ASM Handbook, Volume 4C, Induction Heating and Heat Treatment
V. Rudnev and G.E. Totten, editors
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04c.a0005873
Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels
Valery Rudnev, Inductoheat Inc.
Gregory A. Fett, Dana Corporation
S. Lee Semiatin, Air Force Research Laboratory
TEMPERING OF INDUCTION-HARDENED
STEEL is a form of subcritical heat treatment,
primarily to increase ductility and toughness.
Induction-hardened steels are also tempered to
obtain specific values of mechanical properties,
to relieve residual stresses after quenching, and
to ensure dimensional stability.
Furnace or oven tempering is a well-proven,
robust process. When using this process, it is
typical to soak the part at the tempering temper-
ature for approximately 1 to 2 h. Most of the
reduction in hardness of plain and low-alloy
carbon steels occurs in a time that is shorter
than this, so the process becomes very stable
at this point, although it is important to consider
furnace loading and to make certain all parts
within a load reach the proper temperature for
the specified amount of time. Tempering of
alloy steels may require appreciably longer
times and multiple tempering cycles.
Induction tempering also is a proven method
with several operational advantages, such as
manufacturing flexibility, reduced tempering
time, single part processing, and a smaller foot-
print (floor space) for equipment. However,
more care must be used to ensure proper results.
With induction tempering, the results are
achieved in a matter of seconds or dozens of sec-
onds rather than hours. When tempering times
are only a few seconds, it is imperative to have
a control system sufficient to avoid excessive
variations in the process parameters that could
alter the tempering conditions.
Tempering of steels is described in detail in
many references (Ref 1–30). This article
focuses on the tempering after induction hard-
ening, which is described in more detail in
other articles in this Volume, as follows:

“Principles of Induction Hardening and
Inspection” (Ref 31)

“Metallurgy of Induction Hardening of
Steel” (Ref 32)

“Quenching of Induction-Heated Steel”
(Ref 33)
Tempering of induction-hardened steels can be
done by either furnace heating or induction
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Copyright # 2014 ASM InternationalW
heating. This article briefly describes tempering
in general but with particular emphasis on the
different time-temperature exposure require-
ments for furnace and induction tempering. In
terms of process variables, emphasis also is
placed on the parameters for induction tem-
pering. For a more general overview, see the
article “Tempering of Steels” in Steel Heat
Treating Fundamentals and Processes, Volume
4A of ASM Handbook, 2013. A general over-
view on both the hardening and tempering of
steel is also given in the article “Introduction
to Steel Heat Treatment” in Steel Heat Treating
Fundamentals and Processes, Volume 4A of
ASM Handbook, 2013 (Ref 34). This article
also provides some examples of how tempering
affects the mechanical properties of induction-
hardened steels.
Tempering of Hardened Steel
Furnace tempering can be done as either a
batch or continuous process. The batch process
requires that parts be accumulated after harden-
ing and then be moved to the tempering opera-
tion. In a continuous process, an in-line system
(such as hanging parts on an overhead con-
veyor) moves from the hardening operation into
the tempering furnace. Continuous processing
can be very beneficial in eliminating any delay-
ed cracking issues, because it minimizes the
time between hardening and tempering. Induc-
tion tempering also is well suited to continuous
processes and can also be put directly in line
with the machining and induction-hardening
process.
Induction tempering, like hardening, has
been found to be a viable commercial process,
replacing conventional furnace operations in
many high-volume-production applications,
such as oil-well pipe and railroad rails. Because
induction tempering is done at a shorter time
and higher temperature than furnace tempering,
the process is not as forgiving. At a given tem-
pering temperature, most of the change in hard-
ness occurs within the initial stage, and then the
change versus time levels off. Because furnace
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tempering is done at a longer time, there is little
to go wrong. With induction tempering, the
heating time must be controlled more precisely.
Smaller changes in this case can produce signif-
icant changes in hardness. In addition, the uni-
formity of heating and the depth of heating
are important. It is desirable to create the same
amount of softening and residual stress relief at
all locations within a hardness region. This will
be very dependent on the part geometry, the
coil design, hardness pattern and position of
the coil relative to the part, as well as the power
and frequency used. If not done properly, there
can be problems related to improper hardness
or unfavorable residual stresses. With furnace
tempering, the part geometry and uniformity
of heating is not normally an issue. However,
with batch tempering, it is necessary to ensure
the entire load is at the proper temperature for
the proper time. With induction tempering, dif-
ferent coils may be required for different parts,
whereas with furnace tempering, one furnace
can accommodate numerous parts and their
mixture.
The decision as to which tempering process
to use should be carefully weighed. Studies
show that in some cases the mechanical proper-
ties of parts processed by both tempering tech-
niques are, for all practical purposes, identical.
However, in other cases, regardless of the hard-
ness profile pattern, the properties of the tem-
pered parts subjected to higher-temperature/
shorter-time tempering can be different from
those of parts subjected to lower-temperature/
longer-time tempering.
When considering the appropriateness of
certain tempering processes for a particular
application, tempering parameters require eval-
uation in terms of various mechanical pro-
perties, including tensile properties, toughness,
and fatigue resistance. Steels often are tempered
at a low temperature after hardening, but some-
times tempering is done at higher temperatures
for more ductility and toughness. The change in
ductility may or may not be significant with a
low-temperature temper. However, an improve-
ment of ductility is not the only factor for temper-
ing. Tempering also can affect the yield and
 Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels / 131

ultimate strengths as well as the fatigue life of a
component. The fact that tempering may produce
a certain result in tension does not necessarily
mean the same result will be seen in bending or
in torsion. Therefore, it is good practice to evalu-
ate a component under the actual loading condi-
tions to determine the benefits of tempering.
However, more than just the mechanical
properties must be considered. A more compel-
ling reason for tempering is to reduce the high
level of residual stress created by induction
hardening. High residual stresses can cause
cracking and dimensional changes when resid-
ual stresses are relieved during service. If some
hardened components are left in the untem-
pered condition, delayed cracking due to resid-
ual stress can occur. This phenomenon depends
on the chemical composition of the steel, its
hardenability, the hardening cycle, and the
geometry of the part. For example, it may be
possible to leave SAE 1035 induction-hardened
flanged axle shafts in the untempered condition,
whereas SAE 15B41 shafts may tend to crack
in the flange radius if not properly tempered
within a few hours after hardening.
In addition, tempering can affect how hard-
ened steel components respond to grinding.
Without tempering, parts may be more prone
to grinding burns and cracks. In addition, tem-
pering can help to decompose retained austenite
(which may occur after quenching of steels with
medium or high levels of carbon or alloying).
Retained austenite not only reduces hardness
but also can cause brittleness and distortion in
service due to the transformation of retained aus-
tenite into martensite.
In some cases, induction-hardened parts are
sometimes used in the untempered condition.
There is a common misconception that untem-
pered martensite is extremely brittle and cannot
be used in actual service. However, in reality
there may be little difference in mechanical
properties and ductility between untempered
martensite and martensite tempered at a low
temperature, such as 177  C (351  F). Testing
of the actual part is recommended to determine
what benefits tempering may or may not pro-
vide. Examples of induction-hardened parts
used in the untempered condition include the
aforementioned axle shafts as well as low-to-
medium-carbon steels hardened to improve
wear resistance and/or residual compressive
stress. With this said, the majority of induction-
hardened parts produced today (2013) include
tempering after hardening.
Autotempering. Martensitic transformation
occurs over a temperature range between the
martensite start (Ms) and martensite finish
(Mf) temperatures, which depends on carbon
content and alloying. Some Ms temperatures
are high. For example, for plain carbon steels
with 0.2 to 0.5% C, Ms temperatures are within
the range of approximately 450 to 330  C
(840 to 630  F). Therefore, martensite formed
upon reaching Ms will be, to some degree,
exposed to tempering conditions during the
remainder of the quench cycle, providing auto-
tempering (also called autosoftening). The
effect of this phenomenon increases with a
reduction in quench severity (which lengthens
the time that fresh martensite is exposed to
elevated temperatures) and with lower carbon
content (because lower-carbon steels have
higher Ms). Most alloying elements reduce Ms
temperatures, thus reducing the potential for
autotempering.
For the majority of medium- and high-carbon
steels, Mf temperatures are below room temper-
ature. This inevitably leads to a certain amount
of retained austenite in the as-quenched struc-
ture. Properly hardened medium-carbon steels
do not have a significant amount of retained
austenite. However, retained austenite rapidly
increases with an increase of carbon content,
and so, cast irons and high-carbon steels often
have a substantial amount of retained austenite
(unless subsequent cryogenic treatment is
used).
The most desirable compromise between
strength and hardness, on the one hand, and
toughness and residual stress, on the other,
determines the required tempering temperatures
and time. Tempering temperatures are always
below the lower transformation temperature,
Ac1, and, depending on tempering conditions, var-
ious microstructural changes develop. Changes
associated with the decomposition of as-quenched
martensite into a structure that consists of the
a-iron matrix with a fine dispersion of carbide
particles occur via a precipitation reaction
(Ref 1–5).
Tempering Stages. A conventional way of
tempering is to process the components through
a tempering furnace or oven (gas, resistance,
lead or molten salt bath, muffle tube, or other
type of infrared furnace). Furnace (oven) tem-
pering is a diffusion-type process that usually
takes approximately 1 to 3 h but can require
5 to 6 h or even longer. In some cases, multi-
temper cycles are used. Tempering may also
be performed using induction heating. When
this is done, the time is typically much shorter
and the temperature is higher compared to fur-
nace tempering.
On reheating of as-quenched martensite, the
tempering takes places in different stages; see,
for example, the article “Tempering of Steels”
in Steel Heat Treating Fundamentals and Pro-
cesses, Volume 4A of ASM Handbook, 2013.
Various interpretations recognize different tem-
pering stages (typically, from three to five). For
example, Sir R.W.K. Honeycombe and H.K.D.H.
Bhadeshia suggest that the tempering of plain
carbon steels takes place in four distinct but
overlapping stages (Ref 9). Table 1 shows a
brief summary of tempering stages of hardened
plain carbon steels.
The tempering of alloy steels typically
involves more complex kinetics than that of
plain carbon steels. One such complexity is asso-
ciated with carbide formation, because the car-
bides that form are of three basic types: e-iron

Table 1 Tempering stages of plain carbon steel according to R.W.K. Honeycombe and H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia
Stage Temperature range Reaction
 
Stage 1 Up to 250 C (480 F) Precipitation of e-iron carbide; partial loss of tetragonality in martensite. Martensite formed in medium- and high-carbon steels (0.3–1.5 wt% C) is not
stable at room temperature because interstitial carbon atoms can diffuse in the tetragonal martensite lattice at this temperature. In the higher-carbon
steels, an increase in hardness has been observed on tempering in the range 50–100  C (120–210  F), which is attributed to precipitation hardening of
the martensite by e-carbide (epsilon transition carbide). Steels with low carbon content are unlikely to precipitate e-carbide.
Stage 2 Between 200–300  C Decomposition of retained austenite
(390–570  F)
Stage 3 Between 200–350  C Replacement of e-iron carbide by cementite; martensite loses tetragonality. Cementite first appears in the microstructure as a Widmanstätten distribution
(390–660  F) of plates that have a well-defined orientation relationship with the matrix, which has now lost its tetragonality and become ferrite. The most
likely sites for the nucleation of the cementite are the e-iron carbide interfaces with the matrix, and as the Fe3C particles grow, the e-iron carbide
particles gradually disappear. The twins occurring in the higher-carbon martensite are also sites for the nucleation and growth of cementite.
A third site for the nucleation of cementite is the grain-boundary regions, both the interlath boundaries of the martensite and the original
austenite grain boundaries. During this stage, the tetragonality of the matrix disappears, and it is then essentially ferrite not supersaturated with
respect to carbon.
Stage 4 Above 350  C (660  F) Cementite coarsens and spheroidizes. Recrystallization of ferrite. The coarsening commences between 300–400  C (570–750  F), while
spheroidization takes place increasingly up to 700  C (1290  F). At the higher end of this range of temperature, the martensite lath boundaries
are replaced by more equiaxed ferrite grain boundaries (recrystallization of ferrite). The final result is an equiaxed array of ferrite grains with
coarse spheroidized particles of Fe3C. Spheroidized particles are located mainly at interlath boundaries and prior-austenite boundaries, although
some particles remain in the matrix. Between 600–700  C (1110–1290  F), there is the continued coarsening of the Fe3C particles and gradual
ferrite grain growth.
Source: Ref 9

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 132 / Induction Heat Treating

carbide, Fe3C, and complex metal carbides.
For plain carbon steels and low-alloy steels, an
increase in tempering temperature generally
results in a monotonic reduction of hardness
(Fig. 1) and strength (Fig. 2) (Ref 35). As an
example, Fig. 3 shows a comparative analysis
of engineering stress-strain curves versus
low-temperature tempered curves for SAE
43xx steels. An exception to the monotonic
reduction of the hardness sometimes appears:
a small increase in hardness may occur during
low-temperature tempering of high-carbon steels.
This increase is usually attributed to the precipi-
tation of fine transition carbides within the mar-
tensitic plates (Ref 5, 9).
In contrast to hardness, a change in impact
toughness may not be monotonic with an
increase of tempering temperature. Embrittle-
ment phenomena can occur at certain tempering
temperature range. It can be eliminated if ele-
ments that tie up nitrogen are added to the steel,
for example, aluminum or titanium. Tempered
martensite embrittlement (TME) is distinguished
from that of temper embrittlement (TE) in
several ways (besides the temperature range
of embrittlement). First, TE is reversible as
noted, while TME is not. Once TME appears,
there is no heat treatment to reverse the effect,
other than to reaustenitize and quench the
steel, followed by tempering in an appropriate
temperature range where TME does not occur.
For more details, see the article “Tempering of
Steels” in Steel Heat Treating Fundamentals
and Processes, Volume 4A of ASM Handbook,
2013.
Treatment: Normalized at 1700 °F: reheated to 1600 °F:
As-quenched HB 514.
The presence of alloying elements can have a
significant effect on the kinetics of tempering
and on the formation (both nucleation and
growth) of carbides and steel softening. The
tempering process in alloy steels is con-
siderably slower than in their plain carbon
counterparts (Ref 8). Again, this comparative
slowness is due to the effects of alloying ele-
ments on diffusion processes. Hence, for a
given tempering temperature and time, alloy
steels quenched to the same hardness may be
expected to have a higher tempered hardness.
Tempering also can cause an increase in the
hardness of alloy steels with strong carbide
formers (chromium, molybdenum, vanadium,
etc.). This phenomenon, known as secondary
Treatment: Normalized at 1650 °F: reheated to 1550 °F:
As-quenched HB 534.

temperatures, thus resulting in a reduction of psi psi

impact toughness. There are three types of
200,000 200,000
embrittlement that can occur during tempering: 1030 1040

Temper embrittlement: when carbon or low-

alloy steels are tempered for extended times
between 450 and 600  C (840 and 1110  F) 150,000 150,000

Blue brittleness: when plain carbon steels or
some alloy steels are heated in the tempera- Tens
ile s
treng
ture range of 230 to 370  C (450 to 700  F), Tens
ile s
th

treng
resulting in increased tensile and yield th
100,000 100,000 Yield point
strength as well as decreased ductility and Yield
point
impact strength

Tempered martensite embrittlement: when 70% 70%
area
ion of n of area
high-strength alloy steels are tempered in the Reduct 60% Reductio 60%
range of 200 to 370  C (400 to 700  F), also 50,000 50% 50,000 50%

referred to as 350  C (or 500  F) embrittlement 40% 40%

tion 30% 30%

Elonga Elongation
Blue brittleness is an accelerated form of strain- 20% 20%
10% 10%
age embrittlement caused by carbide and/or
nitride precipitation hardening within the critical Temper, °F 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 Temper, °F 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
HB 495 429 401 375 302 277 255 235 207 179 HB 514 495 444 401 352 293 269 235 201 187

Treatment: Normalized at 1650 °F: reheated to 1450 °F:

Treatment: Normalized at 1650 °F: reheated to 1525 °F: As-quenched HB 601.
As-quenched HB 601.
psi
psi
1095
200,000
1050 200,000 Te
ns

Te
il

150,000 ns
e

ile 150,000
str

str
en

en
gt

gth
h
Yi
el
d

Yie
po

ld p
i
nt

oin
t
100,000
100,000

70% 70%
a
on of are 60% 60%
50,000 Re ducti
50% 50,000 50%
40% n of area 40%
Reductio
30% 30%
tion
Elonga 20% 20%
Elongation
10% 10%

Fig. 1 Effect of tempering temperature on hardness of Temper, °F 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 Temper, °F 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
as-quenched carbon and low-alloy steels. HB 514 495 444 415 375 352 293 277 235 217 HB 601 601 534 461 388 331 293 262 235 201
One-hour temper done in circulating-air furnace or in
lead bath for temperatures above 370  C (700  F). Fig. 2 Effect of tempering temperature on the mechanical properties of plain carbon steels. Water quenched, 1 in.
Source: Ref 4 round treated, .505 in. round tested. Source: Ref 11

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 Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels / 133

3000 435 3000 435

As-quenched
2500 365 2500 365
4350
4340
Engineering stress, MPa

Engineering stress, MPa

Engineering stress, ksi

Engineering stress, ksi

4350
2000 290 2000 290
4340
4330
1500 215 1500 215
4330

1000 145 1000 145

4320

500 75 500 75

0 0 0 0
0 3 6 9 12 15 0 5 10 15 20
(a) Engineering strain, % (b) Engineering strain, %

Fig. 3 Engineering stress-strain curves for (a) untempered martensitic microstructures in 4330, 4340, and 4350 steels and (b) 43xx steels quenched to martensite and tempered at
150  C (300  F) for 1 h. Source: Ref 5

hardening, often occurs at approximately 500 to The effect of tempering temperature on hard- Tempering temperature, °C
600  C (930 to 1110  F), when alloy carbides ness is plotted in Fig. 1 from a 1 h temper of 0 200 400 600
70

Hardness, HRC
are precipitated from a solution (Ref 8). Silicon as-quenched carbon and low-alloy steels. Ten-
60
could promote the hardness increase at lower sile properties of QT steels also correlate
temperatures, approximately 315  C (600  F) strongly with hardness, as described in more 50

(Ref 15). detail in the article “Tempering of Steels” in 40

Other solid-state reactions occur when Steel Heat Treating Fundamentals and Pro- 30
retained austenite or upper transformation pro- cesses, Volume 4A of ASM Handbook, 2013.
ducts (i.e., pearlite or bainite) are tempered For example, Fig. 2 shows the effect of temper- 340
(Ref 8). During tempering, retained austenite ing temperature on tensile properties of four 320 2.2
transforms to pearlite or bainite, depending on different carbon steels after quench hardening.
300
the tempering temperature. This pearlite and The decrease in hardness with increasing tem- 2.0

Strength, GPa
280 Tensile strength
Strength, ksi

bainite, as well as those that may also be pering temperature is accompanied by a general
260 1.8
contained (if any) in the microstructure, are decrease in yield and tensile strengths. By con-
also softened by tempering. This is a result of trast, ductility, as measured by both elongation 240
1.6
the general coarsening and spheroidization of and reduction in area, increases with the drop 220 Yield strength
the Fe3C in these microstructures. in strength as the tempering temperature is 200 1.4
Some steels may require a double or triple increased. A similar trend of tensile properties 180
1.2
tempering. This is often the case when there is occurs for 4340 alloy (Fig. 4), which is a com- 160
a concern that with the precipitation of alloy mon alloy steel. This observed trend is followed
carbides, the Ms temperature may increase and for all QT steels and poses a question of trade-
60
retained austenite will transform to martensite off for the designer.
Ductility, %

during cooling from the tempering temperature Although ductility generally increases with 40 Reduction of area

(Ref 15). For example, the heat treatment of the drop in strength as the tempering tempera- 20 Elongation

high-speed tool steels and die steels often ture is increased, other factors also can influ- 0
requires a double or even triple tempering. ence ductility. Steel cleanliness has an effect
Mechanical Properties of Quenched and on ductility. Unlike the strength properties, 50 65
Tempered (QT) Steels. In general, tempering which are controlled primarily by heat treat-
Impact energy, ft-lb

decreases hardness, residual stress, and fatigue
life while increasing ductility and impact resis-
tance. As a result of the decrease in internal stress,
parts will be less likely to crack and distort after
hardening. The effect of tempering on strength is
not as well defined and can vary depending on
the loading conditions. As has been discussed in
this article, the effects of tempering are not always
the same on every component and for all loading
conditions. For this reason, it is best to validate
the effects on the actual part using the anticipated
service conditions.
Tempering in a furnace is typically done for
1 or 2 h, and the tempering temperature is
varied to obtain the desired extent of softening.
Impact energy, J
40
ment, the ductility parameters also are substan- 50
30
tially influenced by melting practice. In 35
20
addition, tempering in certain temperature 20
regimes can cause a reduction in toughness, as 10
5
previously noted with respect to the well- 0 100 300 500 700 900 1100
known phenomena of TE and TME. For exam-
Tempering temperature, °F
ple, Fig. 4 also provides data on the toughness
or impact energy of SAE 4340 steel at room
temperature as a function of the tempering tem- Fig. 4 Mechanical properties of 4340 steel hardened by
oil quenching and tempered for 1 h at various
perature. For SAE 4340 steel, impact energy temperatures. Source: Ref 8, 47
increases at first with tempering temperature,
passes through a minimum, and then increases tin segregate to the grain boundaries during
again (Fig. 4 bottom). The minimum is due to the long-time tempering of as-quenched mar-
TME at 260  C (500  F). At this temperature, tensite. Precipitation of Fe3C may also be partly
residual elements such as lead, antimony, and responsible for embrittlement. Tensile ductility

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 134 / Induction Heat Treating

is not affected by this phenomenon; there are no
minima in the plots of elongation and reduction
in area versus tempering temperature. Only the
toughness is affected, and this effect occurs
only when toughness is measured at close to
ambient or cryogenic temperatures.
Fatigue Resistance. Tempering can also have
a significant effect on residual stress, which in turn
can also affect fatigue life. Fatigue resistance can
be increased by forming compressive residual
stresses. This behavior is a result of the fact that
fatigue is initiated under the action of tensile stres-
ses. Thus, superimposing a compressive residual-
stress pattern may partially or totally eliminate the
surface tensile-stress component and allow higher
applied tensile loads to be supported without
reaching the endurance limit, assuming failure
initiation is on the surface. This effect is illustrated
by the results shown for bending fatigue in Fig. 5.
Formation of significant compressive residual
stresses is very typical in induction surface hard-
ening. Dramatic reduction or even reversal of
residual stresses is highly undesirable in applica-
tions where fatigue is the typical failure mode of
a component.
Specifics of Induction Heating
Process
The basic electromagnetic and thermal phe-
nomena of induction heating are discussed in
detail in the article “Principles of Induction
Heating” in this Volume (Ref 36) as well as
in several other publications, including Ref 8,
16, 17, 23, and 31. The primary mechanism of
heat generation is Joule (I2R) heating from ind-
ucted eddy currents in an electrically conductive
Surface residual stress at root of notch, MPa
–1200 –1000
160
1045,
8645, notch warm rolled
untempered
6.4 mm notch radius
1045,
120 tempered
8645, notch cold rolled
Endurance limit, ksi
workpiece. A second mechanism of heat gener-
ation, which takes place only in ferromagnetic
materials such as carbon steels, occurs from
magnetic hysteresis energy loss (i.e., energy
dissipation during the reversal of magnetic
domains) (Ref 31).
The induction heating intensity and effi-
ciency as well as the temperature distribution
depend on several major factors, including the
following:

Electrical and magnetic properties of the
heated material, such as electrical resistivity
(r) and relative magnetic permeability (mr)

Proximity of the workpiece to the induction
coil, their geometries, and the specifics of
the design

Induced power density

Frequency of the electromagnetic field
The magnetic field and the induced current
distribution within the heated workpiece are
nonuniform due to several electromagnetic phe-
nomena, including but not limited to skin
effect, proximity effect, end effect, and others
(Ref 16, 31, 36). Nonuniformities in the heat-
source distribution may produce certain heat
profiles or patterns.
Skin Effect and Current Penetration
Depth. When an alternating current flows
through the electrical conductor, the current
distribution is not uniform. The maximum
value of the current density is located on the
surface of the conductor; the current density
will decrease from the surface of the conductor
toward its center.
This phenomenon of nonuniform current
distribution within the conductor cross section
is called the skin effect. According to the
–800 –600 –400 –200 0 200
1000
8645,
shot peened
800
14B35,
tempered
classical definition of the skin effect, induced
eddy currents primarily flow in the surface
layer (the “skin”), where the majority of
induced power is concentrated. This layer is
called the reference depth or current penetration
depth and is typically designated by the symbol
d. Its value varies with the square root of elec-
trical resistivity (r) and inversely with the
square root of frequency (F) and relative mag-
netic permeability (mr):
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
r
d ¼ 503 (Eq 1)
mr F
where d is measured in meters, r is the electri-
cal resistivity of the metal in O  m, mr is the
relative magnetic permeability (unitless), and
F is the frequency in Hertz.
Current penetration depth is one of the main
factors affecting temperature distribution. The
value of d determines the surface layer where
approximately 86% of all induced power (heat
sources) is concentrated.
Both physical properties (r and mr) are dep-
endent not only on temperature but also on
chemical composition, microstructure, and grain
size. For steels and cast irons, electrical resistiv-
ity increases with temperature. For example, the
value of r for SAE 1040 steel can increase
during the tempering cycle from 0.171 mO  m
(at 21  C, or 70  F) to 0.763 mO  m (at 600  C,
or 1110  F) (Ref 37), causing a corresponding
variation in d.
Magnetic permeability is a function not only
of temperature but also of magnetic field inten-
sity. It is a nondimensional parameter. As the
temperature increases, mr initially remains
unchanged. However, upon reaching a certain
temperature, its value starts to decline increas-
ingly fast. When the Curie point (A2 tempera-
ture) is reached, steel becomes nonmagnetic,
and mr = 1. In physical terms, the decrease in
magnetic permeability with temperature sig-
nifies the loss of ferromagnetic properties.
For plain carbon steels with less than approx-
imately 0.45% C, the Curie point is 768  C
(1414  F). In higher-carbon steels, the Curie
temperature follows the A3 line on the iron-
carbon phase diagram to the eutectoid composi-
tion; thereafter, it coincides with the A1 line.

Endurance limit, MPa

10B36,
6.4 mm notch radius Alloying elements change the Curie point to
tempered 600
1036, some degree. Molybdenum and silicon increase
80 tempered 8630, 8630, it, and manganese and nickel decrease it.
tempered oil quenched Relative magnetic permeability (mr) is also a
Specimen complex function of frequency and magnetic field
400
171 mm 171 mm 8660, intensity. For frequencies less than 1 MHz, its
oil quenched
impact on mr is insignificant and can be neglected
40 (from the engineering perspective).
8645,
tempered 200 The same type of carbon steel at the same
39.4 mm diameter 8645, temperature and frequency can have a different
44.4 mm diameter 60º V-notch oil quenched
value of mr because of differences in the power
0.64 mm root radius Compression ↔ Tension
applied to the induction coil (because mr is a
0 0
–200 –160 –120 –80 –40 0 40
function of the intensity of the magnetic field).
For example, if the applied magnetic field is
Surface residual stress at root of notch, ksi
sufficiently strong, the magnetic material can
Fig. 5 Relationship between bending fatigue endurance limit and surface residual stresses for various carbon and be saturated and start to respond almost as a
alloy steels. All steels were water quenched except where otherwise indicated. Source: Ref 8, 45 nonmagnetic body.

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Power densities applied in induction temper-
ing are substantially lower than in induction
hardening; the values of mr in tempering are
therefore always significantly greater than dur-
ing a magnetic stage of induction hardening.
As an example, Fig. 6 illustrates the range of
typical variations in mr for induction hardening
versus induction tempering. In an extremely
low power density tempering, the value of mr
can be even higher.
In induction tempering, mr typically decreases
with increasing temperature. However, in very
weak fields, it can first increase with temperature
and later begin to decline drastically just near the
Curie point (Ref 16).
Both a reduction of relative magnetic perme-
ability (mr) and an increase in electrical resist-
ivity (r) with temperature lead to an increase
of d during the heat cycle (in accordance with
Eq 1). However, when carbon steel is heated
from ambient temperature (for example, 20  C,
or 70  F) to temperatures of approximately
550 to 580  C (1020 to 1080  F), a change in
d is relatively insignificant, because such steel
retains its magnetic properties. Typically, heat-
ing in this range is associated with relatively
small penetration depths and a pronounced skin
heating effect when using frequencies greater
than 500 Hz for a majority of steel and cast iron
components that have exposed ferromagnetic
properties.
If the current penetration depth is small com-
pared to the workpiece physical sizes (for exam-
ple, thickness), then practically all induced power
will be concentrated within a thin surface layer,
and the rest of the workpiece will be heated by
thermal conduction only. In such a case, there
0 210
200
180
160
140
Relative magnetic permeability
120
100
80
60
40
20
1 Frequency
0 100
Fig. 6 Typical variation in relative magnetic permeability (mr) during induction hardening and induction tempering
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Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels / 135
may be an excessively high temperature at the
surface, and the heat may not flow sufficiently
quickly to the subsurface region. This is one rea-
son why inductor geometry and process para-
meters for induction tempering must be selected
with care.
Higher frequencies lead to smaller values of
the current penetration depth, resulting in a
more pronounced skin-heating effect and often
greater thermal gradients across the workpiece.
Table 2 shows current penetration depths in
medium-carbon steel for the field intensities
typically used in induction tempering at two
temperatures (21 and 621  C, or 70 and 1150  F)
for four different frequencies (60 Hz, 500 Hz,
3 kHz, and 10 kHz). Note that steel retains its
magnetic properties at those temperatures.
As can be seen from Table 2, when heating
through-hardened workpieces of appreciable
size, thick-walled pipes, or surface-hardened
components with deep case depths, the skin
effect can be very pronounced. An improperly
controlled skin effect could lead to undesirable
tempering conditions and even reversed distri-
bution of hardness and residual stresses. The
use of lower frequencies and the selection of
appropriate process recipes are imperative in
these tempering applications.
It should be noted that the classical definition
of eddy current penetration depth (the expres-
sion on the right side of Eq 1) does not have a
fully determinate meaning because of the non-
constant distribution of magnetic field intensity
and therefore nonconstant distribution of mr
within the heated workpiece (Ref 16). Com-
monly, the value of d for induction tempering
is calculated using the value of mr that is
Temperature, ºF
390 570 750 930 1110 1290 1470
Induction
tempering
Induction hardening
200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature, ºC
calculated based on the magnetic field intensity
at the workpiece surface.
It is also important to note that as a result of
electromagnetic end and edge effects, magnetic
field intensity is nonconstant not only along the
radius/thickness of the workpiece but also along
its perimeter (e.g., along its length and across
its width) (Ref 16).
Electromagnetic End Effect. The electro-
magnetic end effect (Ref 16, 31) represents a dis-
tortion of the electromagnetic field at both ends of
the induction coil. A rule of thumb is that with a
conventional solenoid coil, a measurable power
deficit often occurs at the extreme end of the ferro-
magnetic workpiece. This results in a noticeable
underheating, which may be caused by one or
more of following factors (Ref 16, 31):

Lower-than-optimal frequency

Low power density

Large coil-to-workpiece longitudinal (axia)
radial gaps

Insufficient (small) coil overhangs (s)
In contrast, the use of too-high frequencies and
power densities, as well as large coil overhangs,
usually leads to a power surplus in the end area.
As a result, an excessive temperature may occur
in that area.
Computer modeling and field tests show that
with a conventional coil design and a coil-
workpiece radial gap of 25 mm (1 in.), even
with a considerable coil overhang of s =
75 mm (3 in.), when tempering carbon steel
pipes of 205 mm (8 in.) diameter and 25 mm
(1 in.) wall thickness to final temperatures of
approximately 600  C (1110  F) using the line
frequency (50 to 60 Hz), the pipe end will be
noticeably underheated (approximately 60 to
80  C, or 110 to 140  F, cooler) due to an
appreciable deficit of the heat sources caused
by the electromagnetic end effect of the ferro-
magnetic body. Practice shows that increasing
the heating time in an attempt to promote ther-
mal conduction does not noticeably improve
the temperature uniformity but reduces the pro-
duction rate. The use of a higher frequency can
compensate for the heat deficit at the pipe end,
but it also makes the system more sensitive to
variations in the pipe position with respect to
the induction coil and worsens temperature non-
uniformity within the wall thickness.
Figure 7 shows several coil designs that
allow improved pipe end heating (Ref 16).
One way to obtain a more uniform longitudinal
heating pattern is to vary the radial gaps along
Table 2 Typical current penetration depths
(d) in carbon steel versus temperature and
frequency for typical tempering applications
Current penetration depth, mm
Temperature,  C 60 Hz 500 Hz 3 kHz 10 kHz
21 4.7 1.63 0.67 0.36
621 15.5 5.38 2.2 1.2
 136 / Induction Heat Treating

the coil by reducing the coil-to-pipe gap near

the coil ends (Fig. 7b) and/or using profiled
inductors with various turn pitches, with tighter
turn windings near the coil ends and looser
windings in its central region (Fig. 7d). Another
option is to use multilayer windings near the
coil end (Fig. 7e) and a single-layer winding in
its central region, assuming use of sufficiently
low frequencies (e.g., 50 to 60 Hz). All of these
approaches, as well as the other designs shown
in Fig. 7, require dedicated coils for various pipe
sizes, driving up capital costs and reducing both
flexibility and robustness. Another apparatus,
referred to as FluxManager (Inductoheat, Inc.)
(Ref 38), represents a unique patented design
of an induction heater, providing an effective
way of controlling the end effect and providing
temperature uniformity (end to end and outside
diameter to inside diameter when tempering
thick-walled carbon steel pipes with a diameter
of 75 mm, or 3 in., and greater).
The end effect in complex-geometry induc-
tors is hard to analyze. Hence, numerical com-
puter modeling (i.e., finite-element analysis)
may provide an effective way to study and
determine the best ways to control various
electromagnetic and thermal phenomena taking
place in a particular induction tempering appli-
cation (Ref 16, 38–40). Other electromagnetic
effects that should be taken into account when
designing induction tempering systems include
the proximity effect, slot effect, ring effect,
Fig. 7 Coil designs that improve pipe end heating. See text. Source: Ref 16

electromagnetic edge effect, and several others

(Ref 16). Heating Quenching

1000 1830
Self-Tempering
900 1650
There are two ways to temper in induction
processing. One method is induction tempering 800 Surface 1470
per se, whereby a hardened part is reheated by
700 1 mm below 1290
induction to a tempering temperature. The sec-
Temperature, °C

Temperature, °F
ond method is self-tempering, whereby the 3 mm below
residual heat in the part accumulated after 600 1110
induction hardening is exploited. Core
In the self-tempering process, the part is not 500 930
completely quenched to ambient temperature.
Figure 8 shows the dynamics of the radial 400 750
temperature distribution during a single-shot
hardening of SAE 4340 steel shaft using a 300 570
frequency of 125 kHz. The shaft diameter is
16 mm (0.6 in.). The required case depth 200 390
16 mm diam
is 1.2 mm (0.05 in.). The time of heating is 125 kHz
2 s, and the time of spray quenching is 6 s 100 210
(Ref 31). At the end of quenching, the shaft
surface temperature was approximately 50  C 0 0
(120  F), but its core was approximately 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
82  C (180  F). Taking into account that mar- Cycle time, s
tensitic transformation is a shear-type transfor-
mation, the great majority of the martensite Fig. 8 Variation of radial temperature distribution during a single-shot hardening of SAE 4340 steel shaft using
a frequency of 125 kHz. The shaft diameter was 16 mm (0.6 in.) with a required case depth of 1.2 mm
would be already formed in the surface layer (0.05 in.). The time of heating was 2 s, and the time of spray quenching was 6 s. Source: Ref 31
upon reaching 50  C (120  F). The quench time
may be further extended and the shaft further
cooled to ensure its safe transportation to the heat accumulated within it. For example, in this approximately 290  C (550  F). If at this
next operation (e.g., tempering). particular case, its surface temperature would moment the supply of quenchant is cut off, the
If quenching was interrupted after 3 s, then be approximately 125  C (260  F); however, shaft surface layer will be reheated again, due
the shaft would have an appreciable amount of the temperature of its core would be to the heat accumulated in its core. Because

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steel has a relatively good thermal conductivity
and because the radius of this shaft is only
8 mm (0.3 in.), there will be a relatively fast
reverse heat flow from the shaft core toward
its surface. After a short time, the surface tem-
perature will increase and the core temperature
will decrease to an average temperature equal
to the temperature the shaft had at the moment
when quenching was interrupted (which was
approximately 200  C, or 390  F). This retained
heat can be used for tempering.
There are several obvious benefits associated
with self-tempering, including the following:

It is an energy-efficient process that does not
require any additional power for tempering;
it uses a portion of energy acquired by the
workpiece during its austenitization. Less
total energy is used not only during heating
but also during part cooling.

The time delay between hardening and tem-
pering is eliminated. Too long a time delay
can be detrimental in some cases, in particu-
lar when hardening materials that exhibit
low toughness, because crack development
may occur during that time.

There is a substantial space savings, because
no additional space for tempering equipment
is needed.

The method is cost-effective. With self-
tempering, the tempering is incorporated
into the hardening operation. Therefore, it
eliminates an additional operation, which
is associated with a reduction of the capital
equipment cost and total cycle time.
It may appear that self-tempering is the most
logical and best way to temper induction-hardened
components. However, it is imperative to recog-
nize its limitations:

It is essential for self-tempering that residual
heat be closely controlled, which can be
challenging. It is relatively easy to precisely
control applied energy during the austenitiz-
ing stage, but it is more difficult to accu-
rately and reliably monitor quench severity.
Quench severity deviations could produce
variation of the residual heat, which, in turn,
would negatively affect the quality and
repeatability of self-tempering.

Self-tempering is usually used in heat treat-
ing workpieces with relatively simple geom-
etry (e.g., solid cylinders or plates). When
dealing with complex-geometry components
or components with geometrical discont-
inuities, those geometrical subtleties may
produce localized variations in both the heat
intensity and the cooling intensity, thus neg-
atively affecting the overall self-tempering
conditions.

The Ms temperatures of some steels are quite
low. Therefore, there may be an insufficient
amount of martensite formed at the moment
when quenching is interrupted, which would
also be associated with the presence of a
substantial amount of retained austenite.
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Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels / 137

Self-tempering should be avoided when pro-
filed heating is used or in applications
requiring selective hardening (e.g., when
hardening only a portion or a section of the
component). The presence of substantially
colder neighboring regions may negatively
affect self-tempering conditions because of
a cold-sink effect.

It is very difficult to control residual heat
when hardening relatively small-sized parts
(e.g., wires, strips, ropes, thin-walled tubing,
etc.).

Self-tempering is typically used (if applica-
ble) in static heating, single-shot heating,
and, to a lesser degree, horizontal scan hard-
ening. It should not be used in vertical scan-
hardening applications, because of unequal
cooling conditions and variations of the
accumulated residual heat in the top and bot-
tom regions of the workpiece.
The foregoing are some of the challenges
that prevent the wide use of self-tempering in
industry, with the result that furnace tempering
and induction tempering are more popular pro-
cesses. In some cases, self-tempering is suc-
cessfully used in conjunction with induction
tempering, resulting in desirable microstructures.
For example, a combination of self-tempering
and multipulse induction tempering is effectively
used in crankshaft hardening using a nonrota-
tional stationary hardening process technology
(Ref 41). In this process, the journals of a crank-
shaft are heat treated while it is stationary. For
most automotive crankshafts, it takes approxi-
mately 3 to 4 s to austenitize a journal surface
layer using frequencies in the range of 10 to
30 kHz (depending on the specifics of the
crankshaft). After completion of austenitiza-
tion, quenching is applied for only 4 to 5 s, fol-
lowed by 3 to 5 s of the first air soaking. Then,
low-power induction tempering is applied for
approximately 3 to 5 s, followed by the second
soaking and the second induction tempering.
The process may be repeated to achieve desirable
tempering conditions, providing a multipulse tem-
pering effect.
A combination of induction tempering
(in which heat flows from the surface toward
a subsurface region) and self-tempering (in which
heat flows from the internal region toward the
surface) provides significant advantages com-
pared to either one alone. One such advantage
is the substantially more uniform thermal condi-
tions and better controllability. Self-tempering,
if applied alone, relies only on heat accumulated
in internal regions of the crank journal during
its hardening cycle. Therefore, when only self-
tempering is used, the residual heat distribution
is nonuniform because various metal masses of
counterweights adjacent to hardened journals
produce thermal conduction effects of different
magnitudes. In contrast, when self-tempering
and induction tempering are used simultaneously,
the processes complement each other and produce
a more uniform heat distribution. Reduced ther-
mal gradients and favorable residual-stress
profiles are created as the result of such temper-
ing, while minimizing process cycle time. In
some cases, a single-pulse induction tempering
can result in an undesirable residual-stress distri-
bution if the applied power is too high. In cases
such as this, appreciable tensile residual stresses
may appear at the surface. A combination of mul-
tipulse induction tempering with self-tempering
provides gentle tempering conditions, optimizing
tempered martensite structures.
Induction Tempering Methods
Induction tempering uses one of the follow-
ing heating modes (Fig. 9):

Single-shot

Progressive or continuous

Scanning

Static heating
Single-Shot Tempering. With the single-
shot method, neither the part nor the coil moves
relative to the other, although part rotation is
typically applied. The entire length of the
workpiece being tempered is heated all at once
(Fig. 9a). A single-shot inductor induces eddy
currents that flow along the length of the part,
except, for example, for the half-moon regions
(also called the cross-over or bridge sections)
of a single-shot inductor, where eddy current
flow is circumferential. Only two opposite sides
of the regular area of the cylindrical workpiece
are heated at the same time: the regions facing
the inductor. The rest of the part experiences
soaking. Thanks to part rotation, an entire
heated area is taken through the heat-soak cycle
during a single-shot induction tempering.
Normally the single-shot method is better
suited for tempering relatively short parts or
parts where only a relatively small area is to
be heat treated. This method is also better
suited to cylindrical parts having axial symme-
try and geometrical irregularities, such as diame-
ter changes, fillets, shoulders, and so on, because
inductor copper can be easily profiled to accom-
modate the geometrical features of the part.
Progressive or Continuous Tempering. In
progressive or continuous heating (Fig. 9b),
a workpiece is moved via pusher, indexing
mechanism, and so on or in a continuous
motion through a single-coil or multicoil induc-
tion heater. This process is often applied for
tempering elongated fast-moving workpieces
(wires, rods, tubes, strips, etc.).
For example, Fig. 10 shows a time-temperature
diagram for induction tempering of 18 mm
(0.7 in.) diameter medium-carbon steel rods
travelling at a speed of 102 mm/s (4 in./s). The
induction tempering line consists of four in-line
multiturn coils with a profiled power distribution.
The frequency is 1 kHz. Prior to induction temper-
ing, the rods were induction surface hardened; the
case depth is 1.75 mm (0.07 in.). The length of the
entire induction tempering system was approxi-
mately 0.5 m (20 in.), representing a substantial
 138 / Induction Heat Treating

space-savings, environmental friendliness, and

energy efficiency. A gas or infrared tempering fur-
nace would require a system at least 10 times
longer.
Scan Tempering. Induction tempering using
a scan heating mode can be performed on
the outside and/or inside diameters (OD/ID)
of cylindrical components as well as on flat
surfaces. Either a horizontal or a vertical coil
arrangement can be used; the vertical design is
more popular for tempering short and moderate-
length workpieces using single-turn or multiturn
inductors (Fig. 9c). In scan heating of cylinder-
shaped parts, induced eddy currents flow cir-
cumferentially, instantly heating the workpiece
to a short depth. The workpiece generally rotates
inside the coil to even out the induction-hardened
pattern.
The main constraint on using this process
for tempering interior surfaces is the difficulty
of scan heating small diameters. Because the
return leg of the inductor usually goes through
the center of the coil, the OD of solenoid-type
ID coils must usually be at least 16 mm (0.6 in.),
and 19 mm (0.75 in.) is more typical. This limita-
tion places an obvious lower bound on the size of
the workpiece. Hairpin-type or pancake inductors
are often used for scan tempering flat surfaces
(Ref 16).
Fig. 9 Four heating modes that can be used in induction tempering applications. (a) Single shot. (b) Progressive or Static Tempering. In static heating, a work-
continuous. (c) Scanning. (d) Static heating piece is placed into the horizontal or vertical
inductor for a given period of time, and a set
Processing amount of power is applied until the compo-
nent reaches the desired heating conditions
4 turns 3 turns 3 turns 3 turns
(Fig. 9d). It is possible to use either single-post
Coil # 1 Coil # 2 Coil # 3 Coil # 4 or multipost heating. This process can be used
to temper both regularly and irregularly shaped
components.
Although the inductor is static, in some
instances the part may be rotated; in other
450 840
cases, both the workpiece and the inductor are
motionless. Single-turn or multiturn solenoid
coils encircle the component. Generous coil-
400 750 to-workpiece gaps are commonly used.
In other cases, nonsolenoidal inductors can
350 660 be used. For example, for the static tempering
of ring-shaped components and other hollow
parts with sufficiently large ID (typically 70 mm,
300 570
or 3 in., or greater), C-, O-, or E-core inductors
Temperature, °C

Temperature, °F

can be used very effectively (Ref 16). (These

250 480 inductors are named for the shapes of the
laminated cores used in their design.) Laminated
200 390 low-carbon steel thin sheets similar to those used
in transformers are used for core fabrication.
1 kHz
A low frequency (50 to 200 Hz) is commonly
150 300
T 2 mm below surface selected. A multiturn induction coil is wound
T surface around the core to create the magnetic flux flow.
100 T average 210 There are several design variations of such induc-
tors. However, the basic concept in its simplest
50 120
form can be described as follows:

A movable section of the core can be lifted
0 0 or hinged to allow free loading of the hollow
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
workpiece and its placement around a por-
Time, s tion of the core.

The system is ready for heating after placing the
Fig. 10 Computer simulation of time-temperature diagram for induction tempering of 18 mm (0.7 in.) diameter
hinged portion of laminated core into the work-
medium-carbon steel rods travelling at a speed of 100 mm/s (4 in./s). Each coil is 50 mm (2 in.) long,
and the distance between coils is 100 mm (4 in.). ing position and closing the magnetic circuit.

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 Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels / 139

After alternating current (ac) starts flowing
in the coil circuit, an ac magnetic flux occurs
in the magnetic core, which provides a low-
reluctance, closed-loop magnetic circuit.
The workpiece becomes a part of the circuit,
acting as the single-turn secondary winding.

Heat is generated within the workpiece via
the Joule effect and hysteresis heat.
Magnetic core technology typically provides
better temperature uniformity than other induction
processes, in part (although not only) because of
its use of low frequencies.
Process Parameters for Induction
Tempering
The selection of equipment for tempering of
steel using induction heating is similar to that
for induction hardening, although there are
some differences. This includes specifics of coil
design and equipment for part handling, and
electronic controls, which find particular impor-
tance in continuous heat treating lines.
The selection of power, frequency, required
heat time, and coil design is highly subjective
and affected by designer past experience, the
type of heated material, the necessary tempera-
ture distribution (e.g., temperature uniformity
or required heat pattern in case of selected tem-
pering/stress relieving), cycle time, application
specifics, and so on. Articles in other sections
of this Volume provide more details on process
parameters selection and coil design subtleties.
Numerous charts, diagrams, tables, and simpli-
fied formulas for estimation of basic process
parameters have been accumulated in industry
over the years.
Approximate power densities required for
through heating of steel for hardening and tem-
pering are provided in Table 3. The major dif-
ference is that somewhat lower frequencies are
employed because the electrical and magnetic
properties of steel are different at typical tem-
pering temperatures compared to induction
hardening. The resistivity (r) is lower, and the
relative magnetic permeability is higher. The
equation for reference depth reveals that, for
temperature uniformity and efficiency equiva-
lent to those for austenitizing applications,
lower frequencies should be employed. Typical
frequencies are given in Table 4 for through
tempering of steel bars of various sizes.
As with through hardening, the power den-
sity employed with induction tempering is kept
very low, usually approximately 0.046 kW/cm2
(0.3 kW/in.2). As before, this is done to mini-
mize the temperature gradients. Typical
operating parameters that satisfy this require-
ment are given in Table 5 for through-hardened
parts.
It is important to keep in mind that rules of
thumb as well as simplified rough-estimation
techniques only allow a basic idea to be quickly
obtained regarding electrothermal process para-
meters for induction tempering (including
power, frequency, time, etc.). This knowledge
is imperative for developing a general under-
standing of the process and what would it take
to heat a particular workpiece according to
basic process requirements. Unfortunately, the
great majority of simplified ballpark-estimation
techniques have many restrictions, making it
difficult to obtain design details and process
subtleties. This is true not only for through-
hardened parts but, to an even greater degree,
for induction-surface-hardened components.
Advanced numerical simulation software based
on tightly coupled electromagnetic and thermal
phenomena enable induction heating profes-
sionals to determine details of the process that
could be costly, time-consuming, and, in some
cases, extremely difficult to determine experi-
mentally. The subject of numerical computer
simulation of induction heat treating is discussed
in other articles in this Volume as well as in the
article “Simulation of Induction Heat Treating”
in Metals Process Simulation, Volume 22B of
ASM Handbook, 2010.
Selection of Tempering
Temperatures and Time
Tempering of hardened steels accelerates the
diffusion of carbon atoms locked in the dis-
torted body-centered tetragonal crystal structure
of martensite, thus causing the decomposition
of martensite into carbides. Diffusion is a
time-temperature process, and so the effect of
tempering can be intensified by increasing either
the tempering temperature or the time at temper-
ature. Experience shows that similar tempering

Table 3 Approximate power densities required for through heating of steel for hardening, tempering, or forming operations
Input(b)
150–425  C (300–800  F) 425–760  C (800–1400  F) 760–980  C (1400–1800  F) 980–1095  C (1800–2000  F) 1095–1205  C (2000–2200  F)
Frequency(a), Hz kW/cm2 kW/in.2 kW/cm2 kW/in.2 kW/cm2 kW/in.2 kW/cm2 kW/in.2 kW/cm2 kW/in.2

60 0.009 0.06 0.023 0.15 (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c)
180 0.008 0.05 0.022 0.14 (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c)
1000 0.006 0.04 0.019 0.12 0.08 0.5 0.155 1.0 0.22 1.4
3000 0.005 0.03 0.016 0.10 0.06 0.4 0.085 0.55 0.11 0.7
10,000 0.003 0.02 0.012 0.08 0.05 0.3 0.070 0.45 0.085 0.55
(a) The values in this table are based on use of proper frequency and normal overall operating efficiency of equipment. (b) In general, these power densities are for section sizes of 13 to 50 mm (½ to 2 in.). Higher inputs can be
used for smaller section sizes, and lower inputs may be required for larger section sizes. (c) Not recommended for these temperatures. Source: Ref 8, 46

Table 4 Selection of power source and frequency for various applications of induction tempering
Rating for(a):
Maximum tempering
Section size temperature Solid-state systems or motor generators
 
cm in. C F Power lines, 50 or 60 Hz Frequency converter, 180 Hz 1000 Hz 3000 Hz 10,000 Hz Vacuum tube, over 200 kHz

0.32 – 0.64 ⅛–¼ 705 1300 ... ... ... ... ... Good
0.64 – 1.27 ¼–½ 705 1300 ... ... ... ... Good Good
1.27 – 2.54 ½–1 425 800 ... Fair Good Good Good Fair
705 1300 ... Poor Fair Good Good Fair
2.54 – 5.08 1–2 425 800 Fair Fair Good Good Fair Poor
705 1300 ... Fair Good Good Fair Poor
5.08 – 15.24 2–6 425 800 Good Good Good Fair ... ...
705 1300 Good Good Good Fair ... ...
Over 15.24 Over 6 705 1300 Good Good Good Fair ... ...
(a) Efficiency, capital cost, and uniformity of heating are considered in these rating. “Good” indicates optimum frequency. “Fair” indicates a frequency higher than optimum that increases capital cost and reduces uniformity of
heating, thus requiring lower heat inputs. “Poor” indicates a frequency substantially higher than optimum that substantially increases capital cost and reduces uniformity of heating, thus requiring substantially lower heat inputs.
Source: Ref 8, 46

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 140 / Induction Heat Treating

Table 5 Operating and production data for progressive induction tempering

Work temperature
Entering
Section size Scan time coil Leaving coil Production rate Inductor input(b)
   
cm in. Material Frequency, Hz Power(a), kW Total heating time, s s/cm s/in. C F C F kg/h lb/h kW/cm2 kW/in.2

Rounds
1.27 ½ 4130 9600 11 17 0.39 1 50 120 565 1050 92 202 0.064 0.41
1.91 3
/4 1035 mod 9600 12.7 30.6 0.71 1.8 50 120 510 950 113 250 0.050 0.32
2.54 1 1041 9600 18.7 44.2 1.02 2.6 50 120 565 1050 141 311 0.054 0.35
2.86 1⅛ 1041 9600 20.6 51 1.18 3.0 50 120 565 1050 153 338 0.053 0.34
4.92 115=16 14B35H 180 24 196 2.76 7.0 50 120 565 1050 195 429 0.031 0.20
Flats
1.59 5
/8 1038 60 88 123 0.59 1.5 40 100 290 550 1449 3194 0.014 0.089
1.91 3
/4 1038 60 100 164 0.79 2.0 40 100 315 600 1576 3474 0.013 0.081
2.22 7
/8 1043 60 98 312 1.50 3.8 40 100 290 550 1609 3548 0.008 0.050
2.54 1 1043 60 85 254 1.22 3.1 40 100 290 550 1365 3009 0.011 0.068
2.86 1⅛ 1043 60 90 328 1.57 4.0 40 100 290 550 1483 3269 0.009 0.060
Irregular shapes
1.75 – 3.33 ¹¹∕¹6 – 15=16 1037 mod 9600 192 64.8 0.94 2.4 65 150 550 1020 2211 4875 0.043 0.28
1.75 – 2.86 ¹¹∕¹6 – 1⅛ 1037 mod 9600 154 46 0.67 1.7 65 150 425 800 2276 5019 0.040 0.26
(a) Power transmitted by the inductor at the operating frequency indicated. For converted frequencies, this power is approximately 25% less than the power input to the machine because of losses within the machine. (b) At the
operating frequency of the inductor. Source: Ref 8, 46

responses can be obtained by manipulating

those two factors. Under certain conditions, a
shorter-time, higher-temperature tempering can
provide the same hardness as a longer-time,
lower-temperature tempering. For example, as
illustrated in Fig. 11, the tempering of SAE
4340 steel (Ref 8, 22) to a hardness of 35 HRC
can be achieved by tempering either for 10 min
at 665  C (1230  F) or for 100 min at 620  C
(1150  F).
In induction tempering, conventional long-
time, low-temperature treatments are replaced
by short-time, higher-temperature ones. Data
illustrating the effects of time and temperature
are presented in Fig. 12 for a 1050 carbon steel
austenitized and quenched to a martensitic
microstructure with a hardness of 62 HRC. For
a 1 h furnace tempering, the total amount of soft-
ening increases with temperature, as shown.
Similar responses are obtained for induction
tempering for shorter times and higher tempera-
tures. For instance, a 40 HRC temper is pro-
duced by a 1 h furnace heat treatment at 425  C
(800  F) as well as by a 5 s induction treatment
at 540  C (1000  F) (Ref 8).
A substantial amount of work has gone into
establishing the time-temperature relationships
that result in identical hardness values for a
variety of steels. Most of these relations show
that hardness is a logarithmic function in the Fig. 11 Tempering behavior of an AISI 4340 steel at various temperatures as a function of time. Source: Ref 8
form of a Larsen-Miller parameter, which sug-
gests that it is the product of the absolute
tempering temperature times the sum of a con-
For more details on the Hollomon-Jaffe exhibit secondary hardening. In these cases, the
stant and the logarithm of the tempering time:
method, see the section “Hollomon-Jaffe Tem- values of the constant C may vary for different
pering Correlation” in this article as well as processes of Fe3C precipitation and alloy carbide
Hardness is a function of: T  ½C þ log10 ðtÞ (Eq 2) the article “Tempering of Steels” in Steel Heat precipitation, which in turn are functions of tem-
Treating Fundamentals and Processes, Volume perature. Hollomon and Jaffe also successfully
where T is the absolute temperature, t is time, 4A of ASM Handbook, 2013. demonstrated an applicability of an expression
and C is a constant that depends on alloy com- There is evidence for a unique dependence of (Eq 2) to describe the kinetics for tempering of
position. This relation was first proposed by tempering hardness on the Hollomon-Jaffe time- pearlite and bainite. Figure 13, taken from their
Hollomon and Jaffe (Ref 2), who found that temperature parameter. It is likely that the para- work, suggests that the value of the parametric
the value of the constant C was generally metric method can provide an empirically valid constant C is weakly affected by a microstruc-
between 10 and 15 for the steels in their study. relationship for most steels, except those that ture (Ref 2).

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 Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels / 141

irrespective of the alloy content. Grange and

Baughman (Ref 3) determined that a single
value of C = 18 was a satisfactory constant
for various carbon steels (from 1026 to 1080)
and low-alloy steels (4027, 4037, 4047, 4068,
1335, 2340, 3140, 4140, 4340, 4640, 5140,
and 6145). Tempering data were satisfactorily
modeled by the following parametric equation:

P ¼ ½ F þ 460 ½18 þ log10 ðt; in hoursÞ  103

For more details on the Grange-Baughman

method, see the section “Grange-Baughman
Tempering Correlation” in this article as well
as the article “Tempering of Steels” in Steel
Heat Treating Fundamentals and Processes,
Volume 4A of ASM Handbook, 2013.

Hollomon-Jaffe Tempering Correlation

Fig. 12 Hardness as a function of tempering temperature and time for furnace- and induction-treated 1050 steel
austenitized at 860  C (1575  F) and quenched in brine. Source: Ref 17
Hardness as a function of the Hollomon-Jaffe tempering parameter (T in Kelvin; t in seconds) for a 0.94% C
Fig. 13
plain carbon steel with starting microstructures of martensite, bainite, fine pearlite, and coarse pearlite.
Source: Ref 2, 8
Another parametric method for correlating
equivalent time-temperature condition, which
is very similar to that of Hollomon and Jaffe,
was established by Grange and Baughman
(Ref 3). The form of the parametric relation in
their work is the same, namely, of the form
T(C + log t), where T is the absolute tempering
temperature, and t is the tempering time. Unlike
the Hollomon-Jaffe formulation, however, the
parametric constant (C) is a fixed number
As discussed earlier, relations for the time-
temperature equivalence of different treatments,
such as those employing furnace and induction
heating, were investigated first by Hollomon
and Jaffe (Ref 2). According to their formula-
tion, the tempered hardness of martensite is a
unique function of the quantity T(C + log10 t),
where T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin,
C is a material constant, and t is time in sec-
onds. In the aforementioned example, the con-
stant C can be found by equating (425 + 273)
(C + log103600) to (540 + 273) (C + log105),
resulting in a value of C of approximately 17. With
this value for C, equivalent time-temperature
combinations for other hardnesses of the quenched
SAE 1050 steel can be obtained.
For instance, a 30 HRC temper obtained in a
1 h furnace treatment at 540  C (1000  F) may
be obtained by a 60 s induction treatment at a
temperature of (540 + 273) (17 + log103600)/
(17 + log1060) = 890 K = 615  C (1140  F),
which is in approximate agreement with the
experimental data shown in Fig. 12.
The values of C in the Hollomon-Jaffe rela-
tion for several plain carbon steels are given
in Table 6, taken from the work of Hollomon
and Jaffe (Ref 2). From this table, it can be seen
that the magnitude of C tends to increase with
decreasing carbon content. In general, parame-
ter C tends to be between 14 and 18 for steels
with carbon contents below 0.5%, and between
10 and 14 for steels of higher carbon content.
From Table 6, a C-value of approximately
14.5 would be estimated for 1050 steel. This
is somewhat different than the value of 17.0
estimated from Fig. 12. For the two 40 HRC
tempering treatments discussed previously (1 h
at 425  C, and 5 s at 540  C), a correlation
based on C = 17.0 provides a tempering param-
eter of approximately 14,370 in both cases.
On the other hand, using a C-value of 14.5
yields tempering parameters of 12,605 and
12,355 for the low- and high-temperature
tempering, respectively. Assessment of curves
like the one in Fig. 14(a) reveals that such dif-
ferences in the tempering parameter would
give rise to differences in predicted hardness

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 142 / Induction Heat Treating

of perhaps one HRC point, or an amount well a large variety of carbon and alloy steels, such
within experimental accuracy. Because of this, as those in the SAE 10xx to 92xx series.
it can be concluded that the correlation of tem- The Hollomon-Jaffe equation, although quite
pered hardness data is not especially sensitive useful in conjunction with conventional temper-
to the value of C employed, within certain ing curves, should be applied with care for the
limits, of course. This hypothesis was verified induction tempering of martensite. It must be
by Grange and Baughman (Ref 3), who deter- noted that there is a limit above which the tem-
mined that a C-value of 14.44, when t is pering temperature should not be raised. This,
expressed in seconds and T in degrees Rankine, of course, is the A1 temperature (or Ac1 for
results in very good hardness correlations for rapid heating processes), at which carbides start
to go back into solution and reaustenitization
begins.
Table 6 Hollomon-Jaffe C-parameters for Effective Tempering Time. It should be
tempering of various plain carbon steels noted that the Hollomon-Jaffe and Grange-
Steel Starting microstructure C Baughman approaches apply only to short-time
tempering at a fixed temperature, that is, iso-
1030 Martensite 15.9
1055 Martensite 14.3 thermal tempering treatments. In other words,
1074 Martensite 13.4 it assumes that the temperature of the work-
1090 Martensite 12.2 piece is increased instantaneously to the tem-
1095 Martensite 9.7 pering temperature. When the heating time is
1095 Martensite + retained austenite 14.7
1095 Bainite 14.3 of the same order of magnitude as the actual
1095 Pearlite 14.1 soak time, it must be taken into account.
Source: Ref 2 A means by which a particular time-temperature
history is accounted for in rapid heating (for
instance, by induction) may be derived by an
extension of the Hollomon-Jaffe concept using
a discretization technique. This is done by calcu-
lating an equivalent or effective tempering time
(t*) for a constant-temperature cycle of heating
that corresponds to a continuous cycle. One
way of doing this is illustrated in Fig. 15
(Ref 7). Here, the induction tempering cycle
(shown schematically in Fig. 15a) consists of a
heating stage and a subsequent cooling stage,
the latter occurring at a somewhat lower rate.
The total continuous cycle is broken into a num-
ber of very small time increments, each of dura-
tion (Dti) and characterized by some average
temperature Ti. It is assumed that the tempera-
ture for the equivalent isothermal treatment is
the peak temperature of the continuous cycle,
or T*. This specification of the temperature for
the isothermal cycle is arbitrary, however.
Once the temperature of the equivalent iso-
thermal cycle has been specified as T*, an
effective tempering time (t*) for this cycle can
be estimated. This is accomplished by solving
the following equation (Ref 6–8):

Fig. 15 Equivalence of (a) continuous heating/cooling

Fig. 14 Tempering curves for (a) 0.31% C plain carbon steel and (b) 0.35C-2Mo alloy steel that exhibits secondary tempering cycle and (b) isothermal treatment
hardening. Note that time-temperature data are correlated in both cases with a parameter of the form T(C + through the use of an effective tempering time (t*) and
log10 t), where T is absolute temperature in Kelvin, C is a constant, and t is time in seconds. Source: Ref 2, 8 temperature (T *). Source: Ref 8

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Ti ðC þ log10 ti Þ ¼ T  C þ log10 ti
Summing the ti for each portion of the con-
tinuous cycle yields the total effective temper-
ing time, t*, at temperature T* and hence the
effective tempering parameter T*(C + log10 t*),
as shown in Fig. 15(b).
In the application of this method, care should
be exercised in selecting the time interval (Dti).
These time increments should be chosen small
enough so that the temperature does not change
too much during the increment, thus enabling a
reasonable average for the temperature Ti to be
obtained and used in the previous expression.
For continuous heating from room temperature
to typical induction tempering temperatures,
sufficient accuracy is obtained when the Dti
time increments are 0.005 to 0.01 times the
total heating time.
Another consideration in estimating the effec-
tive tempering time is the fact that tempered
steels are usually air cooled. As implied earlier,
the cooling rates are typically much lower than
the heating rates, giving rise to substantially
greater times at high temperature during the
cooling cycle. Therefore, the tempering that
occurs during cooling must also be included in
the effective tempering parameter. To do this,
the cooling rate must be measured or estimated
from a heat-transfer analysis. The increments in
the effective tempering time (ti ) are then esti-
mated from this cooling curve and the afore-
mentioned relation, and they are added to
those for the heating portion of the cycle prior
to calculation of the effective tempering param-
eter from T*(C + log10 t*).
Application of the Hollomon-Jaffe Corre-
lation to Induction Tempering of Line Pipe.
The application of the previous relations is illu-
strated with data on the induction tempering of
a grade of tubular oil-country piping of the same
nominal composition as that of 1030 steel, for
which C = 15.9 (Table 6). This product has been
processed in a continuous heat treatment line to
produce a hardness of approximately 26 HRC
(ultimate tensile strength: 870 MPa, or 126 ksi)
using the time-temperature cycle (for heating)
shown in Fig. 16 (Ref 8, 42). The induction gen-
erator had a frequency of 300 Hz. This, com-
bined with a relatively low power density and a
long processing line consisting of eight heating
stations, ensured relatively uniform heating
through the 10 mm (0.4 in.) thick wall of the
140 mm (5.5 in.) OD pipe.
The effective tempering time (t*) for the
heating portion of the tempering cycle was cal-
culated the same way as discussed previously.
The temperature T* was taken to be equal to
the peak temperature in the cycle, or 855.2 K.
Furthermore, the cycle was broken into time
increments of 0.5 s. Thus, the increments ti
were estimated from the following equation:
log10 ti ¼ ðTi =855:2Þð15:9 þ log10 0:5Þ  15:9
For example, for the time increment at which
Ti = 800 K, ti = 0.049 s. For the time
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Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels / 143
increment at which Ti = 850 K, ti = 0.402 s.
Thus, it is apparent that relatively large contri-
butions to the effective tempering time come
from temperatures near the peak temperature,
and relatively small amounts are the result of
tempering that occurs at temperatures 50 K or
more below the peak temperature. When all of
the ti values are summed, the total effective
t* is found to be equal to 4.92 s, a time consid-
erably shorter than the total heating time of 110 s.
At the completion of tempering, the effective
tempering parameter for this grade of pipe is
therefore:
855:2ð15:9 þ log10 4:92Þ ¼ 14; 190
The tempering parameter is increased some-
what during slow cooling of the pipe in cooling
beds following induction heating. Assuming
cooling by free convection and radiation, the
initial rate of cooling for the pipe from 855.2 K
is estimated to be 0.5 K/s. As the temperature
drops, the rate of heat loss decreases, but the
specific heat decreases as well. Thus, the rate
of cooling is fairly constant over at least the first
50 K or so of the cooling period, during which
the vast majority of the softening resulting from
the cool-down portion of the tempering occurs.
The effective time for the tempering that occurs
during the cooling period, assuming a constant
cooling rate of 0.5 K/s (0.9 F/s) and T* =
855.2 K as before, was found to be 41.57 s. This
time is approximately ten times that for the
much more rapid heating cycle.
Combining the effective tempering times
for both the heating and cooling cycles leads
to a t* value of approximately 46.5 s for the
entire process and an effective tempering
parameter of 15,025, or a quantity approxi-
mately 800 greater than that for the heating
cycle alone. An estimate of the hardness of
the pipe after heat treatment can be derived
from Fig. 14(a). From this plot, it is found that
a hardness of 25 HRC corresponds to a temper-
ing parameter of 15,025. This is very close
to the expected hardness for this product,
26 HRC. In contrast, the hardness is predicted
to be 28.5 HRC for a parameter of 14,190.
Thus, it can be concluded that the cooling stage
following induction heating results in a further
softening of approximately 3.5 HRC points.
A similar calculation can be performed for
other induction-tempered products, provided
that the time-temperature history is known or
can be modeled.
Grange-Baughman Tempering
Correlation
As noted, Grange and Baughman (Ref 3)
also established a parametric relation very
similar to the Hollomon-Jaffe method, except
the parametric constant is a single value irrespec-
tive of the alloy content. With temperature (T)
expressed in units of Kelvin (K) on the absolute
temperature scale, and with time (t) expressed in
seconds, the parametric, C, is 14.44 such that:
P ¼ ½T ðin KÞ  ½14:44 þ log10 ðt in secondsÞ
or in units of  F with time in hours:
P ¼ ½ F þ 460  ½18 þ logðt; in hoursÞ  103
The success of the Grange-Baughman method is
demonstrated by the results shown in Fig. 17
(Ref 3, 8) for a series of plain carbon steels.
Note that the absolute temperature is in degrees
Rankine, not Kelvin. The fact that equally good
correlation is obtained by both the Hollomon-
Jaffe and the Grange-Baughman results again
suggests that the exact value of C has little effect
and that the most important variables are the
absolute temperature and the logarithm of the
tempering time.
Grange and Baughman also presented a
means by which the tempered hardness in alloy
steel (10xx to 92xx grades) could be estimated.
This is done by first obtaining a base hardness
from a tempering curve for the mild steel of
the same carbon content (e.g., Fig. 18) (Ref 3, 8).
To this are added certain hardness increments for
each alloying element. These increments
depend on the amount present and the value of
the tempering parameter. The hardness incre-
ment in diamond pyramid hardness (DPH, and
also called Vickers hardness) points for each
element is equal to the product of a certain fac-
tor (given in Table 7) and the percentage of that
element minus some base percentage. For man-
ganese and silicon, the base percentages are
0.85 and 0.3, respectively. For nickel, chro-
mium, molybdenum, and vanadium, they are
zero (Ref 8).
Much of the tempering data used by Grange
and Baughman in determining their tempering
correlation was for tempering time exceeding
10 min. Only a limited amount was obtained
for the shorter times that are more typical for
induction tempering. However, work by Semia-
tin and his co-workers (Ref 6, 7) verified the
approach developed by Grange and Baughman
for times as short as 6 s. To do this, samples
2 mm (0.08 in.) thick were quench hardened
and tempered in salt pots. Tempering times
were 6, 60, and 600 s at temperature. It was
Time, s
0 20 40 60 80 100 110
1200
580 °C (1080 °F) 600
Surface temperature, °C
Surface temperature, °F
1000
500
800 400
600 300
400 200
200 100
0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Tempering coil location
Fig. 16 Typical heating cycle for induction-tempered
seamless pipe with a 140 mm (5.5 in.)
outside diameter and a 10 mm (0.42 in.) wall thickness.
Source: Ref 8, 42
 144 / Induction Heat Treating
Fig. 17 Hardness data for 1030, 1050, and 1080 plain carbon steels plotted in terms
of the Grange-Baughman tempering parameter. Source: Ref 3, 8
determined that heating times were on the order
of 3 to 4 s in all cases.
Short-time tempering data obtained by Semi-
atin et al. for SAE 1020, 1042, and 1095
(Table 8) are compared in Fig. 19 (Ref 6, 8)
with base hardness data for SAE 1020, 1050,
and 1080 steel grades obtained by Grange and
Baughman. For the SAE 1042 and 1095 steels,
the trends are very reasonable. However,
short-time SAE 1020 results diverge consider-
ably from the SAE 1020 base hardness curve.
An explanation for this was found in a chemical
analysis of that steel, which revealed 0.22% C,
0.81% Mn, 0.18% Si, 0.014% P, 0.036% S,
0.13% Ni, 0.18% Cr, and 0.046% Mo. This
chemical composition is typical for SAE 1020
except for the manganese, nickel, chromium,
and molybdenum contents, the presence of
which suggests the use of alloy steel scrap dur-
ing steel refining.
The increase in hardness due to these additions
can be estimated from the data in Table 7. The
effect of manganese can be neglected because
its concentration is below the base amount of
0.85 wt%. At a parameter level of 24,000, for
instance, the increase due to the other elements
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Fig. 18 Tempering curves for plain carbon steels plotted in terms of hardness as a
function of the Grange-Baughman tempering parameter. Source: Ref 3, 8
is (0.13) (6) + (0.18) (55) + (0.046) (160) = 18
DPH (HV) points. This hardness increase,
added to the base hardness of 279 DPH
(27 HRC), yields a predicted hardness of
approximately 297 DPH, or 29.5 HRC. Other
calculations of this type result in the prediction
in Fig. 20 (Ref 6), which shows much better
agreement with actual tempering data. Other
short-time tempering data for SAE 4130,
4340, 4620, and 8620 are depicted in Fig. 21
(Ref 6). Agreement between the data and predic-
tions based on the appropriate base hardness
plots (Fig. 18) and the hardness increments
(Table 7) appears to be quite good.
Application of the Grange-Baughman
Parameter to Induction Hardening. The
Grange-Baughman correlation can also be
applied to such continuous heating cycles as
the tempering of the oil-country pipe product
mentioned previously. Complete chemical anal-
ysis of the steel in this case revealed, on the
average, a composition of 0.26% C, 0.23% Si,
1.31% Mn, 0.02% Cr, 0.02% Ni, 0.16% Mo,
and 0.01% V. For the same heating and cooling
cycle discussed earlier, the Grange-Baughman
tempering parameter is found to be equal to
24,940. From Fig. 18, interpolating to 0.26%
C, the base hardness of the equivalent carbon
steel is estimated to be 24 HRC, or 257 DPH.
At a tempering parameter level of 25,000, the
increments in DPH points due to alloying are
(1.31  0.85)30 = 13.8 for manganese, 0 for sil-
icon, 1.1 for chromium, 0.1 for nickel, and 30.4
for molybdenum, resulting in a total predicted
hardness increase of approximately 45 DPH
points. Thus, the DPH hardness is estimated to
be 257 + 45 = 302, equal to an HRC hardness
of approximately 30, which is four points
higher than that ordinarily found for this grade
and processing sequence. This deviation can
be compared with that estimated from the Hol-
lomon-Jaffe correlation (one point on the low
side), which did not account for the different
alloying/residual elements present.
The induction tempering data obtained by
Semiatin and his co-workers (Ref 6–8) add
further credence to the concept of an effective
tempering parameter based on the Grange-
Baughman formulation. In this work, a number
of austenitized and water-quenched bars of the
steels listed in Table 8 were induction tempered.
These bars were 25.4 mm (1 in.) in diameter and
 Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels / 145

152.4 mm (6 in.) long; they were tempered using hardness versus the effective Grange-Baugh- and salt-pot results was greatest for the SAE
a 10 kHz generator at a power setting of 5 kW. man parameter) are shown in Fig. 22 (Ref 6). 1020. Nevertheless, when the SAE 1020 induc-
After being heated to a nominal peak surface The overall decrease in hardness with increas- tion data were compared with the tempering
temperature of 400, 540, or 675  C (750, 1000, ing tempering parameter seen in the isothermal curve prediction based on the Grange-Baughman
or 1250  F), the bars were air cooled. Hard- salt-pot trials (Fig. 19) was replicated in the and the hardness increment factors, the deviation
nesses were measured at the same near-surface induction results. However, the induction sam- was narrowed (Fig. 23) (Ref 6). In fact, the
location as that at which the temperature history ples exhibited somewhat lower hardnesses prediction lay between the induction and the
had been measured for the purpose of calculat- (1 to 3 HRC points) than the salt-pot samples, salt-pot results.
ing the effective tempering parameter. the measurements on which are indicated by The induction tempering data for the alloy
Induction tempering data for the carbon the solid trend lines reproduced here from steels, the chemistries of which are given in
steels listed in Table 8 (in terms of HRC Fig. 19. The difference between the induction Table 8, revealed a trend similar to that for the
carbon steels Fig. 24 (Ref 7). The hardnesses
are lower than those of the corresponding salt-
Table 7 Hardness increment factors for various elements in tempered alloy steels pot-treated samples (Fig. 24). For these steels,
Hardness increment factor at parameter value of: however, the difference is only approximately
Elements(a) Range, % 20,000 22,000 24,000 26,000 28,000 30,000 1 to 2 HRC, which is almost within experimental
scatter.
Manganese 0.85–2.1 35 25 30 30 30 25
Silicon 0.3–2.2 65 60 30 30 30 30 From the aforementioned industrial and labo-
Nickel Up to 4 5 3 6 8 8 6 ratory results, it can be concluded that the
Chromium Up to 1.2 50 55 55 55 55 55 effective tempering parameter offers a useful
Molybdenum(b) Up to 0.35 40 90 160 220 240 210 means of correlating induction temperature-
(20) (45) (80) (110) (120) (105)
Vanadium(c) Up to 0.2 0 30 85 150 210 150 time histories with such mechanical properties
as hardness level.
Note: (a) Factor for boron is 0. (b) If 0.5 to 1.2% Cr is also present, use factors in parentheses. (c) For SAE chromium-vanadium steels; may not
apply when vanadium is the only carbide-forming element present. Source: Ref 3, 8

Effect of Process Variables

Table 8 Chemical analyses of steels used in investigation
Composition, wt% Probably one of the most extensive investi-
Steel C Mn P S Si Cu Sn Ni Cr Mo Al V Co gations of the effects of induction heating vari-
1020 0.22 0.81 0.014 0.036 0.18 0.17 0.010 0.13 0.18 0.046 0.003 0.001 0.005 ables (heating rate, cooling rate, power density,
1042 0.44 0.92 0.025 0.050 0.26 0.029 0.003 0.053 0.078 0.019 0.039 ... 0.002 etc.) and hardenability on tempering response
1095 0.96 0.45 0.023 0.029 0.24 0.013 0.002 0.021 0.094 0.015 0.025 0.002 ... was that conducted by Semiatin, Stutz, and
4130 0.32 0.52 0.012 0.021 0.25 0.11 0.007 0.13 1.04 0.16 0.024 0.005 0.005 Byrer (Ref 7), as briefly summarized in this sec-
4340 0.40 0.76 0.008 0.020 0.28 0.13 0.009 1.62 0.85 0.22 0.039 0.001 0.010
4620 0.17 0.54 0.007 0.016 0.29 0.17 0.009 1.80 0.14 0.26 0.012 0.001 0.033 tion. The investigation demonstrated that rela-
8620 0.19 0.83 0.016 0.025 0.25 0.054 0.004 0.48 0.56 0.19 0.041 0.001 0.006 tively uniform properties could be obtained by
Source: Ref 6
short induction tempering cycles, and the follow-
ing conclusions were determined (Ref 7, 8):

Fig. 20 Comparison of short-time tempering data for 1020 steel (0.22C-0.81Mn-

Fig. 19 Comparison of short-time tempering data for 1020, 1042, and 1095 carbon 0.18Si-0.014P-0.036S-0.13Ni-0.18Cr-0.046Mo) with predictions based on
steels with base hardness curves for 1020, 1050, and 1080 steels from Grange-Baughman base data for 1020 steel and hardness increment factors. Source:
Grange and Baughman. Source: Ref 6, 8 Ref 6, 8

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 146 / Induction Heat Treating

tempering processes is typically much less

than the constant to which this function is
added when deriving the tempering
parameter.

The effect of surface-to-center temperature
differences during induction heating of solid
cross sections for the purpose of tempering
is mitigated, to a large extent, by the con-
duction of heat into the interior after the
power is turned off. Because of heat conduc-
tion, the interior temperature continues to
increase while the surface is cooling, leading
to differences between the peak temperatures
experienced by the surface and center that are
considerably smaller than the steady-state
temperature difference during the heating
cycle. In addition, the effective tempering
time for the central regions of an induction-
heated bar are somewhat greater. These char-
acteristics of the heating process minimize
through-thickness variations in the effective
tempering parameter. Thus, they enable
induction heating to be applied to impart
uniform tempered hardnesses across sections
that have been previously austenitized and
quenched to a uniform hardness.

Induction heating may also be used to
through temper cross sections that have not
been previously hardened uniformly. Such
tempering treatments tend to decrease pre-
existing hardness gradients by an amount that
increases with the effective tempering param-
eter. As-quenched hardness gradients can be
essentially eliminated in induction tempering
processes in which the effective tempering
parameter equals or exceeds the value at
which the tempered surface hardness equals
the as-quenched center hardness of the part.

Effect of Heating Rate. The effect of heating

rate on induction tempering response was estab-
lished by heating hardened 2.5 cm (1.0 in.)
diameter samples of the steels listed in Table 8
using power settings of 2.5, 5.0, and 10 kW.
These power settings gave rise to heating rates
between 3 and 14  C/s (5 and 25  F/s). In all cases,
bars 15.2 cm (6.0 in.) long were heated to a nomi-
nal peak surface temperature of 540  C (1000  F)
and air cooled. Actual measured peak tempera-
tures were between 525 and 550  C (980 and
1020  F). In these experiments, temperature-
versus-time histories were measured at the
same near-surface location as that at which
Fig. 21 Comparison of short-time tempering data with predictions based on Grange-Baughman base hardness curves the hardnesses were taken.
for carbon steels and hardness increment factors. (a) 4130 steel. (b) 4340 steel. (c) 4620 steel. (d) 8620 steel. With these temperature measurements, effec-
For chemical compositions of these steels, see Table 8. Source: Ref 6, 8 tive tempering parameters (of the Grange-
Baughman form) were estimated. These cal-
culations revealed the parameter to vary only

The heating rate during induction tempering larger than that of the heating portion of the between approximately 22,500 (10 kW power
can be varied over a wide range without tempering treatment. setting) and 23,500 (2.5 kW power setting).
noticeably affecting the final tempered hard-
Similarly, for a given heating rate, the The rather small variations in the effective
ness. This is a result of the slow air cooling method of cooling has a second-order effect tempering parameter in these cases can be
that typically follows heat treatment. Because on the effective tempering parameter and thus ascribed to the nearly identical (air) cooling
cooling occurs at a much lower rate than on tempered hardness levels. This behavior is cycle in all experiments. Because the cooling
heating, the contribution of the cooling cycle a consequence of the fact that time enters rate was considerably lower than any of the
to the effective tempering time and hence the the tempering parameter equation as a loga- heating rates, it is apparent that the cooling por-
effective tempering parameter is ordinarily rithm whose magnitude for induction tion made a larger contribution to the effective

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Fig. 22 Comparison of tempering behavior of carbon steels heat treated in salt pots (solid
lines) and by induction (data points). The induction results are plotted in terms of
hardness versus the effective Grange-Baughman parameter. Source: Ref 6, 8
tempering time and thus the effective tempering
parameter.
Examination of tempering data, such as those
shown in Fig. 19, shows that a variation of
500 in the tempering parameter should give
rise to rather small hardness variations (on the
order of 1 HRC point). This hypothesis was
verified by the hardness measurements given
in Table 9. It can be seen that, for each steel,
the hardnesses were nearly independent of the
heating rate (i.e., power setting). If there is a
definite trend, the results suggested a very slight
increase in hardness with heating rate. This
trend is as expected in view of the slight
decrease in the effective tempering parameter
with increasing heating rate.
Effect of Cooling Rate. The influence of
cooling rate following induction heating on
tempering response was also explained by
Semiatin et al. through the application of the
effective tempering parameter. This was done
for a series of 25.4 cm (10 in.) long tubes of
8620 steel that were tempered by heating to
nominal peak temperatures of either 540 or
675  C (1000 or 1250  F) and subsequently
air cooled or water quenched. Heating was done
at a power setting of either 5 or 10 kW. The
process parameters and calculated effective
tempering parameters for this series of trials
are summarized in Table 10.
For a given power setting and peak tempera-
ture, the results in Table 10 demonstrate that
the major effect of cooling rate on the effective
tempering characteristics was to reduce the
effective tempering time. For example, for the
experiments in which tubes were heated to
approximately 540  C (1000  F), using a power
setting of 5 kW, air cooling and water quenching
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Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels / 147
Fig. 23 Comparison of tempering data for 1020 steel given salt-pot and induction
treatments with a prediction based on Grange and Baughman’s 1020
results and hardness increment factors (alloying factors). Source: Ref 8
led to effective tempering parameters of 23,250
and 22,720, respectively. This small parameter
difference, despite the large effective tempering-
time difference (35 versus 9 s), is a result of
the fact that the time variable (t) enters the
tempering parameter equation as log10 t. Also,
the log10 t term is additive to a rather large number
(14.44). The variation of tempering parameter
with cooling method for the other pairs of data in
Table 10 is similar. The variation of tempering
parameter with cooling method following induc-
tion heating correlated well with the measured
midwall thickness hardness values (Table 10). As
expected, the air-cooled specimens exhibited
hardnesses 1 to 2.5 HRC points lower than their
water-quenched counterparts.
The data in Table 10 also further confirm con-
clusions regarding the effect of heating rate on
induction tempering behavior. If the results for
just air-cooled (or water-quenched) specimens
heated to the same nominal peak temperature,
but at different power settings, are compared,
the hardnesses are seen to be nearly identical.
Effect of Temperature Gradients on Tem-
pering Parameter Gradients. The major effect
of induction heating on hardness and property gra-
dients in through-tempered parts arises from the
variation of the temperature-versus-time history
experienced at various locations in the cross sec-
tion. In addition, the existence of nonuniform start-
ing or as-quenched through-thickness hardness
patterns plays an important role. The influence of
induction-heating temperature gradients is dis-
cussed in this section. That of nonuniform initial
hardness is addressed in the next section.
Induction heating of round bars (and parts of
similar geometry) gives rise to distinctive heat-
ing patterns. Typical examples are depicted
in Fig. 25 and 26 for bars 2.54 and 6.35 cm
(1.0 and 2.5 in.) in diameter heated to a nomi-
nal peak temperature of 700  C (1300  F). In
both figures, the measured surface and center
temperature histories for the induction-heated
solid round bars are plotted. The important fea-
tures of these graphs are the following:

The surface temperature exceeds the center
temperature during the heating portion of
the cycle.

Beyond the initial heating transient, a
steady-state temperature difference (DT) is
developed. The magnitude of DT increases
with the power setting.

At the cessation of heating, the surface temper-
ature begins to drop immediately (partially due
to thermal radiation and convection surface
heat losses to the surroundings but primarily
due to thermal conduction toward the center
of the workpiece). In contrast, the center
temperature continues to rise.

Eventually, the center temperature slightly
exceeds the surface temperature, and both
positions cool at approximately the same
rate thereafter.
The aforementioned characteristics play an
important role in determining the difference
in the effective tempering parameter between
the center and surface of induction-tempered
bars.
First, it is important to note that the differ-
ence in peak temperature between the two loca-
tions is considerably less than the steady-state
DT, as revealed by the data in Table 11, which
have been extracted from Fig. 25 and 26.
This peak temperature difference is only
 148 / Induction Heat Treating

approximately one-half the steady-state DT. In

addition, the diffuseness of the center tempera-
ture history gives rise to somewhat larger effec-
tive tempering times. Both of these traits tend
to minimize the variation in effective tempering
parameter between the surface and center loca-
tions. For the heating trials listed in Table 11,
these variations were less than 300 for 2.5 cm
(1.0 in.) diameter bars and less than 1000 for
6.35 cm (2.5 in.) diameter bars.
Based on the results shown in Fig. 19, such
variations in effective tempering parameter
can be expected to produce maximum hardness
variations of 2 HRC points across the cross sec-
tion of uniformly through-hardened steel bars.
Of the two major factors controlling the tem-
pering parameter variation, that is, the varia-
tions in peak temperature and effective
tempering time, the former is surely the more
important. This is because temperature enters
the parameter equation [T*(C + log10 t*)] as a
multiplicative rather than an additive term. For
this reason, gross estimates of the difference
in the tempering parameter and thus predicted
hardnesses based on steady-state DT can be
substantially greater than those based on the
peak temperatures at the surface and center.
Effect of Initial Hardness Pattern on Tem-
pered Hardness Gradients. Besides the tem-
perature distribution prior to quenching,
hardness uniformity through the section in the
as-quenched condition depends, of course, on
the steel hardenability and the quench severity.
Of the alloys used in the investigation, 4130
and 4340 had the highest hardenability, and
hardenability calculations suggested that
2.5 cm (1.0 in.) diameter bars of both steels
and 6.35 cm (2.50 in.) diameter bars of
4340 could be readily through hardened to
practically 100% martensite. Hardness measure-
ments on as-quenched, cross-sectioned samples
supported this conclusion. For the 4130, a
uniform hardness of 52 HRC was obtained.
The hardness for 4340 bars of both diameters
was also fairly uniform; it was 59 HRC.
Based on these measurements and the afore-
mentioned tempering parameter calculations,
the tempered hardnesses of bars of these two
steels would be expected to be fairly uniform.
Fig. 24 Comparison of tempering data for alloy steels given salt-pot and induction treatments with predictions based
This conclusion was supported by the data in
on Grange and Baughman’s carbon steel results and hardness increment factors (alloying factors). (a) 4130
steel. (b) 4340 steel. (c) 4620 steel. (d) 8620 steel. The induction results are plotted in terms of hardness versus the Table 12. Experimental scatter of 1 HRC point
effective Grange-Baughman parameter. Source: Ref 8 tends to mask any effect of tempering parameter

Table 10 Effect of cooling method on hardness of 8620 steel tubes following induction
tempering
Table 9 Effect of heating rate (power input) Peak temperature
Grange-Banghman
on hardness of induction-tempered steels Effective Power Air cool (AC) effective tempering
 
C F tempering time, s setting, kW or water quench (WQ) parameter Hardness, HRC
Hardness, HRC, at power input of:
535 995 35 5.0 AC 23,250 32.8
Alloy 2.5 kW 5 kW 10 kW 548 1018 9 5.0 WQ 22,720 33.8
681 1257 38 5.0 AC 27,500 22.0
1020 30.2 30.7 31.3
678 1252 17 5.0 WQ 26,810 24.0
1042 35.0 35.6 36.6
535 995 30 10.0 AC 23,150 32.9
1095 44.5 44.6 46.4
563 1045 4 10.0 WQ 22,630 34.4
4130 38.4 39.0 40.0
691 1275 31 10.0 AC 27,640 22.8
4340 41.4 41.8 41.4
704 1300 6 10.0 WQ 26,770 25.4
4620 30.6 31.9 31.7
8620 32.2 32.8 33.0 Source: Ref 6, 8

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 Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels / 149

The hardness gradients shown in Fig. 27 for

the low-hardenability steels were carried over,
to a certain degree, in the induction-tempered
hardness distributions. Sample tempered hard-
ness measurements from these experiments
are given in Table 13. The data show that, in
some instances, the hardness gradient has been
substantially decreased or almost eliminated
(e.g., the data for 1095, 4620, and 8620). This
behavior can be rationalized by reference to
Fig. 28, a schematic illustration of the temper-
ing response of starting microstructures of mar-
tensite, bainite, and pearlite; the basis for these
curves is found in the research of Hollomon and
Jaffe (Fig. 13).
In the work of Semiatin et al., the microstruc-
tures in the as-quenched bars actually consisted
of combinations of the three constituents shown
in Fig. 28. However, it was concluded that tem-
pering behavior at various locations could still
be represented by curves such as these; the
lower curves would be used for the interior
locations and the upper curve for surface and
near-surface locations.
Examination of Fig. 28 reveals that, to elimi-
nate hardness gradients in bars of low harden-
ability, large values of the tempering parameter
must be employed. Specifically, the tempering
parameter must be large enough so that the
hardness of the tempered martensite is dropped
at least to the level of the as-quenched hard-
ness of the lower-temperature transformation
products. With this proviso, the results in Table
13 were easily explained. For the 1020 and 1042
steels, tempering gave rise to surface hardnesses
above those of the as-quenched structures at the
centers of the bars, thereby leaving these locations
relatively untempered. On the other hand, the
1095, 4620, and 8620 steels were tempered to give
hardnesses comparable to, or lower than, the
corresponding as-quenched hardnesses at the cen-
ters of bars of these steels. Neglecting the small
differences in the effective tempering parameter
discussed in the previous section, it is therefore
not unexpected that the hardness gradient in the
latter three steels was eliminated, at least to a first
order.

Good Practice in Induction

Tempering
It is possible to harden and temper parts
using the same coil and the same power source.
In some applications, it is a legitimate process
that reduces capital cost and requires less tool-
Fig. 25 Temperature-versus-time histories measured at the surface (solid lines) and center (dashed lines) of ing to be stored and maintained. In other cases,
induction-heated and air-cooled bars of 1042 steel. Power settings during induction heating were (a) 2.5,
(b) 5, and (c) 10 kW. Bars were 2.5 cm (1 in.) in diameter and 15 cm (6.0 in.) long. Source: Ref 7
it may not be the best choice. There are several
reasons why, in many applications, the same
inductor and/or inverter should not be used for
variations on hardness gradients across the diam- patterns measured across 2.5 cm (1.0 in.) diam- both induction hardening and tempering.
eter, which would be very small anyway (a max- eter bars of these steels (Fig. 27). The surface When hardening complex-geometry parts, as
imum gradient of 2 HRC points). hardnesses for these steels were indeed repre- well as components with geometrical irregulari-
In contrast to 4130 and 4340, the other steels sentative of structures of 100% martensite, but ties, and when it is necessary to obtain nonuni-
studied (1020, 1042, 1095, 4620, and 8620) lower subsurface hardnesses (and accompany- form hardness patterns, a hardening inductor
had significantly lower hardenability. This fact ing metallography) established a lack of full may be profiled in a certain way to accommo-
was manifested by as-quenched hardness hardening. date the heat intensity in certain areas. The

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 150 / Induction Heat Treating

70

60
1095

Hardness, HRC
50
1042

40

30

20
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(a) x/r
Fig. 26 Temperature-versus-time histories measured at the surface (solid lines) and center (dashed lines) of
induction-heated and air-cooled bars of 1042 steel. Power setting during induction heating was 15 kW. 45
Bars were 2.5 cm (1 in.) in diameter and 15 cm (6.0 in.) long. Source: Ref 7

40

Hardness, HRC
Table 11 Effect of temperature gradients on tempering parameter gradients during 8620
induction heating
35
Bar diameter Steady-state DT(a) Peak temperature
Effective Effective 4620
   
cm in. Power setting, kW C F Location C F tempering time, s tempering parameter

2.54 1.0 2.5 14 25 Surface 704 1300 35 28,140 30

Center 693 1280 43 27,980 1020
2.54 1.0 5.0 28 50 Surface 710 1310 28 28,120
Center 699 1290 36 28,000
2.54 1.0 10.0 56 100 Surface 718 1325 25 28,270 25
Center 702 1295 34 28,020 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
6.35 2.5 15.0 97 175 Surface 721 1330 36 28,640 (b) x/r
Center 671 1240 74 27,730
(a) Steady-state DT = Tsurface  Tcenter during steady-state heating portion of induction cycle. Source: Ref 7 Fig. 27 Rockwell C hardness profiles in 2.5 cm (1 in.)
diameter steel bar following furnace austeni-
tizing and water quenching. (a) 1042 and 1095 steels. (b)
1020, 4620, and 8620 steels. The hardnesses are plotted
versus the fractional radial distance (x/r) from the center
Table 12 Hardness measurements on induction-tempered bars of high-hardenability steels of the bar (r = 0). Source: Ref 7

Bar diameter Peak surface temperature Hardness, HRC, at:

 
Alloy cm in. Power setting, kW C F Surface Center Table 13 Hardness measurements on
4130 2.54 1.0 2.5 535 995 38.4 38.3 induction-tempered bars of low-
5.0 424 796 44.3 43.9 hardenability steels
5.0 545 1013 39.0 38.9
5.0 677 1250 30.1 30.2 Bar diameter Hardness, HRC, at:
10.0 531 987 40.0 39.9 Alloy cm in. Surface Center
4340 2.54 1.0 2.5 546 1014 41.4 42.0
5.0 413 776 48.0 48.7 1020 2.54 1.0 30.7 23.7
5.0 540 1004 41.8 42.0 1042 2.54 1.0 35.6 27.5
5.0 677 1250 34.3 35.1 6.35 2.5 36.1 24.3
10.0 553 1027 41.4 42.3 1095 2.54 1.0 44.6 43.3
4340 6.35 2.50 5.0 539 1002 40.4 40.9 4620 2.54 1.0 31.9 28.8
10.0 685 1265 33.3 33.4 8620 2.54 1.0 32.8 30.6
15.0 543 1010 42.3 43.4 Note: All samples were heated to a nominal peak surface temperature of
Source: Ref 7 540  C (1000  F) at a power setting of either 5 kW (2.54 cm diam bars)
or 15 kW (6.35 cm diam bars). In all cases, the effective tempering param-
eter at the surface and center locations was 23,000 600. Source: Ref 7

optimal coil field distribution for induction
hardening (which primarily “sees” a nonmag-
netic body because austenitization takes place
above the Ac3 line) may not be the same as
the optimal field distribution for tempering
(because steel is always magnetic when heated
below the Ac1 temperature). Most of the elec-
tromagnetic effects (skin effect, end effect,
proximity effect, etc.) involved in induction
heating have their own subtleties, both qualita-
tive and quantitative, in hardening and temper-
ing (Ref 16, 31).
In tempering, it is often highly desirable to
use significantly lower frequencies than in hard-
ening because of the noticeably smaller values
of d. It is also recommended that in tempering
selectively hardened areas, the temper inductor
should heat not just the hardened region but a
much larger area or, in some cases, even the
entire workpiece in order to provide sufficient
tempering conditions and reduce the radial and
longitudinal tensile residual stresses typically
formed in the transition area. A loosely coupled
multiturn coil can be used for this purpose. Since
steels retain their magnetic properties, loose cou-
pling typically does not appreciably reduce coil
electrical efficiency, because a magnetic body
has a greater tendency to attract a magnetic
field than does a nonmagnetic body. However,
an ability to provide a uniform and gentle heat-
ing is imperative in induction tempering.
As noted, tempering calls for much lower
power densities (6 to 15 times lower) than hard-
ening. This is because it is important to avoid
the occurrence of hot spots in induction

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tempering. Induction hardening is often more
forgiving in this respect. Too high a power den-
sity could also cause the surface temperature to
exceed the desirable tempering conditions,
which could result in an unacceptably soft sur-
face and an inverse hardening distribution.
Because output power needed for hardening
is substantially greater than for tempering,
when the same inverter is used for both pro-
cesses, the use of very low powers in tempering
may pose some challenges, because the output
power of some inverters is hard to control when
they operate at a small fraction (3 to 5%) of
their nominal power.
To induction temper gearlike components,
the choice of process parameters and coil
geometry is primarily dictated by the need to
provide enough energy to the root of the tooth
without overheating its tip. However, there are
several factors that complicate this task, includ-
ing the following (Ref 16):

There is a poor electromagnetic coupl-
ing between the encircling-type coil and the
tooth root. Because the skin effect is often
highly pronounced in tempering, an un-
equal electromagnetic coupling poses some
challenges in generating sufficient heat in
the root area.

If the same frequency is used for hardening
and tempering, then a combination of using
lower power densities and dealing with mag-
netic steels in all temperature applications
leads to a highly pronounced skin effect dur-
ing induction tempering, which is associated
with a tendency to overheat tooth tips.

The substantial mass of metal located just below
the root results in an intense heat sink that com-
plements the reduced electromagnetic coupling
and complicates the task of obtaining uniform
heating of the tooth profile.
These are some of the reasons why the majority
of gears are tempered in furnaces. Still, some
gears and gearlike components are tempered
by induction using conventional low-frequency
solenoid coils or C-core inductors (if there is a
Starting Microstructure
Martensite
Bainite
Pearlite
Hardness
Tempering parameter
Fig. 28 Schematic illustration of the tempering behav-
ior (in terms of hardness versus tempering
parameter) of a hypothetical steel initially heat treated
to produce a microstructure of martensite, bainite, or pe-
arlite. Source: Ref 2
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Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels / 151
hole of sufficient size). Threads are commonly
tempered by induction.
Because tempering is a diffusion-type
process, the time needed for its completion
may be longer than that for hardening and
quenching. Thus, if the same system is used
for hardening and tempering, the power utiliza-
tion factor may suffer.
Example 1: Embrittlement from Induction
Tempering Cycle. Consider the example of
an axle shaft that was induction tempered in a
scanning operation using the same coil and
equipment used for hardening. After the hard-
ening operation was completed and an average
effective case depth (40 HRC) of 3.5 mm
(0.1 in.) was obtained, the shaft was scanned
in the opposite direction at a reduced power,
with no quench, in order to temper. The indi-
cated surface temperature was approximately
155  C (310  F) during this tempering portion
of the cycle. The shaft was then scanned at a
fast rate in the original direction with the
quench only in order to cool the part. The fre-
quency used was 4 kHz. Shafts processed in
this manner were found to be low in strength
and ductility, or essentially brittle.
Figure 29 shows the bending strength of the
induction-tempered shafts versus a traditional
furnace temper at approximately the same tem-
perature (Ref 43). There is a considerable dif-
ference in strength and ductility between the
shafts tempered by these two methods: the
strength of the induction-tempered part is
approximately half the strength of the furnace-
Fig. 29 Bending strength of induction-tempered shafts versus a traditional furnace temper at approximately the same
temperature. Source: Ref 43
tempered part, and the ductility is only approx-
imately one-quarter. With furnace tempering,
the hardness was reduced approximately 2 to
3 HRC compared to the as-quenched hardness.
However, in this particular induction tempering
process, the hardness was nearly the same as
the as-quenched hardness, which is reasonable
given the short duration of the tempering cycle.
This particular induction tempering cycle was
found to cause embrittlement of the shaft. The
embrittlement was not reversible upon a
subsequent furnace temper or even upon reinduc-
tion hardening. Figure 30 shows the fracture ori-
gin surface of the furnace-tempered shaft (Ref
43). The fracture mode is intergranular, with some
dimple-rupture-type fracture, which would be
considered normal. Figure 31 shows the fracture
origin for the induction-tempered part (Ref 43).
Again, the fracture mode is intergranular, but this
time very little dimple-rupture-type fracture is
present.
Properties of Tempered
Components
As example 1 makes clear, it is important to
examine the mechanical properties and the part
performance. When validating an induction
tempering cycle, more than just hardness must
be considered. This section reviews the effect
of tempering on properties of axle shafts and
spindles. A comparison also is given of furnace
and induction tempering.
 152 / Induction Heat Treating
Effect of Furnace Tempering Tempera-
tures on Properties of Induction-Hardened
Axle Shafts. Specifics of the induction harden-
ing of axle shafts and their mechanical proper-
ties also are discussed in a separate article,
“Induction Case Hardening of Axle Shafts,” in
this Volume (Ref 44). As a further example,
Fig. 32 shows torsional test data for an induction-
hardened semifloat axle shaft made from SAE
1038 steel (Ref 43). These shafts were tested
in the untempered condition as well as with
several different tempering temperatures. Tem-
pering was done at 150, 230, and 315  C
(300, 450, and 600  F) using a furnace.
The data show that the torsional ultimate
strength initially increases for shafts tempered
at 150  C (300  F) compared to shafts tested
in the untempered condition. As the tempering
temperature increases to 230  C (450  F), the
torsional ultimate strength decreases to that
of the untempered shafts. By further increas-
ing the tempering temperature to 315  C
(600  F), the ultimate strength decreases even
more. The torsional yield strength, as measured
by the Johnson elastic limit (JEL), the point
where a 50% change in slope from the elastic
portion of the load-versus-deflection curve
intersects the plastic portion of the curve,
Fig. 30 Fracture origin surface of the furnace-tempered
shaft. The fracture mode is intergranular, with
some dimple-rupture-type fracture, which would be con-
sidered normal. Source: Ref 43
Fig. 31 Fracture origin for the induction-tempered part.
Like Fig. 30, the fracture mode is intergranular,
but this time very little dimple-rupture-type fracture is pres-
ent. Source: Ref 43
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increases only slightly when tempered at
150  C (300  F) compared to the untempered
condition. By further increasing the tempering
temperature to 230 and 315  C (450 and
600  F), the yield strength increases more
significantly and becomes closer to the ultimate
strength. The greatest difference between the
torsional ultimate and yield strengths occurs at
the 150  C (300  F) tempering temperature,
followed by the untempered shafts. At 230
and 315  C (450 and 600  F), this difference
decreases. It would be logical to expect ductil-
ity to behave similarly. However, if one exam-
ines the ductility of the shafts, as measured by
the degrees of twist to failure, it is evident that the
150 and 230  C (300 and 450  F) tempering
temperatures provide the highest results. At
these temperatures, the results are nearly
double those in the untempered condition.
From the data shown, it appears that tem-
pering these SAE 1038 axle shafts at 150 to
230  C (300 to 450  F) offers a benefit with
respect to torsional strength and ductility.
Tempering at these temperatures provides the
maximum torsional ultimate strength, the max-
imum torsional yield strength, and the maxi-
mum ductility.
Figure 33 shows the torsion fatigue life ver-
sus tempering temperature for the same SAE
1038 axle shafts (Ref 43). These shafts were
1600
Torsion strength (MPa) and degrees of twist
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0 icant decrease in life as the tempering temperature
0 50
Fig. 32
450
400
350
Fatigue life, cycles × 1000
300
250
200
150
100
50
0 0
0 50
Fig. 33
tested under fully reversed torsional fatigue.
The results show a modest increase in fatigue
life for the shafts tempered at 150  C (300  F)
versus the untempered shafts. However, the
shafts tempered at 230  C (450  F) exhibited a
significant decrease in life, and those tempered
at 315  C (600  F) had less than 10% of the life
of the untempered shafts. The large decrease in
life is likely due to the decrease in residual
compressive stress as a result of the elevated
tempering temperatures.
Figure 34 shows the bending strength versus
tempering temperature for the SAE 1038 axle
shafts (Ref 43). The results are somewhat
similar to the previous torsion results. The
primary difference is that the bending ultimate
strength does not significantly change with
the tempering temperature. However, the
bending yield strength, or JEL, does increase
with tempering temperature, similar to what
was observed in the torsion data. The largest
spread between the bending ultimate and yield
strengths is in the untempered condition,
which is contrary to what may be expected.
Leaving the shafts in this condition prior to
mechanical straightening can be beneficial,
because the yield strength is at a minimum
and the ultimate strength is at a maximum.
This would allow the shaft to deform perma-
nently at a lower load and provide a large
margin of safety before reaching the ultimate
strength. This condition may also be expected
Ultimate to provide a reasonable amount of energy-
absorption capability under bending impact
conditions. However, a later example shows
that this is not the case.
Figure 35 shows the rotating-bending fatigue
Yield
versus tempering temperature for the SAE 1038
shafts (Ref 43). The results show that the maxi-
mum fatigue life is achieved in the untempered
condition. There is a moderate decrease in fatigue
life when tempering at 150  C (300  F) versus the
Twist untempered condition. However, there is a signif-
100 150 200 250 300 350 increases above 150  C (300  F). At 315  C (600
Tempering temperature, °C 
F), the rotating-bending fatigue life is less than
10% of that in the untempered condition.
Torsional test data for an induction-hardened
From what has been shown so far, the best
semifloat axle shaft made from SAE 1038 steel
furnace tempered 1h. Source: Ref 43 tempering temperature for the SAE 1038 shafts
40
35
Ultimate
30
Bending strength, kN
25
Life
20
Yield
15
10
5
100 150 200 250 300 350 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Tempering temperature, °C Tempering temperature, °C
Torsion fatigue life versus tempering tempera- Fig. 34 Bending strength versus tempering temperature
ture for the SAE 1038 axle shafts furnace tem- for the SAE 1038 axle shafts furnace tempered
pered 1h. Source: Ref 43 1h. Source: Ref 43
 Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels / 153

in torsion appears to be approximately 150  C increases slightly at 150  C (300  F) and then 315  C (600  F) tempering temperature. This is
(300  F). However, in bending, the best condi- again at 230  C (450  F), where it levels off. the only condition that exhibited any plasticity.
tion appears to be the untempered state. In both The ductility, as measured by degrees of twist, Figure 39 shows the rotating-bending fatigue
torsion and bending, elevated tempering tem- is relatively constant under all conditions results for the SAE 1050M shafts (Ref 43). The
peratures appear to cause a significant reduction except at 315  C (600  F), where it nearly dou- results show a sharp decrease in life when
in fatigue life. The only exception is at 150  C bles. The optimum condition for torsional going from the untempered condition to tem-
(300  F) when the shafts are loaded in torsion. strength and ductility is the highest tempering pering at 150  C (300  F). The life in the latter
For these shafts, the selection of a tempering temperature. condition is approximately 25% of that in
temperature is a compromise, depending on Figure 37 shows the fully reversed torsional the former condition. At 230 and 315  C
whether ultimate strength, yield strength, or fatigue results for the SAE 1050M shafts (450 and 600  F), the rotating-bending life
fatigue life is most important in torsion or bend- (Ref 43). These shafts were run at the same continues to decrease. At 315  C (600  F), the
ing. Induction-hardened SAE 1035 and 1038 stress level as the previous SAE 1038 shafts. life is approximately 10% of that at the untem-
axle shafts have been produced without temper- Unlike the SAE 1038 shafts, the fatigue life pered condition.
ing. The SAE 1035 shafts were completely of the SAE 1050M shafts steadily declines Purely with regard to torsional and bending
untempered, and the SAE 1038 shafts were with increasing tempering temperature. The strength, the best condition for the SAE 1050M
selectively tempered based on hardness to fatigue life at 315  C (600  F) is approximately shafts is at the 315  C (600  F) tempering
reduce any risk of cracking after induction 25% of the life in the untempered condition. temperature. This offers the highest strength
hardening. The tendency for induction-hardened This decrease in life is not quite as drastic as and ductility. With regard to fatigue, the best
parts to crack is increased by increasing carbon that of the SAE 1038 steel. The fatigue life of condition is the untempered condition. However,
content and hardenability. the SAE 1050M axle shafts is also noticeably this is not practical because of the risk of
Figure 36 shows the torsional strength versus lower than that of the SAE 1038 shafts, except cracking after induction hardening. This is a
tempering temperature properties for a different at the highest tempering temperature. The opti- good example of the way a tempering process
semifloat axle shaft produced from SAE 1050M mum condition for torsional fatigue life is in sometimes involves a compromise between
steel (Ref 43). The modification of the steel the untempered condition. conflicting effects. The best compromise is
grade is an increase in manganese to 0.80 to Figure 38 shows the bending strength for the the 150 or 230  C (300 or 450  F) tempering
1.10%. In the untempered condition, the shaft SAE 1050M shafts tempered at the various condi- temperature, depending on whether strength or
has the lowest torsional yield and ultimate tions (Ref 43). The results show a gradual increase fatigue life is more important.
strength. The torsional ultimate strength in the bending ultimate strength with increas- Tempering SAE 1038 and 1050M semifloat
increases somewhat at 150  C (300  F) and ing tempering temperature. The bending yield axle shafts can offer some benefits to static tor-
then remains constant from 230 to 315  C strength is the same as the bending ultimate sional and bending properties. However, with
(450 to 600  F). The torsional yield strength strength for all of the conditions except the one exception, tempering degrades both the tor-
sional and bending fatigue life. Although tem-
120
pering may affect a component in a defined
90 manner for a given load, this does not necessar-
80
100
ily mean it will have a similar effect with a dif-
70 ferent material, part configuration, or load.
Fatigue life, cycles × 1000

Sometimes the effects can be opposite to each

Fatigue life, cycles

60 80

50
Life other for different load conditions, and the
60 design may end up being a compromise in order
40
Life to satisfy all conditions.
40
30 Figure 40 shows an example of another
20 induction-hardened sample tested under bend-
20
10 ing (Ref 18). The sample is a round SAE
0 0
1038 bar with a shoulder or radius near the
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Tempering temperature, °C
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 middle, representative of a semifloat axle shaft.
Tempering temperature, °C
The test data are shown in Fig. 41 as strength,
Fig. 35 Rotating-bending fatigue versus tempering tem- impact energy, and fatigue life versus temper-
perature for the SAE 1038 shafts furnace tem- Fig. 37 Fully reversed torsional fatigue results for the
ing temperature (Ref 18). Both the bending ulti-
SAE 1050M shafts. Source: Ref 43
pered 1h. Source: Ref 43 mate strength and yield strength appear to
remain relatively constant over the range of
1400
Torsional strength (MPa) and degrees of twist

50
Ultimate
1200 45 180
Ultimate
40 160
1000
Yield Yield 140
Bending strength, kN

35
800
30 120
Fatigue life, h

600 25 100
Life
20 80
400
15 60

200 10 40
Twist
5 20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
0 0
Tempering temperature, °C 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Tempering temperature, °C Tempering temperature, °C

Fig. 36 Torsional strength versus tempering tempera-

ture properties for a different semifloat axle Fig. 38 Bending strength for the SAE 1050M shafts Fig. 39 Rotating-bending fatigue results for the SAE
shaft produced from SAE 1050M steel. Source: Ref 43 tempered at various conditions. Source: Ref 43 1050M shafts. Source: Ref 43

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 154 / Induction Heat Treating

tempering temperatures. This is slightly dif- agreement with the previous shaft data. The impact resistance because of the large spread
ferent from the actual SAE 1038 semifloat impact energy is constant up to 175  C (350  F) between the yield and ultimate strength. How-
shaft data previously shown. The fatigue life and then begins to increase above that. With the ever, the data generated here does not support
is constant up to 175  C (350  F) but decreases previous shaft data, it was suspected that the that conclusion.
rapidly above that. This is in reasonable untempered condition may provide the greatest Figure 42 shows data from an SAE 1040
induction-hardened test shaft tempered at
various temperatures and tested in torsion
(Ref 43). This information is similar to what
Load was previously presented for the SAE 1038 axle
shafts. However, the test shafts are fully
1.25 in. (31.75 mm)
machined with a reduced-gage section in the
R =0.09 in. (2.29 mm) middle and a larger-diameter spline on both
Induction pattern ends. The torsional properties are plotted on
the vertical axis, and the tempering temperature
1 in. is shown on the horizontal axis. Compared to
1.6 in. (40.6 mm) diam (25.4 mm)
diam
the untempered condition, the torsional ultimate
1 in. (25.4 mm) strength increases slightly at 150  C (300  F)
and then decreases at tempering temperatures
above that. The torsional yield strength also
3 in. (76.2 mm) 3.75 in. (95.25 mm) increases slightly at 150  C (300  F) and then
increases above that. The ductility, or degrees
of twist, increases with the tempering tempera-
6 in. (152.4 mm) ture, reaches a maximum at 200  C (390  F),
and then drops back down. Figure 43 shows
Fig. 40 Example of another induction-hardened sample tested under bending. Source: Ref 18 the same data for an SAE 1541 test shaft. The
curves of the torsional properties versus the
20 tempering temperature appear to be nearly
identical to the previous SAE 1040 curves
18
(Ref 43).
16 Figures 44 and 45 show the fully reversed
Slow bend ultimate torsional fatigue data for the same SAE 1040
Fatigue life,
cycles × 1000 14 and 1541 test shafts (Ref 43). The SAE 1040
12
shafts exhibit a large increase in life at 200  C
Impact energy,
ft • lb × 100 Torsional fatigue B50 life at 470 MPa, cycles × 100 12
10 Slow bend
(J × 135.6)
yield
8 10

Bending strength, Fatigue life at 7000 lb Life

lb × 1000 6 8
(31,137.4 N)
(N × 4448.2)
4
Impact 6

2 energy
4
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 2
(–18) (38) (93) (149) (204) (260) (316) (371) (427)
Tempering temperature, °C (°F) 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Tempering temperature, °C
Fig. 41 Strength, impact energy, and fatigue life versus tempering temperature of induction-hardened round test bar
(1038 steel) with effective case depth of 1.52 mm (0.060 in.) to 40 HRC. Source: Ref 18
Fig. 44 Fully reversed torsional fatigue data for SAE
1040 test shafts. Source: Ref 43
Torsional strength, N/m × 1000, degrees of twist × 100

7
Torsional strength, N/m × 1000, degrees of twist × 100

Torsional fatigue B50 fatigue life at 513 MPa, cycles × 1000

Ultimate 8 5
6
7 4.5
Ultimate
5 4
6
3.5
4 5
3

3 4 2.5
Yield
Twist Yield
2
2 3 Life
Twist 1.5
2
1 1

1 0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 0
0
Tempering temperature, °C 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Tempering temperature, °C Tempering temperature, °C

Fig. 42 Torsional strength of SAE 1040 induction-

hardened test shaft tempered at various tem- Fig. 43 Torsional strength of SAE 1541 test shaft ver- Fig. 45 Fully reversed torsional fatigue data for SAE
peratures and tested in torsion. Source: Ref 43 sus the tempering temperature. Source: Ref 43 1541 test shafts. Source: Ref 43

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 Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels / 155

(390  F), compared to the untempered condition Figure 46 shows the torsional fatigue life impact conditions (Ref 18). The material was
and those tempered at 150  C (300  F). At tem- versus tempering temperature for several differ- SAE 15B35, quenched and tempered to 229 to
pering temperatures above 200  C (390  F), the ent shafts (Ref 18). The shafts were tested at 269 HB and with the radius induction hardened
fatigue life decreases, and at 260  C (500  F), different torques, so the numeric values from to an effective case depth of 2.54 mm (1 in.)
the life is approximately equal to the untempered one shaft to the next are not directly compara- and a hardness of 40 HRC. This material, pro-
condition. Even though the static torsional ble. However, comparing the trend from one cessed in this way, represents that used in a front
properties are similar for the SAE 1040 and group to the next is valid. It can be seen that wheel spindle, where the induction-hardened
1541 shafts, the fatigue life is much different. for most of the SAE 1035 to 1040 shafts, the case is normally induction tempered back to
With the SAE 1541 shafts, the fatigue life fatigue life increases from the untempered 41 to 48 HRC. Various tempering temperatures,
does not increase at a tempering temperature condition to approximately 200  C (390  F). from no temper, shown at 25  C (75  F), to
of 200  C (390  F) but rather remains steady However, the degree of the increase varies 430  C (800  F), were used. The bending impact
up to this temperature. Above 200  C (390  F), greatly, from insignificant to very significant. data are shown in Fig. 48 (Ref 18). The data
the fatigue life does begin to drop off, similar Variability is always present when running show that the bending strength starts to decrease
to the SAE 1040 shafts. With both materials, static or cyclic tests on components. Because above 180  C (350  F). The surface hardness
there is no significant degradation in life until of this, the effect of tempering may be different decreases slightly at 180  C (350  F) and then
the tempering temperature is above 260  C from one test to another. The more data gener- decreases more rapidly above that. Tempering
(500  F). This is different from the SAE 1038 ated, especially from different lots of material, at 345 to 430  C (650 to 800  F) provides
semifloat axle shaft data previously shown, where the clearer the picture will be. 41 to 48 HRC hardness. The bending yield
the life degraded at a much lower tempering Spindles. Figure 47 shows a U-notched test strength, shown as the JEL, increases to a maxi-
temperature. bar that was tested under three-point bending mum at 275  C (525  F) and then falls off.
The absorbed impact energy is steady up to
260  C (500  F) and then increases slightly from
(G) SAE 1035 semifloat
345 to 430  C (650 to 800  F).
24 The data show that tempering at 345 to 430  C
22 (650 to 800  F) does maximize the absorbed
(F) SAE 1038 full float impact energy. The gain is approximately 35%.
20 Tempering within this range also increases the
18 yield strength compared to no tempering or a
low-temperature temper, while the ultimate
16 strength is lower.
Fatigue life,
cycles × 10,000 14 Figure 49 shows the bending fatigue life of
(curves E–G) (E) SAE 1038 full float actual SAE 15B35 induction-hardened spindles
12 versus the induction power setting (Ref 18).
Fatigue life, Also shown is the hardness at each power
10
cycles × 100,000 (D) SAE 1038 semifloat setting, which can be equated to the furnace
(curves A–D) 8 tempering temperatures in the previous figure.
(C) SAE 1038 semifloat The maximum fatigue life is in the untempered
6
condition, and there is no change up to 180  C
4 (350  F). Above this temperature, the fatigue
(B) SAE 1040 cold-drawn bar life drops off very rapidly. The life at 42 HRC
2
(A) SAE 1541 hot rolled bar is approximately 25% of that in the untempered
0 condition.
(0) (100) (200) (300) (400) (500) (600) (700) (800) By induction hardening and tempering the
–18 38 93 149 204 260 316 371 427
spindle back to 41 to 48 HRC, the yield
Tempering temperature, (°F)°C
strength and impact energy are maximized;
however, the fatigue life is significantly reduced
Fig. 46 Torsional fatigue life versus tempering temperature for several different shafts. Source: Ref 18
compared to a low-temperature temper or no
temper. The designer needs to be aware of this
and decide which criteria are most important
for the application.
Load
Induction Tempering versus Furnace Tem-
pering. There are a number of studies related to
a comparison of components having different
conditions: as-quenched versus furnace tem-
pered versus induction tempered. One such
study was conducted in Germany by Madler
0.425 in. (10.8 mm) and Grosch (Ref 39). Specimens of three plain
carbon steels and three low-alloy steels with
different carbon content were induction hard-
ened to varying case depths, followed by
conventional furnace tempering (180  C, or
R = 0.09 in. (2.29 mm)
360  F, for 2 h) and induction tempering (peak
temperature was 250  C, or 480  F, with a heat-
2 in. (50.8 mm) ing rate of 46  C/s, or 83  F/s). A third group of
specimens was evaluated in the as-quenched
U-notched test bar that was tested under three-point bending impact conditions. 64.5 mm (2.5 in.) bar, 13  condition. Table 14 shows the chemical compo-
Fig. 47
13 mm (0.5  05 in.). Source: Ref 18 sition of the investigated steels. Steels with

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 156 / Induction Heat Treating

higher carbon content were selected to examine

the influence of high-carbon martensite and Impact bending
retained austenite. Most of the specimens were 10
ultimate strength
60
normalized after mechanical processing, the
exceptions being the Ck45 specimens, which
Bending strength,

Surface hardness, HRC

already had a mixed ferritic-pearlitic micro- lb × 1000 8
structure. The 100Cr6 specimens were annealed. (N × 4448.2) Hardness 50
After tempering, the parts were air cooled.
Table 15 shows the case depths of the investi- Impact energy, 6
gated steels. Hardness profiles of the 10 mm ft • lb × 100
Impact bending 40
(0.4 in.) diameter parts in as-quenched condi- (J × 135.6)
yield strength
tion versus furnace tempered versus induction 4
tempered are shown in Fig. 50. The hardness
profiles for induction- and furnace-tempered 30
parts are nearly identical. 2
Impact energy
Tests were performed to determine the bend-
ing strength of the various materials (Ref 39).
The study revealed that the bending strength 0 20
(0) (100) (200) (300) (400) (500) (600) (700) (800)
for the tempered samples versus the untempered
–18 38 93 149 204 260 316 371 427
samples was substantially increased for medium-
Tempering temperature, °C (°F)
carbon steels regardless of the tempering method
(Fig. 51). In contrast, steels with higher carbon
Fig. 48 Bending impact data from U-notched bar of SAE 15B35 steel, quenched and tempered to 229 to 269 HB.
contents showed lower bending strength, and Induction-hardened effective case depth of 2.54 mm (0.100 in.) to 40 HRC. Source: Ref 18
the difference between the untempered and tem-
pered samples was not as significant.
The results of the impact tests are summar- 200
ized in Fig. 52 (Ref 39). The results mirror Same hardness as 350 °F (177 °C) furnace temper
the bending-strength data. The toughness of 180
medium-carbon steels was increased apprecia- 160
bly by both tempering methods. The steels with 54 HRC 53 HRC
140
higher carbon contents, in particular the 100Cr6 Same hardness as 650 °F (343 °C)
steel, showed a considerably lower increase in 120 furnace temper
toughness by tempering, but, in general, the Fatigue life,
cycles × 1000 100
conventional and induction tempering were
47 HRC
approximately equal. 80 Same hardness as 800 °F
46 HRC (427 °C) furnace
60 47 HRC
temper
40
Final Remarks 44 HRC
42 HRC
20

The decision whether to temper or not tem- 0

per an induction-hardened part and what tem- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
pering method and process settings should be Induction temper power, kW/s
used depends on the application specifics. In
general, tempering decreases hardness (exclud- Fig. 49 Bending fatigue life of actual SAE 15B35 induction-hardened spindles versus the induction power setting.
ing secondary-hardening cases) and residual Source: Ref 18
stress but increases ductility and impact resis-
tance (excluding cases when an embrittlement Table 14 Chemical composition and hardness of the investigated materials
occurs). The effect of tempering on other
Chemical composition, wt%
mechanical properties is not as well defined
Vickers
and can vary, depending on the specific loading Steel grade C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Al Cu Ni V N hardness, HV 10
conditions, geometry of the component, its ... ... ...
Ck45 1.1191 0.45 0.26 0.57 0.017 0.011 0.11 0.01 0.1 0.003 242
functionality, and the steel grade. For this rea- Cf53 1.1213 0.56 0.29 0.69 0.009 0.016 ... ... 0.032 ... ... ... 0.011 190
son, it is best to validate the effects of temper- Ck67 1.1744 0.7 0.29 0.79 0.016 0.025 0.21 0.02 0.031 0.02 0.03 ... ... 210
ing on the actual part by using the anticipated 42CrMo4 1.7225 0.4 0.24 0.71 0.014 0.023 1.03 0.17 ... ... ... ... ... 195
50CrMo4 1.7228 0.51 0.23 0.68 0.01 0.017 1.08 0.26 0.027 0.08 0.06 ... ... 208
service conditions. ... ...
100Cr6 1.3505 0.97 0.26 0.31 0.012 0.008 1.52 0.05 0.029 0.13 0.14 259
Furnace tempering is a well-proven and
robust process. It can be done using the batch
process or the continuous process. The batch
process requires that parts are accumulated Table 15 Case depth of hardened steels in tempering investigation
after hardening and then moved to the temper- Steel grade Limiting hardness, HV 1 Case hardness depth (n = 3), mm
ing operation. However, it is important to con- Ck45 550 ... 1.1 0.08 1.6 0.10 2.7 0.05 ...
sider furnace loading and to make certain all Cf53 650 ... ... 1.6 0.20 2.2 0.20 Through hardened
parts within a load reach the proper temperature Ck67 675 0.7 0.01 1.0 0.04 1.7 0.06 ... ...
42CrMo4 500 ... 1.3 0.04 1.9 0.03 2.5 0.19 ...
for the specified amount of time. The continu- ... ...
50CrMo4 600 1.0 0.01 1.7 0.07 2.5 0.07
ous process with an overhead furnace and con- 100Cr6 675 0.5 0.02 1.2 0.02 1.8 0.05 ... ...
veyor would provide in-line capability.

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 Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels / 157

950 950
Cf53 Case depth: 1.6 mm 50CrMo4 Case depth: 1.7 mm
850 850
Vickers hardness, HV

Vickers hardness, HV
750 750

650 650

550 550

450 450

350 350
As-quenched As-quenched
250 Tempered at 180 °C 250 Tempered at 180 °C
Induction tempered Induction tempered
150 150
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
(a) Distance from surface, mm (b) Distance from surface, mm

950 950
Ck67 Case depth: 1.6 mm 100Cr6 Case depth: 1.8 mm
850 850
Vickers hardness, HV

750 750

Vickers hardness, HV
650 650

550 550

450 450

350 350
As-quenched As-quenched
250 Tempered at 180 °C 250 Tempered at 180 °C
Induction tempered Induction tempered
150 150
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
(c) Distance from surface, mm (d) Distance from surface, mm

Fig. 50 Hardness profiles in 10 mm (0.4 in.) diameter specimens of induction-hardened steels. (a) Cf53. (b) 50CrMo4. (c) Ck67. (d) 100Cr6. Source: Ref 39

Induction tempering offers a single-part pro- to higher-temperature/shorter-time tempering 2. J.H. Hollomon and L.D. Jaffe, Time-
cessing. Its in-line capability can be very ben- could be different than parts subjected to Temperature Relations in Tempering Steel,
eficial in eliminating any delayed cracking lower-temperature/longer-time tempering. Trans. AIME, Vol 162, 1945, p 223
issues, because it minimizes the time between Although, in some cases, furnace and induc- 3. R.A. Grange and R.W. Baughman, Trans.
hardening and tempering. Because of econom- tion tempering methods may provide parts with ASM, Vol 48, 1956, p 165
ics, individual part traceability, and manu- slightly different properties, it does not mean 4. R.A. Grange, C.R. Hribal, and L.F. Porter,
facturing flexibility, induction tempering is that one tempering method is always better than Hardness of Tempered Martensite in Car-
becoming more prevalent. It can greatly another. It is application specific. The ultimate bon and Low-Alloy Steels, Metall. Trans.
reduce the tempering time as well as decrease proof of any production process is how well A, Vol 8, 1977, p 1775–1785
the floor space needed. Induction tempering the component performs in testing and actual 5. G. Krauss, Steels: Heat Treatment and Pro-
is used in many applications; however, more service. cessing Principles, ASM International, 2005
care is needed to ensure proper results. With 6. S.L. Semiatin, D.E. Stutz, and T.G. Byrer,
induction tempering, the results are achieved Induction Tempering of Steel, Part I:
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
in a matter of seconds or dozens of seconds Development of an Effective Tempering
versus hours. When short tempering times are Some of the materials in this article were Parameter, J. Heat Treat., Vol 4 (No. 1),
applied, it is imperative to have closer control adapted from material previously published in American Society for Metals, June 1985,
of process parameters and to assure proper part S.L. Semiatin and D.E. Stutz, Induction Heat p 39–46
positioning in respect to the induction coil to Treatment of Steel, ASM International, 1986, 7. S.L. Semiatin, D.E. Stutz, and T.G. Byrer,
avoid excessive variations in the tempering along with the research and design data accu- Induction Tempering of Steel, Part 2:
results. mulated by the authors as well as materials Effect of Process Variables, J. Heat Treat.,
The decision as to which tempering process mentioned in the reference list. Vol 4 (No. 1), American Society for
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show that, in some cases, mechanical properties 8. S.L. Semiatin and D.E. Stutz, Induction
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 158 / Induction Heat Treating

5000 5000
Cf53 50CrMo4
4500 4500

Bending-crack stress, N/mm

Bending-crack stress, N/mm

4000 4000
As-quenched
As-quenched
3500 Tempered at 180 °C 3500 Tempered at 180 °C
Induction tempered
3000 3000 Induction tempered

2500 2500

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
1.6 2.2 Through hardened 1.0 1.7 2.5
Case depth, mm Case depth, mm
(a) (b)

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Ck67 100Cr6
4500 4500
Bending-crack stress, N/mm

Bending-crack stress, N/mm

4000 4000

3500 3500

3000 As-quenched 3000 As-quenched

Tempered at 180 °C Tempered at 180 °C
2500 2500
Induction tempered Induction tempered
2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0.7 1.0 1.6 0.5 1.2 1.8
(c) Case depth, mm (d) Case depth, mm

Fig. 51 Bending-crack stresses in 10 mm (0.4 in.) diameter specimens of induction-hardened steels. (a) Cf53. (b) 50CrMo4. (c) Ck67. (d) 100Cr6. Source: Ref 39

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 Tempering of Induction Hardened Steels / 159

350 300
Ck45 42CrMo4
300 250
As-quenced
250 Tempered at 180 °C 200
Impact work

Impact work
Induction tempered
200
150
150
100
100
As-quenced
As-quenced
50 50 Tempered atat180
Tempered 180°C
°C
Induction tempered
Induction tempered
0 0
1.1 1.6 2.7 1.3 1.9 2.5
(a) Case depth, mm (b) Case depth, mm

300 300
Ck67 100Cr6
250 250

200 200
Impact work

Impact work
As-quenced
Tempered at 180 °C As-quenced
150 150
Induction tempered Tempered at 180 °C
100 100 Induction tempered

50 50

0 0
0.7 1.0 1.7 0.5 1.2 1.8
(c) Case depth, mm (d) Case depth, mm

Fig. 52 Impact work in 10 mm (0.4 in.) diameter specimens of induction-hardened steels. (a) Ck45. (b) 42CrMo4. (c) Ck67. (d) 100Cr6. Source: Ref 39

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