlled by uneven crustal uplift along the coast. In the
south. Three sedimentary macro-units are recognized early twentieth century it was postulated that the northern
(Vaher 1999): Upper Vendian–Lower Ordovician silicic- Lake Peipsi area had been rising faster than the southern
lastics, Middle Ordovician–Silurian carbonates, and Dev- part of the lake (Hausen 1913; Mieler 1926; Ramsay 1929).
onian, mainly siliciclastics. Most of Lake Peipsi belongs to The main proof of this was the accumulation of peat and
the Devonian outcrop area. In the northern part of the sapropel in the southern part of the basin. A thick layer of
lake, dolomitic marls with interlayers of dolomite, siltstone peat in the mouth of the Optjok River shows that
and sandstone crop out. In the south, sandstones and 9,000 years ago, the water level here was 10 m lower than at
siltstones with interbeds of claystones occur with dolo- present (Miidel et al. 1995). Somewhat to the north – in
mitic marls, dolomites and limestones (Rõõmusoks 1983) Värska Bay – the water level started to rise slowly some
forming scarps. The Peipsi depression formed as a result 8,500 years ago, with the total rise also about 10 m (Pirrus
of glacial erosion. The gently sloping bedrock surface is and Tassa 1981). The maps of recent vertical movements in
about 40 m above sea level and is at its deepest (15–20 m Estonia (Vallner et al. 1988) show that the northern Lake
b.s.l.) in the ancient valleys that were over-deepened by the Peipsi area is now rising at a rate of 0.2–0.4 mm year–1,
glacier. The Quaternary cover is relatively thin, mostly less while the southern part is sinking at a rate of up to
than 10 m. Several stadial till beds of the last glaciation 0.8 mm year–1. The decrease in the intensity of crustal
have been found in the depression, differing in color and uplift with time testifies to its glacio-isostatic origin.
mineral composition (Raukas 1978). Older tills have been
identified only in the buried valleys. Local directions of the Wave action on the contemporary coast
late-glacial ice movement are clearly recorded by the Isolation, modest size, and small depth are the factors
drumlin pattern (to the SW in the northern and central limiting the development of significant currents. Surface
part of the depression and to the SE in its southern por- currents often reach the bottom of this shallow lake. The
tion). Two well-developed ice marginal belts are recorded principal coastal agent is wave action. Waves in Lake
by interrupted end moraines via Talabskij Islands in Lake Peipsi are steep and short, with heights mainly 60–70 cm,
Pihkva and Mehikoorma-Pnevo in Lake Lämmijärv. The but occasionally reaching 2.5 m (Jaani 1973). Southwest-
complicated Iisaku end moraine-esker-kame system erly and southerly winds (45–50% of the year) predomi-
formed as an interlobate complex between the Peipsi nate in the Peipsi Basin, causing the water level to rise in
(moving to SW) and East Pandivere (moving to SE) glacier the northern portion where the sandy beaches are 5–15 m
lobes (Karukäpp and Raukas 1999). The cross sections wide. The coastal slope is relatively gentle, and even a
across the lake depression demonstrate the asymmetry of 0.5 m rise of the water level will trigger intensive erosion
the slopes of the bedrock relief, suggesting that glacial on the coast. The average wind speed over the whole lake
erosion was more intensive on the west side of the Peipsi basin is 4–5 m s–1, and is seldom over 20 m s–1. The
lobe (Karukäpp 1996). maximum wind velocities in Estonia of 40 and 45 m s–1
were recorded in 1954 and 1969, respectively. Heavy
Lacustrine evolution in Late- to Post-Glacial times storms, especially in the autumn-winter period when the
Late- and post-glacial processes in the Lake Peipsi Basin water level is relatively high, pile up great water masses.
differed little from those now in progress. Deposition has Under high-water conditions, the surge can reach 2–3 m
commonly been limited by a dearth of material in the and cause severe damage to the coastline. Figure 5a, b
erosion area and the low erosive power of the rivers. presents changes in two beach profiles on the northern
Longshore drift is seldom important due to the general coast of Lake Peipsi. The most severe damage took place at
shallowness of coastal waters (Fig. 2), and material of local the end of November 1987, when the coast retreated 3 m
origin prevails. In Late-glacial times, the development of in the vicinity of Kuru and 1.9 m near Remniku. Close to
the lake was obviously controlled by the northward retreat Alajõe, a 4-m-high vertical bluff formed in older dune
of the glacier and opening of new outlets. Some sands.
12,600 years ago, meltwater flowed southwestward from
Pihkva Ice Lake I, where the water level reached up to Ice action on the shore
95 m a.s.l., into the proglacial lakes of northern Latvia The ice cover on Lake Peipsi generally lasts from
(Fig. 4a). As the water drained from this lake, Pihkva Ice December to April, a little more than 100 days. Its average
Lake II came into being; older outflows were closed and thickness is 50–60 cm in March. Autumn-winter ice drift
new ones opened (Fig. 4b). The further withdrawal of the and abundant formations of frazil ice are common phe-
glacier to the northwest about 12,250 years ago led to the nomena on the Narva River. In November 1971, an
formation of Peipsi Ice Lake I (Fig. 4c). Two hundred extraordinary ice jam formed at the outflow and blocked
years later, Peipsi Ice Lake III (Fig. 4d) was formed. After the water flow from the lake. As a result, the difference
the retreat of the glacier into the Gulf of Finland, the water between the water level in the lake and in the river was

752 Environmental Geology (2002) 42:750–756


64 cm; this caused over-flooding and damage on the beach
nearby (Eipre 1973). Almost every spring, ridges of pres-
sure ice up to 10 m high are generated by persistent uni-
directional winds and are pushed forward against the
shore with an enormous force; these play a significant role
in shaping the lake shore, breaking trees, and transporting
glacial boulders. At the same time, ice can protect beaches
from erosion, which during milder and ice-free winters is
much more intensive. The effects of ice-push are greatest
on sandy beaches on the northern coast of the lake (Fig. 6)
where, under the compressing and ploughing influence of
the ice, deep furrows are often formed on the beach and
coastal slope. On till shores, furrows frequently occur be-
hind the blocks moved by the thrust of expanding ice. In
some places, like at Klenno (Fig. 7), stone fields occur in
front of scarps, which they defend from further erosion.
Changing environmental
perspectives for coastal areas
The economic significance of Lake Peipsi and its inesti-
mable aesthetic value for holiday-makers require careful
observation and protection of its natural condition. The
lake and its surroundings have long been studied, with
hydrobiological research beginning in 1851 (Baer 1851).
The first data on the shores date from the 1860s (Hel-
mersen 1864). Bottom deposit data date from the end of
the nineteenth century (Špindler and Zengbush 1896). A
network of hydrological stations was developed in the
Original article
Fig. 4a–e
The development of Lake Peipsi
(modified from Raukas and
Rähni 1969). a Pihkva Ice
Lake I (phase Pi1a). b Pihkva Ice
Lake II (phase PiIIa). c Peipsi
Ice Lake (phase Pe1). d Peipsi
ice-dammed lake (phase PeIII).
e Lake Small Peipsi: 1 glacier,
2 proglacial lake, 3 dry land
4 margins of active glacier, 5 field
of dead ice (stationary nonmov-
ing ice), 6 meltwater valleys,
7 direction of ice movement,
8 direction of meltwater flow,
9 rivers
1920s. Multidisciplinary annual hydrobiological surveys
have been carried out since 1964, and monitoring of
shoreline changes since 1982. In the 1980s, the foundation
was laid for a large-scale multidisciplinary research pro-
gram involving more than 50 different institutions. With
the re-establishment of Estonia’s Russian frontier in 1992,
the cooperation of Estonian and Russian agencies and
researchers in environmental monitoring and scientific
study of the lake was discontinued. These will, however, be
resumed in the near future under the framework of the
Joint Commission on Transboundary Waters, though
Russian work is limited by financial problems. Within the
Commission, a special working group for the coordination
of monitoring and scientific research has been established.
Other specific activities on Lake Peipsi include the ongoing
work of the trilateral Swedish–Estonian–Russian environ-
mental monitoring project. So far, the work has concen-
trated on ensuring the quality of nutrient analyses,
calculating the load of nutrients and toxic substances to
the lake, and information management.
State monitoring in Estonia gained legal ground in 1993,
with the Act of the State Monitoring coming into force in
1999. In Lake Peipsi, the monitoring network was laid out
in accordance with sub-programs on hydrology, hydro-
chemistry, hydrobiology, radioactivity, and coastal geolo-
gy. State monitoring of beaches began in 1994, including
eight sites on Lake Peipsi (Fig. 8), focusing on sensitive
areas. In 1998, a cadastral register of the most typical
stretches of shoreline was begun to assist in the rational
management of the coastal zone. The results will constitute
the main scientific basis for political decisions by state and
local authorities.
Environmental Geology (2002) 42:750–756 753
 Original article
Fig. 6
Sand ridges pushed by the lake ice at Kauksi (7 May 1999). (Photo
courtesy of A. Raukas)
Like many lakes in Europe, Lake Peipsi has a more open
eastern and a more swampy and overgrown western shore.
Due to the frequently blowing southwesterly-westerly
winds, active accretional or erosional shores are wide-
spread in the northern and eastern parts of the lake. The
southern and western shores are characterized by an
754 Environmental Geology (2002) 42:750–756
Fig. 5
Beach profiles near Kuru (a), and Remniku
(b)
Fig. 7
Till shore with a protective cover of boulders and with a bluff on the
backshore at Klenno (23 June 1964). (Photo courtesy of A. Miidel)
exuberant growth of bushes, bulrushes, and reeds stimu-
lated by agricultural and industrial pollution. Long
stretches of the shore, which some tens of years ago at-
tracted numerous holiday-makers, are now swampy, and
open water can only be reached through canals. Recre-
ational possibilities in various parts of the lake depend on
different natural features (e.g., type of coast, microclimate,

Fig. 8
Location of Estonian and Russian monitoring stations on L. Peipsi
and coastal dynamics study profiles: 1 hydrological stations (enu-
merated), 2 hydrochemical stations, 3 phyto- and zooplankton
stations, 4 bacterioplankton stations, 5 macrozoobenthos stations, 6
hydrological stations (monthly sampling), 7 sampling of radioactive
substances in water, sediments, and fishes, 8 coastal dynamics studies,
9 Estonian–Russian border
exposure to the southern sun, type of vegetation, vicinity of
curative mud baths and waters) as well as artificial condi-
tions such as the roads, restaurants, hotels, and shops
(Raukas and Tavast 1989). To promote international
tourism and recreational activities, industrial and agricul-
tural pollution in the lake must be reduced. The pollution
load carried by rivers was highest in the 1980s, when hu-
man impact was strongest. Both the amount of waste water
discharged into water bodies and the pollution load have
decreased remarkably in recent years due to the progress in
waste water treatment and decreasing pollution from
agricultural lands.
The social impacts of rapid
environmental change
At the end of the nineteenth century, sands posed a great
threat to the environment, devastating fields and buildings
Original article
Fig. 9
Aeolian sand moving towards the forest at Kuru (18 June 1998).
(Photo courtesy of A. Miidel)
(Tiismann 1924). At present, the movement of dune sands
is very limited (Fig. 9), and has more or less been stopped
by the planting of vegetation (mainly pine stands). A more
serious problem is the gradual southward movement of the
lake waters as a result of crustal tilting, which has led to
the submergence of several Neolithic settlements in the
vicinity of the lake (Jaanits et al. 1999). The Chronicle of
Pskov records that in 1458 a church was built on the Island
of Ozolitsa. The remains of this church are now submerged
beneath 0.4–2.5 m of water (Tyumina 1966), and two small
islets (Lezhnitsa and Stanok) are all that remains of the
former island. According to Mieler (1926), the area of
Piirisaar Island decreased from 20.08 km2 in 1796 to
7.59 km2 in 1900. Tyumina (1966) points out that the in-
habitants of many villages had to leave their homes and
retreat farther inland in front of the advancing lake waters.
The remains of the old Chudskaya Rudnitsa Village are
now resting at a depth of 0.5–1 m in the lake, some 100–
200 m offshore. The rise of lake water continues today.
The problem of seasonal water-level fluctuations is also
serious. If the water rises only a bit above the average,
coastal areas are immediately inundated. Particularly ex-
tensive floods occur at the outflow of the Emajõgi River. In
1956, 647 km2 of land was submerged. Floods occur every
year, especially during high-water periods, the most cata-
strophic floods taking place in 1840 and 1844. The water
level also rose high in the 1920s, causing serious damage to
the shores and posing a serious threat to the buildings and
roads in the immediate vicinity. In 1924, after a cata-
strophic flood, the Government of the Republic of Estonia
formed a commission and charged it with the construction
of shore defenses: these began in 1929 at 11 sites on the
west coast of the lake. However, in some localities, the
coast had already been so seriously damaged that the
foundations of shore protecting constructions were con-
sidered inexpedient and the inhabitants were resettled.
The necessity to regulate the water level became apparent
in the nineteenth century. Under the Tartu Peace Treaty of
1920 between Estonia and Russia, it was agreed that the
average water level in Lake Peipsi could be lowered by up
Environmental Geology (2002) 42:750–756 755
 Original article
to 30.5 cm without any special agreement between the
parties. As the reasons for the high water level in Lake
Peipsi were considered to be retrogressive conditions for
the upper course of the Narva River, the Republic of
Estonia started with extensive hydrotechnical work in the
source and upper course of the Narva River, which at that
time belonged to Estonia. Today, the river marks the
border between Estonia and Russia; the new border
agreement has not yet been signed, and the area east of the
Narva River that according to the Tartu Peace Treaty was
part of Estonia, is still occupied by Russia.
To regulate water levels, the upper course of the Narva
River was deepened in 1932–1939 along a length of about
10 km, with three jetties projecting across the river cur-
rent, and a 1.4-km-long dam to divert the current at the
head of the river. These works, which remain incomplete
because of the occupation of Estonia by Russia in 1940,
do not fulfill their function any longer because the pro-
jecting jetties are now filled with sediments (Jaani 2000).
High-water stands, which are harmful to settlements, al-
ternate regularly with low-water stands that are harmful
to the fisheries, so it is in the interests of all to regulate
the lake levels. The task of science is to forecast coastal
changes that will occur if the water level does not remain
close to the long-term average. As the southern coast of
Lake Peipsi is sparsely populated and the border prob-
lems between Estonia and Russia are not yet regulated,
setting up clear tasks for solving acute social problems in
the area is not yet possible. But, at least rapid environ-
mental changes are thoroughly monitored, which will
contribute to sound economical and political decisions in
the coming years.
Conclusion
The obvious rapid changes in the Peipsi area have been
rather well studied, particularly over the past decades.
They affect the environment on daily, seasonal, decadal,
and longer time-scales are important from both the geo-
logical and social points of view, because local people have
had to adapt themselves to the rapidly changing shoreline.
Rapid changes in natural environments are also of fun-
damental importance for the better understanding of
human-induced processes, which need to be recognized
and managed.
Acknowledgements We are grateful to Mrs. Helle Kukk who
helped us with the English language and typed the text, to Mrs.
Katrin Erg for the drawings and to Dr. Avo Miidel for the photos.
Our research was supported by the Estonian Science Foundation
(Grant 4046), for which we are highly grateful.
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