Dept.

of Geology

APLIKASI GEOLOGI STRUKTUR

DALAM EKSPLORASI,
PENGEMBANGAN DAN
KEREKAYASAAN

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

Eksplorasi Mineral
(Economic Mineral)

Geologi Eksplorasi Sumber

Daya Energi
Struktur
(Oil & Gas,
Geothermal, Coal)

Kerekayasaan
(Engineering)

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

Eksplorasi Mineral
(Economic Mineral)

Geologi Eksplorasi Sumber

Daya Energi
Struktur
(Oil & Gas,
Geothermal, Coal)

Kerekayasaan
(Engineering)

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY FOR ENGINEERINGDept. of Geology

AHH-18
Scope of Geology for Engineering XIII – Str-Exploration
 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY FOR ENGINEERING
Dept. of Geology

Dam Site

Open Pit Mining

Tunnel

AHH-18 Effect of Geological Structures for Engineering Importance XIII – Str-Exploration

 Fractures
Dept. of Geology

Structural
Geology deals
with . . .

Faults Natural Hazards

• Slope Stability
• Engineering Design
• Mitigation
AHH-18
• ...
XIII – Str-Exploration
 Dept. of Geology

Eksplorasi Mineral
(Economic Mineral)

Geologi Eksplorasi Sumber

Daya Energi
Struktur
(Oil & Gas,
Geothermal, Coal)

Kerekayasaan
(Engineering)

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 REGIONAL CONCEPT OF MINERAL EXPLORATION
Dept. of Geology

Tetonic Setting of Porphyry Copper-Gold (SW Pacific)

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 REGIONAL CONCEPT OF MINERAL EXPLORATION
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 Model Struktur pada Konvergensi Lempang XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology
KONSEP DASAR REKAHAN REGANGAN vs MINERALISASI

AHH-18 Rekahan Regangan pada Konvergensi Ortogonal XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology
KONSEP DASAR REKAHAN REGANGAN vs MINERALISASI

Rekahan Regangan pada Konvergensi Oblique (Riedel Shear)

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 KONSEP DASAR REKAHAN REGANGAN
vs. MINERALISASI
Dept. of Geology

Rekahan Regangan pada Konvergensi Oblique

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

MODEL PROSES MINERALISASI

& PROSES PHREATOMAGMATIC

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 MODEL REGANGAN & MINERALISASI Dept. of Geology

PADA TINGKAT KEDALAMAN KERAK

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 MODEL REKAHAN / VEINS
& INTRUSI PORFIRI
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

APLIKASI KONSEP STRUKTUR & EKSPLORASI MINERAL

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology
APLIKASI KONSEP STRUKTUR & EKSPLORASI MINERAL

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

EKSPLORASI EMAS

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 EKSPLORASI EMAS
Dept. of Geology

EKSPLOITASI EMAS, GRASBERG, PAPUA

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 MINERAL BIJIH (ORE MINERALS)
Dept. of Geology

URAT (VEINS) KWARSA MENGANDUNG EMAS

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 EKSPLORASI EMAS
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 Eksplorasi Emas, Gn.

XIII – Lawu
Str-Exploration
 Dept. of Geology
N-10 Barite Vein
350

10
340

20
Calculation Method .... Frequency
33

30
N-10 Barite Vein
0

Class Interval ........ 10 Degrees

32

40
0

31 Length Filtering ...... Deactivated

0 10 50 Projection ................. Schmidt (Equal Area)
Azimuth Filtering ..... Deactivated Number of Sample Points .... 50
300
60 Data Type ............. Bidirectional Mean Lineation Azimuth ..... 82.7

290 Population ............ 50 Mean Lineation Plunge ...... 68.7

5
70 Maximum Percentage .... 14 Percent Great Circle Azimuth ....... 62.1
Great Circle Plunge ........ 82.3
280 Mean Percentage ....... 7.1 Percent
80 1st Eigenvalue ............. 0.742
Standard Deviation .... 5.37 Percent 2nd Eigenvalue ............. 0.219
270 90 Vector Mean ........... 313.36 Degrees 3rd Eigenvalue ............. 0.039
10 5 5 10 LN ( E1 / E2 ) ............. 1.218
Confidence Interval ... 15.94 Degrees
LN ( E2 / E3 ) ............. 1.737
R-mag ................. 0.62 MLV

(LN(E1/E2)] / (LN(E2/E3)) .. 0.702

Spherical variance ......... 0.1656
Rbar ....................... 0.8344

Figure Rose diagram and stereographic plot of barite veinlet at location N10 and N-14., Noyu area
AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 Dept. of Geology

N-14 Barite Vein

Projection ................. Schmidt (Equal Area)
Number of Sample Points .... 50
Mean Lineation Azimuth ..... 347
Mean Lineation Plunge ...... 84
Great Circle Azimuth ....... 326.7
Great Circle Plunge ........ 87.8
N-14 Barite Vein
350

10

1st Eigenvalue ............. 0.587

340

20

Calculation Method .... Frequency 2nd Eigenvalue ............. 0.231

330

30

3rd Eigenvalue ............. 0.183

Class Interval ........ 10 Degrees
32

10
40

LN ( E1 / E2 ) ............. 0.933
0

31 Length Filtering ...... Deactivated

0 50
MLV
LN ( E2 / E3 ) ............. 0.233
Azimuth Filtering ..... Deactivated (LN(E1/E2)] / (LN(E2/E3)) .. 3.999
30
0 60 Data Type ............. Bidirectional Spherical variance ......... 0.2687
Population ............ 50 Rbar ....................... 0.7313
290 5 70 Maximum Percentage .... 12 Percent
280 Mean Percentage ....... 5.9 Percent
80
Standard Deviation .... 2.91 Percent
270 90 Vector Mean ........... 270.14 Degrees
10 5 5 10
Confidence Interval ... 14.34 Degrees
R-mag ................. 0.67

Figure Rose diagram and stereographic plot of barite veinlet at location N10 and N-14., Noyu area
AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 N-19 Calcite Vein

350

10
340

20
Calculation Method .... Frequency

33

30
0
Class Interval ........ 10 Degrees

32
15

40
0
31 Length Filtering ...... Deactivated
0 50 Azimuth Filtering ..... Deactivated
300
10 60 Data Type ............. Bidirectional
290 Dept. of
Population ............ 50 Geology
70 Maximum Percentage .... 18 Percent
280 5 Mean Percentage ....... 6.7 Percent
80
Standard Deviation .... 6.29 Percent
270 90 Vector Mean ........... 74.08 Degrees
15 10 5 5 10 15
Confidence Interval ... 28.39 Degrees
R-mag ................. 0.38

N-19 Calcite Vein

Projection ................. Schmidt (Equal Area)
Number of Sample Points .... 50
Mean Lineation Azimuth ..... 275.7
Mean Lineation Plunge ...... 37.7
Great Circle Azimuth ....... 272.7
Great Circle Plunge ........ 86.1
1st Eigenvalue ............. 0.553
2nd Eigenvalue ............. 0.352
3rd Eigenvalue ............. 0.094
LN ( E1 / E2 ) ............. 0.451
MLV LN ( E2 / E3 ) ............. 1.316
(LN(E1/E2)] / (LN(E2/E3)) .. 0.343
Spherical variance ......... 0.407
Rbar ....................... 0.593

Figure Rose diagram and stereographic plot of calcite veinlet at location N19, Noyu area

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

EKSPLORASI BATUBARA

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 BATUBARA
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18
PROSES PEMBENTUKAN BATUBARA XIII – Str-Exploration
 BATUBARA Dept. of Geology

Batubara adalah endapan dari hasil bahan tumbuhan (unsur Karbon) yang
terawetkan dan telah terubah menjadi batuan
Batubara dapat terbentuk di darat, di daerah payau/rawa-rawa atau di
pantai, tempat terakumulasikannya bahan rombakan dari tumbuhan.
AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 Dept. of Geology

GEOLOGY CROSS-SECTIONS

BATUBARA
AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 GEOLOGY CROSS-SECTIONS Dept. of Geology

BATUBARA
AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 Dept. of Geology

GEOTHERMAL

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 GEOTHERMAL (PANAS BUMI)
Dept. of Geology

FENOMENA PANASBUMI

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 GEOTHERMAL
ENERGI GEOTHERMAL Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 GEOTHERMAL
ENERGI GEOTHERMAL Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 DEVELOPMENT OF GEOTHERMAL FIELD
Dept. of Geology

WAYANG WINDU
GEOTHERMAL FIELD

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 DEVELOPMENT OF GEOTHERMAL FIELD
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Structural Field Mapping
Dept. of Geology

Fault zone with slickenside

: 48, N 300 E pitch 50

STRIASI

Sta PKL-7

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 DEVELOPMENT OF GEOTHERMAL FIELD
Dept. of Geology

Structural Field Mapping

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 DEVELOPMENT OF GEOTHERMAL FIELD
Dept. of Geology

CBR E1 to CBR E6
Station

SECTION LINE
AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 DEVELOPMENT OF GEOTHERMAL FIELD

Well Proposed-1
Dept. of Geology

Coordinate UTM
X : 789315.52
Y : 9206716.79
GL : 1901.48 MSL

Well Proposed-2

Well Proposed-2
Coordinate UTM
X : 789044.26
Y : 9207706.41
GL : 2007.08 MSL
Well Proposed-1

AHH-18 WELL SECTION XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

MINYAK & GAS BUMI

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 MINYAK DAN GAS BUMI
Dept. of Geology

PERANGKAP MINYAK BUMI

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 STRUCTURAL CONCEPTS
Dept. of Geology

BASIC CONCEPTS
Stress and Strain

MODERN
TECTONICS STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

CREATE
AND
DEFORM
BASIN EXPLORATION DEVELOPMENT
• PROSPECTS
• TRAPS AND PLAYS • IN-SITU STRESS MEASUREMENT
• HYDROCARBON MIGRATION • FAULT STABILITY
• KINEMATICS • RESERVOIR GEOMECHANICS
• STRUCTURAL RECONSTRUCTIONS • FAULT SEAL INTEGRITY
• TECTONICS AND BASIN EVOLUTION • RESERVOIR COMPARTMENTALIZATION
• RESOURCES AND RESERVE • FRACTURE RESERVOIR
CALCULATION
• RISK ANALYSIS
AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 MODERN STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
Dept. of Geology
Outcrop

Structural Geology
Concepts

Modeling 2D/3D Seismic

AHH-18 Well Bore Data XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

FRACTURES & FAULTS

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 FAULT ZONE MATERIALS
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 FRACTURE ANALYSIS
Dept. of Geology

PERMEABLE?
OR
NON-PERMEABLE

AHH-18 FAULT ZONE PERMEABILITY XIII – Str-Exploration

 FRACTURE ANALYSIS
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18
FAULTING AND FLUID FLOW Hill, 2001
XIII – Str-Exploration
 STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION
& MAPPING Dept. of Geology

SEISMIC CROSS-SECTIONS
AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 CROSS SECTION CONSTRUCTION
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 CROSS SECTION CONSTRUCTION
Dept. of Geology

KINK FOLD

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology
FLUID MIGRATION

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 FLUID MIGRATION
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 STRUCTURAL RESTORATION
Dept. of Geology

“ Taking interpretation or observation of the present-day

deformed-state geology and reconstruction its initial,
original, configuration prior to deformation”

“ Cross Sections are very important tools for

communicating about Geologic Structures . .
Interpretation depicted on a cross section must be as
close to the truth . . ”

Deformation is confined to rock layers lied above

“Detachment fault” or “Decollement zone”
>> Thin Skinned belt
• Fold-Thrust Belt
AHH-18
• Extensional/Rift System XIII – Str-Exploration
 BALANCING ASPECT
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 STRUCTURAL RESTORATION Dept. of Geology

Cross Sections Balancing

>> Cross Section Restoration

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 RESTORATION TECHNIQUES AND BALANCING ASPECT
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

FRACTURE RESERVOIR & GEOMECHANICS

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 FRACTURE BEHAVIOR Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

Narr, 1999

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 FRACTURE DISTRIBUTION VS ROCK STRENGTH XIII – Str-Exploration

 FRACTURE DISTRIBUTION
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 FRACTURES RESERVOIR
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Image Log Analysis
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 SUBSURFACE DATA
Dept. of Geology

GEOMECHANICAL PROBLEMS

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

BOREHOLE BREAKOUT

induced tensile

breakout

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

FAULT SEAL ANALYSIS

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Sealing or Leaking ?
Dept. of Geology

Fault Gouge

AHH-18
Fault Seal Analysis XIII – Str-Exploration
 Fault Seal Mechanisms Dept. of Geology

• Juxtaposition where reservoir sands are juxtaposed

against a low-permeability unit (i.e. shale) with high
entry pressure
• Clay Smear into fault plane, therefore generating the
fault itself a high entry pressure
• Cataclasis, which is the crushing of sand grains to
produce a fault gouge of finer grained material, giving
the fault a high entry pressure
• Diagenesis, where cementation of original permeable
fault plane may partially or completely remove porosity,
finally creating a hydraulic seal
(Yielding and others, 1997)

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

CONTRIBUTING FACTOR TO
FAULT SEAL ANALYSIS

• Fault Types and Orientation

• Burial Depth (i.e. Diagenesis)
• Displacement Mode
• Connectivity
• Composition (sand/shale ratio)
• Timing

Modified from Knot (1993)

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Throw Dept. of Geology

Fault Throw and

Displacement Field

Juxtaposition

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 LITHOLOGY JUXTAPOSITION Dept. of Geology

Sh
1

Throw
Sst
2 3

Sh 1 4 1

3
Sst 2 3 2

1 = Shale on Shale
2 = Sand on Sand
3 = Shale on Sand
4 = Sand on Shale
AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 Smear Gouge Analysis (SGA)
Dept. of Geology

A) B) C)

D) E) Smear Factor Algorithms

A) Bouvier et al., 1989
B) Fulljames et al., 1996
C) Lindsay et al., 1993

Gouge Ratio Algorithms

D and E
by Yielding et al., 1997

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

Fault Interpretation

ALLAN MAP

Horizon – Fault Relationship

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 FAULT TRANSMISIBILITY

Dept. of Geology

LITHOLOGY JUXTAPOSITION

SGR MAP

PERMEABILITY

SEALING CAPACITY

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

1 2

3 4

AHH-18 NO SEAL SHALE GOUGE RATIO SEAL XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

GEOMECHANICS

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Geomechanics Dept. of Geology

Reservoir Geomechanics is the integrated study of the state of

stress, pore pressure and physical properties of reservoirs,
natural fractures/ faults, cap rocks and the form ations in the
overburden.

• Interactions between geological conditions and engineering

and production practices

• The state of in-situ stress

• Rock strength
• Bedding orientation
• Pore pressure
• Distribution of fractures and faults
• Wellbore trajectory
• Mud weight

(Castillo and Moos, 2001)

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration
 Geomechanics ???
Dept. of Geology

Drilling Engineering
• Drilling to Reduce Cost and Formation Damage
• Hydrofrac Propagation
• Well Placement (Azimuth and Deviation, Sidetracks)
• Wellbore Stability During Drilling (mud weights,
drilling direction)
• Long-term Reservoir Stability (Sand Production)

Geology
• Fault Seal Integrity
• Reservoir Compartmentalization
• Optimizing Drainage of Fracture Reservoirs
• Hydrocarbon Migration

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Borehole Breakouts Dept. of Geology

Borehole breakouts are zones of

failure of the wall of a well that give
the borehole an irregular and typically
elongated shape

It is assumed that the spalling of fragments from the well bore occurs
preferentially parallel to the minimum horizontal stress (σh) and orthogonal to
the maximum horizontal stress (σH).
The ellipticity of the hole indicates the local orientation of the horizontal stress
axes in the wellbore.

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Borehole Breakouts Dept. of Geology

Information about the shape of the hole is obtained

by dip meter tools or well imaging tools. These are
tools with arms that are pressed against the
borehole wall as the tool is moved along the
wellbore. The tool thus records the geometry of the
hole, and the orientation of the tool is also
recorded.

Hence, in addition to the measurements of the

orientation of planar structures intersecting the
wellbore (the primary purpose of a dipmeter tool),
a record of the shape of the borehole is produced,
yielding information about the horizontal stresses.

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Borehole Breakouts
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Borehole Breakouts Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

Utilizing Borehole Failure to Constrain

Stress Magnitude and Rock Strength

Compressional
• Borehole Breakouts
• Incipient Borehole Breakouts
Tensile
• Tensile Wall Failure
• Drilling Enhanced Natural Fractures
Shear
• Slip on Pre-Existing Faults and Bedding

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Borehole Breakouts Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Dept. of Geology

Hence, in addition to the measurements of the orientation of planar structures intersecting

the wellbore (the primary purpose of a dip meter tool), a record of the shape of the
borehole is produced, yielding information about the horizontal stresses.

Borehole breakout data are primarily collected in wells drilled for petroleum exploration and
production. The shapes of holes drilled for road and tunnel blasting operations have also
been used for stress analyses, although this method is not regarded as very reliable.

Even in tubular tunnels, preferred spalling of fragments sometimes indicates the orientation
of the stress field. The principle is the same for all cases: the borehole takes on an
“elliptical” shape where the elongated direction is assumed to parallel sh.

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Borehole Breakouts
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Borehole Breakouts
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 Borehole Breakouts
Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration

 COMPRESSIVE WELLBORE BREAKOUTS Dept. of Geology

AHH-18 XIII – Str-Exploration